- ss mee. «We (OT Senet x frrare*" wel Wax etal LONE © le -pogtO RON ay (#2) ‘S 2 = TORY) Ml reo)* qq Taking x common : 4 roc J sarap: BE Ne take x common and pat lextet 9. Pesitive integral powers of sine and cosine @ Any odd positive power of sines and cosines can b ‘ntegrated immediately by substituting cos x =z and sin x = z respectively. (@_In onder to integrate any even positive power of sine and cosine, we should first express it in terms of multiol: angles by means of trigonometry and then integrate it 10. Positive integral powers of secant and cosecant @ Even positive powers of secant or cosecant admit of immediate integration in terms of tanx or cotx. @ _Odd positive powers of secant and cosecant are to be integrated by the application of the rule of integration by parts LL. Integrals of the form fsin™x cos* xdx @ If the power of the sine is odd and positive, save one sine factor and convert the remaining factors to cosine. Then expand and integrate. save fords ee a J Gin?) cos" x sin xax (i) If the power of the cosine is odd and positive, save one cosine factor and convert the remaining factors to sine. Then, expand and integrate. Indefinite Integration 1.14 cy faint xcos 8"! xdx Comer teee Save bres m= Jain x. (cos? x)*cos xdx (ii) If the powers of both the sine and cosine ar even and nonnegative. make repeated usc 0 the identities sin? x =! 2282 and cos? x = ieee (iv) Ifin the expression sin™x cos*x, m + nis a negative even integer. then one should make thc substitution tan x= t (or cot x =U. (v)_ [fin the expression sin™ cos*x. m + nis a negative odd integer, then one should moltiply the integrand by suitable power of (sin?x +cos?x) anc expand it into simpler integrals. 12. Integrals of the form [see™ xtan" xdx If the power of the secant is even and positive, save a secant-squared factor and convert the remaining factors to tangents. Then, expand and integrate. @ Exe Jsce ** xtan® xdx Comer pungen Sue fords = J Gec*x)*" tan* xsec? xdx __ Here, we puttan x=t. (i)_If the power of the tangent is odd and positive, save a secant-tangent factor and convert the remaining factors to secants. Then, expand and integrate. a [cer stan 8" xax Conver oiecans Save for du = Jaco" x (tan? x) secxtanxdx Here, we put sec x st. If there are no secant factors and the power of the tangent is even and positive, convert ; tangent-squared factor to a secant-square: factor; then expand and repeat if necessary. Conver tosecants ges *x (lan? x) dx ii) J tan" xdx = Juan = Jeane? x(sec? x ~ 1}dx1,144 Integral Calculus Gv) Ifthe Integral Is of the form see xdx , where mis odd and positive, use integration by parts. () If none of the first four cases applies, try converting to sines and cosines. A similar strategy is adopted for Jeoscc™ x cot® xdx. 13. Suppose R denotes a rational function of the entities involved. The integral of the form Rob? =a ax is simplified by the substitution x= Pind @ [Roe eb ax is simplified by the substitution = tan GD) JRO OBA is simplified by the substitution x = Pree 14. Wh en integrand involves expressions of the ja=x atx Putx=acos 20, o a-x putx=a sin’, @ ig putx=atan%e, Gy) JE oe fama Put x =acos’6 +b sin YEE o Ve-0G-b put x =a sec*@— b tan’e 15. Some Standard Integrals dx of tat =r tnt=4¢ dx 1 w J =a in 1 w | =e in (on | LO : — 2 =7 ve +S ai a) at FF iin) SPF ak Sag x? 497 . bere ).c 6 J Jertant ae Sak Paec a6 eet toc Joh sw, ax’ +bx ic PRY “he torre Jeox + q) Jax? + bra eax (@X+q) = Lax +b) 17, Pore ey Dela +) +m Pe teeter gy (px taxte ies [ESET ay aa Joer +ox+n fat tbxe ax ‘Weexpress px*+-.qx+r SH Caxt + bx+e)+m(2ax+b) +n eaxatvls xape 4h ‘Wwe express the numerator in terms of G2 +1) and G2 — 1), then divide N' and D' by hori integrals of the form | 1 and then put xey stxa Tbsinxcosx + bsin x dx & : Soos'xtb wo Sos" ivide the N and DY ex lire © | Srbe0n ax ee , ef ‘at bsinx +cc0sx | use the substitution tin = ¢ cos + bsiak+€ ay 21. Forlategratsof the form | jccex +esimx +f we evita cosx+bsinx+¢ mp (dcosx+esinx+f) Fa(-dsinx+ecosx) +r 22. For integrals of the form f sel tbe ax. petaeter we write act+be*+e Blac + ber ++ 28 For integrals ofthe form put sinx cos x=t er—bes)+n cosx:tsinx 4, f(sin2x) 24. For integrals of the form f ysee" xtadx , [Neosetxtads fNantxtadx J veor? xita dx or the first integral write sec? xia ES sec? xa sec?x osx *Yocexta ; i tacos’ x In the first part, put u = tanx and in the second .. Formula for integration by parts J uvex=ufvax SS Svox ex The order i Th ode of and vis taken as per the order of boy cos*x or sin'x and then Indefinite Integration 1.145 %. fing da axinx=x#C o 7. @fersintnde= sree (asinbx—boosbx)+C ef i Gi fercosbeax= siigy conte + sind 2B. @ Jetan +tecoiaxe-f+C Go Sinsy+xtecordx=x00+C 39, Multiple integration by parts fovdcowy, ut -u"y, pet ue? v, + CDF Jurvox. ee +c ee so, Redvtion forulaforl= GFeKI7 7 x (20-3) 1 2e-nee + + 2haoD = sinn@ costode 31, Reduction formula for fy s ‘ _ PO) 32. Consider a rational function f(x) aw Factor Q(x) completely into factors of the form Cae bys or (ox! + dio), where ext + dx + ¢ is jnreducible and m and n are integers. i} For cach distinct linear factor (ax + b), the decomposition must include the term A ax +b Gi) For each repeated linear factor (ax + b)®, the decomposition must include the terms rn £ pol ee axtb (ax +by (ax +b)® (i For each distinct quadratic factor (cx? + dx +c), the decomposition must include the term Bx+C cx + dx +e" (iv) For each repeated quadratic factor (cx? + dx + ¢)", the decomposition must include the term x+C, _BReG (ox? + dx +e)" ox +dte‘of the decomposition. ‘Method for linear factors ision of Coefficients OF +8) ‘assume x? as t for finding partial fractions POD ay ores) where Q(x) has a linear factor with high index, substitute the lincar factor as 1A. stitutions Git) Sa z o Ser” : 2 @ For integrals of the form f= PA A dx @ For integrals of the form J. Putax+b=t ax+b % Put et dx 2 Siero een XEON AXE © Sapecey baat stitmen ax 2 D eaeeay 1 Putxt= - 21 © Sea Putax?+bst Gv) Integration by parts __ 34. Integration by irrational functions Substitution : dx. @ a dx @ Seren Put ax"+b=t? Putxs 4 m t F xdx 1 00 Se evenpT Patent & Bh (iv) Meio ebetent x38. then put x = t®, where m is the L.CM. of the denominators q,, q,,...., g, of the several fractional powers. and fe nee bee BY . (exe bt ~~ RIS 8 iste OM awe ese a> ee of the * a is (wy It the integer BY axtt we, 22)" | pra x denominators 4, ©, where m is the LCM. Se ores gunn QeOF the dx (010 totgals of he foc‘ x—ayx- by" where p +.q=2n are solved using the substitution Rear x-b 35. Integrals of the form ‘Se f ax {ax +d) Vicx+dy ah : © Satreenters tne ax Giiy a \oaaletes - 3 dx wy J Putx= I/tand then (ax? +b) tex a) the expression under the radical should be put equal to 22. w f or = (+ qx +n) (ax? + bx +c) ‘Case I: If px? + qx +r breaks up into two linear factors then we resolve (px? +- qx +1) into partial fractions and the integral then transforms into the sum (or difference) of two integrals. Case Il: If px? + qx +ris a perfect square, say, (x +m), then putlx+m= 1h. : ax ey | ope where re N Putext+d=t 1 Putpx+q= > Putx-ksreipx? qx: (ex+b)=A(ex+d)4B Lt tbx+e tool +958 Ce tear sb +cx (dr +6) Opt q+ Bd +6) eer ate 0 i ages "Tp the datpgrane! pas edb the formula of theNewton txnomal @ Pisanegative integer. Then we put x=t', where k Bs the LCM of the denominators ofthe factions 2 @ M41; 5 isaninteger. We puta + bxt= tt, where ais the denominator of the fraction p. msl @) A= + pis an integer. We pot a + bx? where a is the denominator ofthe fraction P- 37, Integrals ofthe form [ R(x, Vax? + bx+c) dxare calculated with the aid of one of the three Euler substitutions : as rie re eteva isa>0, euxtve ifc>0, aytifaxt+bx+o=ax—9 trinomial ax?+bx+c. coeffici« ents can be atx, i. 2 vax? +bxte 3 Vat bere =O —b)ite. if ais real rootof the 38. The method of applied to integrals of the form : p(apettdx 1 can be defined as 1 if xs0 A) fO=|1-et if x>0 fp iG @ (=\—ex-1 if x>0 x if x<0 4) FO) \c* if x>0 if xO x © (a4 x 0 a. thevalueof [pea 4 (x°-1) 6 A) u(t) extexec. x ce \