Ray Optics Module

User’s Guide
Ray Optics Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM024201

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the Ray Optics Module 8

The Ray Optics Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 9
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 9

Overview of the User’s Guide 13

Chapter 2: Ray Optics Modeling

Essentials of Ray Tracing 16

The Ray Tracing Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Basic Requirements of a Ray Optics Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Geometry and Meshing 19

Domain Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Ray Tracing in an Imported Mesh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Part Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Meshing and Discretization Error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Meshing Guidelines for Geometrical Optics Simulation . . . . . . . . 23

Boundary Conditions 24
Reflection and Refraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Primary and Secondary Ray Releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Diffuse and Specular Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Special Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Ray Release Features 29

Grid-Based Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Release from Domains, Boundaries, Edges, or Points . . . . . . . . . 29

CONTENTS |3
 Specialized Release Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Additional Variables Solved For 31

Modeling Polychromatic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Intensity, Polarization, and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Other Dependent Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Order of Initialization of Auxiliary Dependent Variables . . . . . . . . 35

Analysis Types 36
Using the Ray Tracing Study Step. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Using the Bidirectionally Coupled Ray Tracing Study Step . . . . . . . 38

Results Analysis and Visualization 40

Ray Trajectories Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Ray Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Interference Pattern Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Poincaré Maps and Phase Portraits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Computing Monochromatic Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Variables and Component Couplings 46

Ray Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Global Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Variables for Average Ray Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Using Ray Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Component Couplings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Chapter 3: Ray Optics Interfaces

The Geometrical Optics Interface 54

Geometrical Optics Physics Interface Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
List of Geometrical Optics Interface Physics Features . . . . . . . . . 62
Medium Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Axial Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Accumulator (Boundary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4 | CONTENTS
Material Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Thin Dielectric Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Ray Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Photometric Data Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Deposited Ray Power (Domain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Deposited Ray Power (Boundary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Accumulator (Domain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Nonlocal Accumulator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Inlet on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Illuminated Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Grating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Diffraction Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Linear Polarizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Ideal Depolarizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Linear Wave Retarder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Circular Wave Retarder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Mueller Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Auxiliary Dependent Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Release from Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Release from Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Release from Point on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Release from Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Release from Grid on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Release from Data File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Ray Continuity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Ray Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Ray Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Theory for the Geometrical Optics Interface 116

Introduction to Geometrical Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Optical Dispersion Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Thermo-Optic Dispersion Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Initial Conditions: Direction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Material Discontinuity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Intensity, Wavefront Curvature, and Polarization. . . . . . . . . . 123

CONTENTS |5
 Wavefront Curvature Calculation in Graded Media . . . . . . . . . 132
Refraction in Strongly Absorbing Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Attenuation Within Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Ray Termination Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Illuminated Surface Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Theory of Mueller Matrices and Optical Components . . . . . . . . 145
Thin Dielectric Film Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Grating Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Interference Pattern Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Monochromatic Aberrations and Zernike Polynomials. . . . . . . . 156
Accumulator Theory: Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Accumulator Theory: Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
References for the Geometrical Optics Interface . . . . . . . . . . 162

Chapter 4: Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings

The Ray Heating Interface 166

Ray Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Theory for the Ray Heating Interface 169

Unidirectional and Bidirectional Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Coupled Heat Transfer and Ray Tracing Equations . . . . . . . . . 169
Heat Source Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Chapter 5: Glossary

Glossary of Terms 174

Index 179

6 | CONTENTS
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the Ray Optics Module, an optional add-on package for
COMSOL Multiphysics®.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

In this chapter:

• About the Ray Optics Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

7
 About the Ray Optics Module
These topics are included in this section:

• The Ray Optics Module Physics Interface Guide

• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

The Ray Optics Module Physics Interface Guide

The Ray Optics Module extends the functionality of the physics interfaces of the base
package for COMSOL Multiphysics. The details of the physics interfaces and study
types for the Ray Optics Module are listed in the table. The functionality of the
COMSOL Multiphysics base package is given in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE

DIMENSION

Optics

Ray Optics

Geometrical Optics gop 3D, 2D, 2D ray tracing; bidirectionally

axisymmetric coupled ray tracing; time
dependent
Ray Heating — 3D, 2D, 2D ray tracing; bidirectionally
axisymmetric coupled ray tracing; time
dependent

8 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for

links to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of internet resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the application libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions about how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the
electronic Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click

ABOUT THE RAY OPTICS MODULE | 9

 to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder click a node or

window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder click a node or window and then
press F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu select Help>Documentation ( ).

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

10 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW
Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or app. The models and applications
are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH files that you can open for further
investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual models as
templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to describe the
relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems are available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

• From the Home toolbar, Windows menu, click ( ) Applications

Libraries.
• From the File menu select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help

menu, select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

Select Application Libraries from the main File> or Windows> menus.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected].

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
[email protected]. An automatic notification and a case number are sent to you by

ABOUT THE RAY OPTICS MODULE | 11

 email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information, and
other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website www.comsol.com

Contact COMSOL www.comsol.com/contact
COMSOL Access www.comsol.com/access
Support Center www.comsol.com/support
Product Download www.comsol.com/product-download
Product Updates www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL Blog www.comsol.com/blogs
Discussion Forum www.comsol.com/community
Events www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Video Gallery www.comsol.com/video
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

12 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the User’s Guide
The Ray Optics Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling using
COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

TABLE OF CONTENTS AND INDEX

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents and Index.

RAY OPTICS MODELING

The Ray Optics Modeling chapter provides an overview of ray tracing simulation. It
begins with an overview of the Essentials of Ray Tracing. It then describes the major
functionality groups that are included in The Geometrical Optics Interface, including
topics such as Geometry and Meshing, Ray Release Features, Analysis Types, and
Results Analysis and Visualization.

RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

The Ray Optics Interfaces chapter describes The Geometrical Optics Interface and
includes the Theory for the Geometrical Optics Interface.

MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings chapter describes The Ray Heating
Interface, a dedicated Multiphysics interface for computing heat sources generated by
attenuation of rays in absorbing media, and includes the Theory for the Ray Heating
Interface.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 13

14 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Ray Optics Modeling

This chapter gives an overview of the most important considerations when

creating a ray optics model. The most significant modeling decisions include the
means of geometry setup, the choice of optical material properties, ray releases, and
handling of ray interactions with surfaces in the geometry.

In this chapter:

• Essentials of Ray Tracing

• Geometry and Meshing
• Boundary Conditions
• Ray Release Features
• Additional Variables Solved For
• Analysis Types
• Results Analysis and Visualization
• Variables and Component Couplings
 Essentials of Ray Tracing
The Geometrical Optics interface can be used for ray optics simulation of cameras,
telescopes, spectrometers, solar collectors, laser systems, room lighting, and much
more. However, certain essential elements of the ray optics approach are common to
all of these application areas. These universal concepts in ray optics simulation are
outlined below.

In this section:

• The Ray Tracing Algorithm

• Basic Requirements of a Ray Optics Model

The Ray Tracing Algorithm

The Geometrical Optics interface solves for the position and wave vector of individual
rays. It also allows them to interact with boundaries that intersect their paths.

Ray tracing is usually a reasonable approach to model electromagnetic wave

propagation as long as the wavelength of the radiation is small compared to the
smallest geometric detail in the surroundings, since diffraction is ignored. As long as
this criterion is met, ray tracing can be used for nearly any part of the electromagnetic
spectrum, including radio waves, microwaves, visible light, and UV radiation.

Notably, x-rays have such a small wavelength that they can interact with matter on an
atomic level. X-ray diffraction, for example, cannot be modeled with a ray tracing
approach.

While propagating through a homogeneous medium (one in which the refractive

index is spatially uniform), a ray simply goes in a straight line at speed c/n, where
c = 299,792,458 m/s is the speed of light in a vacuum and n (dimensionless) is the
absolute refractive index of the medium. In a graded-index medium, the ray can follow
a curved path, which is determined by integrating coupled first-order ordinary
differential equations over time.

To learn more about the equations of ray propagation and their

derivation, see Introduction to Geometrical Optics in the Theory for the
Geometrical Optics Interface chapter.

16 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

The Geometrical Optics interface is compatible with the Ray Tracing and Time
Dependent study steps. These study types are very similar, except that the Ray Tracing
study step allows you to specify a number of optical path length intervals instead of
time steps. (Internally, the optical path lengths are converted to the corresponding
times, so this is just a matter of convenience.)

For simple ray tracing models, only the first and last time steps might be needed. Then
the behavior of rays at any intermediate time can be accurately interpolated. If rays
interact with boundaries in-between the stored time steps, then the exact time and
position of each ray-boundary interaction is also stored and readily available.

Finer time stepping may be needed when modeling ray propagation in graded-index
media, when rays pass through attenuating media and generate heat in their
surroundings, or when using certain specialized postprocessing features.

Every time the intersection of a ray with a surface is detected, any one of a wide variety
of ray-boundary interactions may apply, including specular reflection, diffuse
reflection, refraction, and several different types of absorption.

Along each ray, it is possible to evaluate expressions that involve variables defined on
the ray itself (such as optical path length, intensity, and wavelength) and variables
defined at the ray’s position in the modeling domain (such as temperature and
refractive index). For example, to determine the refractive index in an optically
dispersive medium, on each ray an expression is evaluated that combines the ray’s
wavelength or frequency with a function queried from the domain the ray occupies.
Similarly, when a ray hits a boundary, the new direction of the ray can depend on a
combination of ray variables (like wavelength) and surface variables (like surface
normal direction and Gaussian curvature).

Basic Requirements of a Ray Optics Model

Although geometrical optics models vary tremendously in application area and scope,
every geometrical optics model requires at least the following basic features:

• Some rays must be released into the model. This requires at least one ray release
feature, such as the Release, Inlet, or Release from Grid node. See Ray Release
Features for more details.
• Some geometry must be present, with at least one surface that can interact with the
rays. Thus, the model must have at least one Boundary condition, such as the
Material Discontinuity or Wall node. By default, every boundary adjacent to at least

ESSENTIALS OF RAY TRACING | 17

 one domain in the model is treated as a Material Discontinuity that can reflect and
refract rays. See Boundary Conditions for more information.
• Every model includes the Ray Properties node, a default node that cannot be
removed. This node defines the equations of ray propagation. If the radiation is
monochromatic, this is also where the frequency or wavelength is specified.
• The refractive index must be specified. If any domains are present, use the Medium
Properties node to either specify the refractive index directly or specify which
material controls it.
• The ray tracing algorithm detects ray-boundary interactions using the underlying
finite element mesh. At the very least, a surface mesh is needed. For multiphysics
modeling in which field variables like temperature are solved for, a domain mesh is
also necessary. Some related topics are discussed in the Geometry and Meshing.
section.
• A study is necessary to compute the ray paths. The Geometrical Optics interface is
compatible with the Time Dependent, Ray Tracing, and Bidirectionally Coupled Ray
Tracing study steps. Ray Tracing is recommended for most models. See Analysis Types
for more information.

Ray release feature: collimated light source, hexapolar grid

Reflected rays Focus

Boundary condition: specular reflection at clear aperture

Boundary condition: absorption on edges and sides

Figure 2-1: A simple ray tracing model, featuring specular reflection of a collimated beam
by an off-axis conic mirror. The color expression indicates the ray intensity.

18 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

Geometry and Meshing
Electromagnetic radiation can interact with a wide variety of geometric entities. In ray
optics simulation, the most common elements include lenses, mirrors, prisms, beam
splitters, light pipes, and various obstructions. Rays may also interact with buildings,
vehicles, people, planets, and more.

The Geometrical Optics interface supports interaction with any type of geometric
entity. The geometry can be constructed from primitives like circles and line segments,
loaded from various CAD formats, or constructed with the aid of parts from the Ray
Optics Part Library. Rays can also interact with both deformed and undeformed
geometries, for example, when an object undergoes thermal expansion.

In this section, various considerations for setting up the model geometry and the
associated finite element mesh are considered in more detail.

In this section:

• Domain Selection
• Ray Tracing in an Imported Mesh
• Part Libraries
• Meshing and Discretization Error
• Meshing Guidelines for Geometrical Optics Simulation

Domain Selection
It is possible for rays to pass through domains in the geometry and to propagate in the
void region outside these domains. Boundary conditions can be specified at any
boundary, even at boundaries that are not adjacent to any domain in the geometry.
This means that a ray can be reflected or absorbed by a surface in 3D or a line segment
in 2D even if it isn’t attached to any other object. The ray tracing algorithm can also
detect boundary interactions in any order, without this order being specified.

In the physics interface Ray Release and Propagation section, the Refractive index of
exterior domains is specified. This refractive index is used in any domains outside of the
selection for the Geometrical Optics interface, as well as the void domain outside the
geometry. It is a constant, scalar-valued quantity; thus, the refractive index outside the
domain selection cannot depend on field variables such as temperature and cannot be
a graded-index medium. The default refractive index of 1 represents a perfect vacuum.

GEOMETRY AND MESHING | 19

 Usually, the domain selection for the Geometrical Optics interface should include all
objects that the rays might pass through. In a lens system, this would mean all lenses
are included, but not necessarily the mount for these lenses. However, rays can also
pass through the void region that surrounds the geometry.

A major advantage to excluding some domains from the selection for the physics
interface is that these domains do not need to be meshed. However, these domains
would still require a mesh if some other variables, like displacement and temperature,
are solved for there. See Meshing Guidelines for Geometrical Optics Simulation for
more details.

Note that some physics features require a domain mesh and will not function on
domains outside the physics interface selection. This includes all types of Accumulator
(Domain) feature, including the dedicated Ray Heat Source multiphysics feature.

Ray Tracing in an Imported Mesh

It is possible to compute ray trajectories in an imported mesh. The mesh can be
imported from a COMSOL Multiphysics file (.mphbin for a binary file format
or .mphtxt for a text file format) or from a NASTRAN file (.nas, .bdf, .nastran,
or .dat).

If the mesh is imported from a COMSOL Multiphysics file, the imported mesh always
uses linear geometry shape order for the purpose of modeling ray-boundary
interactions, even if the model used to generate the mesh had a higher geometry shape
order.

If the mesh is imported from a NASTRAN file, the ray-boundary interactions may be
modeled using either linear or higher geometry shape order. If Export as linear elements
is selected when generating the NASTRAN file, or if Import as linear elements is
selected when importing the file, then linear geometry shape order will be used.

Part Libraries
In geometrical optics simulation, it is often necessary to set up geometry sequences
consisting of entities that are more complex than simple geometry primitives such as
spheres, cones, blocks, etc. Instead it might be necessary to insert lenses with different
thicknesses and radii of curvature, off-axis conic mirrors, and parabolic concentrators.
This can be conveniently accomplished using the Part Library for the Ray Optics
Module.

20 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

The Part Library contains fully parameterized sequences of geometry instructions that
produce more complex shapes frequently required for geometrical optics simulation,
including the following:

• Spherical lenses
• Cylindrical lenses
• Beam splitters
• Parabolic mirrors
• Prisms
• Retroreflectors

For example, you can load the Spherical Lens 3D part into a model and then specify
the radii of curvature of each lens surface, along with the lens thickness and diameter.
Ray Optics parts can include cumulative selections that make it easy to apply a
boundary condition to a group of lens surfaces at the same time.

In addition, many parts automatically define work planes so that the parts and other
features can more easily be positioned and oriented with respect to each other.

Many Ray Optics tutorials use the Part Library to create their geometry
sequences. To learn more, see the following models:

• Newtonian Telescope: Application Library path Ray_Optics_Module/

Lenses_Cameras_and_Telescopes/newtonian_telescope
• Petzval Lens: Application Library path Ray_Optics_Module/
Lenses_Cameras_and_Telescopes/petzval_lens

Part Libraries in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Meshing and Discretization Error

In the Geometrical Optics interface, rays don’t interact with an exact analytical
representation of the geometry, but rather they interact with the underlying finite
element mesh. For example, when detecting ray-boundary interactions including
reflection, refraction, and absorption, the intersection point of each ray with a surface
is actually the intersection point with a boundary element on that surface.

GEOMETRY AND MESHING | 21

 The advantage of using a mesh representation of the geometry to detect and apply
ray-boundary interactions is that the algorithm is readily extended to high-fidelity
multiphysics simulation including translational motion, rotation, and structural
deformation including thermal stress. In addition, this implementation allows rays to
be traced through geometric entities of arbitrary shape, not just simple shapes for
which a parametric representation is readily available.

To ensure that ray reflections and refractions are both detected and applied accurately,
the mesh must be of sufficiently high quality. This is trivial when the surfaces are planar
because even a small number of linear boundary elements can represent a planar
surface to machine precision. Accurately discretizing the geometry becomes more
important when the surfaces are curved, as in spherical lenses and conic mirrors, or
when the surfaces may be deformed.

In the following image, the radial position over one boundary element on a coarsely
meshed sphere (using quadratic elements) is compared to the exact value for an ideal
sphere. The error is on the order of 10-5.

Figure 2-2: Error in the radial displacement over one boundary element of a unit sphere.

The discretization error not only applies to the position on the sphere, but also to the
normal direction and Gaussian curvatures of the surface, all of which can be used in
geometrical optics simulation. A relative error like the one shown above (10-5) might
be sufficiently small for some simulation results, but in geometrical optics such an error
might translate to tens of additional wavelengths in spot size—large enough to
invalidate the results of the simulation entirely, unless adequate precautions are taken.

Similarly, in models with mesh deformation, the degrees of freedom for the
displacement field must be solved for extremely accurately for the results of a coupled
multiphysics model to be trusted. A good practice, as with other types of simulation,
is to perform a mesh refinement study, ensuring that the results don’t change
appreciably when the mesh element size is reduced further.

22 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

Meshing Guidelines for Geometrical Optics Simulation
• Flat edges (2D) and planar surfaces (3D) can be coarsely meshed, unless they meet
one of the criteria described below.
• Curved surfaces that can interact with rays should always be finely meshed. The
tighter the curvature of such surfaces, the finer the mesh should be.
• Domains usually don’t need to be as finely meshed as boundaries. A convenient way
to refine the mesh in the vicinity of the boundaries is to reduce the Curvature factor
in the Size settings window in the mesh sequence. This results in a finer mesh only
where the radius of curvature of the surface is small. You might also have to reduce
the Minimum element size to avoid warnings in the mesh sequence.
• Features that compute the density of some quantity on a domain or boundary
usually require a finer mesh, because the density term is piecewise discontinuous
across elements. This includes the Accumulator (Boundary), Accumulator
(Domain), and Deposited Ray Power (Boundary) features. If the mesh is too fine,
rays might entirely miss some elements, and then it is necessary to increase the
number of rays to avoid “holes” in the deposited power or other density field.
• Avoid unnecessary edges when possible. Discretization error tends to be larger in
mesh elements touching geometry edges.
• Whenever possible, use the geometry Parts from the Part Library for the Ray Optics
Module, rather than creating lenses from geometry primitives like the sphere and
cylinder. The built-in lens parts have been constructed in a specific way so as to
reduce the discretization error on the reflecting and refracting surfaces.
• Consider changing the Geometry shape order in the model component settings.
Using Cubic or Quartic causes the boundaries to be discretized using higher-order
polynomials, which can reduce error by several orders of magnitude.
Similarly, with physics interfaces that solve for a displacement field, such as Solid
Mechanics, locate the physics interface Discretization section. A higher shape order
such as Cubic Lagrange should be selected if rays are traced in the deformed geometry
• If the geometry uses parts or primitives, you can reduce discretization error by
selecting Use geometry normals for ray-boundary interactions in the physics interface
Ray Release and Propagation section. However, this only improves the accuracy if the
geometry is undeformed; it has no effect if the geometry is subjected to thermal
stress or some other type of deformation.

GEOMETRY AND MESHING | 23

 Boundary Conditions
This section describes the boundary conditions of the Geometrical Optics interface in
greater detail.

In this section:

• Reflection and Refraction

• Primary and Secondary Ray Releases
• Diffuse and Specular Reflection
• Absorption
• Special Boundary Conditions

Reflection and Refraction

The default boundary condition is the Material Discontinuity condition on all interior
and exterior boundaries. The Material Discontinuity causes rays to be reflected and
refracted if the two adjacent domains have different refractive indices.

The direction of the refracted ray is based on Snell’s law. If the ray intensity or power
is solved for, then they are reinitialized according to the Fresnel equations. You can
modify the application of Fresnel equations by adding one or more thin dielectric
layers to the surface.

Material Discontinuity Theory and Intensity, Wavefront Curvature, and

Polarization in Theory for the Geometrical Optics Interface.

SUPPRESSING THE RELEASE OF REFLECTED RAYS

The total number of released secondary rays in a model can sometimes grow rapidly
and exhaust all of the preallocated secondary degrees of freedom. For example, a single
ray reflecting back and forth between two Material Discontinuity boundaries can create
an inordinately large number of rays, each with extremely low intensity.

It can be useful to constrain the release of secondary rays at boundaries so that only
the most important rays are produced. If reflected rays are not of any interest at all,
then in the Rays to Release section, select Never from the Release reflected rays list. If
reflected rays are only relevant to the model under a certain condition, such as hitting

24 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

a specific part of the surface or having a certain direction, instead select Based on logical
expression and then enter a user-defined Evaluation expression that must be satisfied.

If ray intensity is solved for, you can also specify a Threshold intensity. If a reflected ray
would have intensity below the threshold, it isn’t released at all. Similarly, if ray power
is solved for, you can specify a Threshold power.

Primary and Secondary Ray Releases

During the process of reflection and refraction described in the previous section,
interaction with a boundary caused one ray to split into two. Hence, this boundary
condition also functions as a ray release feature.

In the Geometrical Optics interface, rays are designated as either primary or

secondary. Similarly, the physics features that produce them are called primary release
features or secondary release features. The above is an example of a secondary release.

PRIMARY RAYS
A primary release feature allows the initial position and direction of rays to be specified
directly. For the release positions, either specify the grid points directly (as in the
Release from Grid feature) or choose the geometric entities that produce the rays (as
in the Release, Inlet, Release from Edge, and Release from Point features). The initial
direction can be specified directly or sampled from a distribution.

Primary rays are released directly by a release feature. They are called primary rays
because their release is not contingent on the prior existence of any other ray.

SECONDARY RAYS
Secondary rays are only released when an existing ray is subjected to certain boundary
conditions. This existing ray might be a primary ray, or it could be a different
secondary ray that was released earlier in the simulation.

For example, the following diagram shows an incident ray being split into reflected and
refracted rays at a Material Discontinuity where the refractive indices on either side
differ. The Geometrical Optics interface always applies deterministic ray splitting at
such boundaries, so when one ray reaches the surface, two rays emerge from it. The
refracted ray is a continuation of the incident ray because it has the same index and uses
the same degrees of freedom. The reflected ray is a secondary ray.

Note that total internal reflection is automatically detected, and in this case no
secondary emission takes place.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS | 25
 Released (primary) ray Reflected (secondary) ray

Material discontinuity

Refracted (primary) ray

ALLOCATION OF SECONDARY DOFS

The number of degrees of freedom allocated to secondary rays is determined when the
study begins, and if this maximum number is ever reached, then no additional
secondary rays will be released. In other words, if a large number of reflected rays have
been produced at material discontinuities in a model, at some point no more reflected
rays will be produced. In this case, a Warning will appear in the solver sequence. The
maximum number of secondary rays that can be produced in a model is controlled by
the Maximum number of secondary rays field in the physics interface Ray Release and
Propagation section.

Similarly, the Grating boundary condition can release both reflected and transmitted
rays of many diffraction orders. One of these reflected or transmitted rays uses the
degrees of freedom of the incident ray, and the rest must be taken from the
preallocated secondary degrees of freedom.

Diffuse and Specular Reflection

For most boundary conditions other than refraction, the Wall feature can be used. It
includes a wide variety of boundary conditions including the following:

• Specular reflection,
• Diffuse reflection,
• Combination of diffuse and specular reflection,
• User-defined reflection,

26 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

• Pass through, and
• Several varieties of absorption condition.

In this context “Diffuse reflection” means Lambertian scattering, following the cosine
law.

If you choose Mixed diffuse and specular reflection you can assign some probability that
the ray is reflected specularly; otherwise it is reflected diffusely.

The Diffuse scattering and Mixed diffuse and specular reflection rely on pseudorandom
number generation, so they are not guaranteed to give exactly the same numeric results
in different software versions or on different architectures.

Absorption
There are several different types of absorption condition, classified by the type of
information that they retain about the ray.

• The Disappear condition annihilates the ray completely. After the ray disappears, its
position and other degrees of freedom evaluate to not-a-number (NaN) at any later
solution time.
• The Freeze condition retains the ray position and direction after the ray hits the
boundary, although these quantities no longer change over time.
• The Stick condition retains the ray position, but all other degrees of freedom are set
to zero.

Special Boundary Conditions

More specialized boundary conditions are available for some application areas.

The Grating boundary condition, along with its Diffraction Order subnodes, can be
used to reflect rays and emit secondary rays to model interaction with gratings. You
can specify the direction of periodicity and the size of the unit cell.

Czerny-Turner Monochromator: Application Library path

Ray_Optics_Module/Spectrometers_and_Monochromators/
czerny_turner_monochromator

The Mirror boundary condition is a simplified Wall that only causes specular reflection.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS | 27
 The Axial Symmetry boundary condition is only available in 2D axisymmetric models.
It is automatically applied at the axis of symmetry and can’t be applied anywhere else.

Optical devices like the Linear Polarizer and Linear Wave Retarder are available when
ray intensity or power is computed. They don’t have any effect on the ray direction but
they can affect the ray polarization.

The Wall condition also support condition ray-wall interactions. For example, you
could cause rays to Freeze if a logical expression is satisfied—for example, having optical
path length greater than a specified threshold—and subject them to Specular reflection
otherwise. Together with the Mixed diffuse and specular reflection condition, it is
possible to prescribe up to 3 different types of wall interaction at a single boundary.

28 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

R a y R e le a s e Feat u res
To trace rays it is first necessary to prescribe their initial position and direction. This
process is called releasing rays, and the physics features used to enter this information
are called release features or ray release features. If other quantities are being solved
for along the rays, such as the intensity and polarization, then these quantities are also
initialized by the ray release features.

In this section:

• Grid-Based Release
• Release from Domains, Boundaries, Edges, or Points
• Specialized Release Features

Grid-Based Release
Use the Release from Grid feature to specify the initial positions of rays using a grid of
points. It is useful to release rays from a grid when the initial ray position is known
exactly. A grid-based release may be used, for example, when rays are released from the
focus of a lens or when a system is excited by a laser. This is the easiest way to release
rays from known locations in the void region outside the geometry.

As an alternative to typing points into a text field, you can load them from a file. The
Release from Data File node can be used to import the initial ray positions and
directions from a text file.

Release from Domains, Boundaries, Edges, or Points

There are ray release features for every geometric entity level:

• Use the Release feature to release rays from domains in 2D or 3D.

• Use the Inlet feature to release rays from edges in 2D or surfaces in 3D.
• Use the Release from Edge feature to release rays from edges in 3D.
• Use the Release from Point feature to release rays from points in 2D or 3D.

Releasing rays from a domain, surface, or edge initializes the ray position based on the
underlying finite element mesh, so the ray positions are affected by the mesh. A side
effect is that the ray positions can change slightly when switching between geometry
kernels.

RAY RELEASE FEATURES | 29

 Ray release can be uniform or proportional to a user-defined expression, which is
specified in the Density proportional to text field.

Specialized Release Features

The Illuminated Surface is a specialized ray release feature that produces reflected or
refracted light directly at a surface. This can be used, for example, when the direction
of incident radiation is known, but its propagation is not interesting until it has already
been reflected once by an object.

The Solar Radiation computes the initial direction of rays as if they were solar rays
being released at a specified latitude, longitude, date, and time. Instead of the latitude
an longitude, you can also select from a list of built-in cities.

The following examples involve buildings or other objects being

illuminated by solar radiation in a specific direction:

• Solar Dish Receiver: Application Library path Ray_Optics_Module/

Solar_Radiation/solar_dish_receiver
• Vdara® Caustic Surface: Application Library path
Ray_Optics_Module/Solar_Radiation/vdara_caustic_surface

30 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

Additional Variables Solved For
The Geometrical Optics interface always solves for the ray position (denoted q) and
wave vector (denoted k). This section lists the optional quantities that can be solved
for in addition to these required variables.

In this section:

• Modeling Polychromatic Radiation

• Intensity, Polarization, and Power
• Other Dependent Variables
• Order of Initialization of Auxiliary Dependent Variables

Modeling Polychromatic Radiation

By default, the rays released in a model are monochromatic with a ray frequency or
free-space wavelength defined in the Ray Properties settings window. However, you
can trace polychromatic rays by specifying different frequencies or vacuum
wavelengths in each ray release feature.

To allow the rays to be polychromatic, in the settings window for the Geometrical
Optics interface locate the Ray Release and Propagation section. By default,
Monochromatic is selected from the Wavelength distribution of released rays list. Select
Polychromatic, specify vacuum wavelength to release polychromatic rays by entering an
expression for the vacuum wavelength or sampling it from a distribution. Alternatively,
select Polychromatic, specify frequency to define an expression or distribution for the ray
frequency. These expressions are defined in the sections Vacuum Wavelength and Initial
Ray Frequency, respectively, in each ray release feature.

When modeling polychromatic light, the number of degrees of freedom in the model
increases by one per ray because the wavelength or frequency is stored as an auxiliary
dependent variable on each ray.

Czerny-Turner Monochromator: Application Library path

Ray_Optics_Module/Spectrometers_and_Monochromators/
czerny_turner_monochromator

ADDITIONAL VARIABLES SOLVED FOR | 31

 Intensity, Polarization, and Power
Ray intensity is computed using a variant of the Stokes-Mueller calculus in which both
the amplitude and polarization are tracked along individual rays.

LIST OF AVAILABLE SETTINGS

To decide whether intensity is computed, select an option from the Intensity
Computation list. The following options are available.

• None: Does not compute any intensity information.

• Compute intensity: Solves for intensity, which typically increases as rays are focused
and decreases as they diverge. Also affected by reflection, refraction, and attenuating
media. Only valid when the media are homogeneous.
• Compute power: Solves for power, which is unaffected by the convergence or
divergence of rays but is still affected by reflection, refraction, and attenuating
media. Can be used to compute heat source terms in attenuating domains, or heat
flux terms on absorbing boundaries the rays hit.
• Compute intensity and power: Combines the capabilities of Compute intensity and
Compute power, at the cost of a few extra degrees of freedom per ray.
• Compute intensity in graded media: Similar to Compute intensity, but is also applicable
to graded-index media. The trade-off is that this method is slower and less accurate
for homogeneous media.
• Compute intensity and power in graded media: Similar to Compute intensity in graded
media, but can also be used to generate heat sources in attenuating domains and heat
flux terms at boundaries.

HANDLING POLARIZATION
Whenever intensity or power is solved for, the polarization of every ray is known. Rays
can have any degree of polarization, ranging from 0 (unpolarized) to 1 (fully polarized)
and anything in-between. When rays have some degree of polarization, they can be
linearly, elliptically, or circularly polarized.

When rays are reflected and refracted at boundaries, the intensity, polarization, and
power are updated based on the Fresnel equations, which automatically take the
polarization direction into account.

The polarization is determined based on the Stokes parameters, which are allocated as
extra degrees of freedom along each ray. For more information, see The Stokes
Parameters in the Theory for the Geometrical Optics Interface chapter.

32 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

 In the following examples, ray polarization is manipulated in an
instructive way:

• Total Internal Reflection Thin-Film Achromatic Phase Shifter

(TIRTF APS): Application Library path Ray_Optics_Module/
Prisms_and_Coatings/achromatic_phase_shifter
• Linear Wave Retarder: Application Library path Ray_Optics_Module/
Tutorials/linear_wave_retarder

WAVEFRONT CURVATURE
When the ray intensity is solved for, it increases where rays are focused together and
decreases where rays diverge. This is accomplished by treating each ray as a wavefront
and storing its principal radii of curvature as extra degrees of freedom. In this way, all
released rays are treated as points on planar, spherical, or ellipsoid-shaped wavefronts.

For more information on wavefront radii of curvature and their effect on intensity, see
Principal Radii of Curvature in the Theory for the Geometrical Optics Interface
chapter.

COMPUTING DEPOSITED RAY POWER

The options Compute power, Compute intensity and power, and Compute intensity and
power in graded media all allow heat sources to be defined on domains or boundaries.
As rays propagate through an attenuating medium—that is, a medium where the
refractive index is complex-valued—some energy is lost from the ray. The
corresponding heat source on the surrounding domain can be computed using either
the Deposited Ray Power (Boundary) subnode or the Ray Heat Source multiphysics
node. A Ray Heat Source node is automatically created when using selecting The Ray
Heating Interface in the Model Wizard. The heat generated as rays propagate in an
attenuating medium can be used to define a heat source in the Heat Transfer in Solids
interface or another interface that computes a temperature field.

• Thermally Induced Focal Shift in High-Power Laser Focusing

Systems: Application Library path Ray_Optics_Module/
Structural_Thermal_Optical_Performance_Analysis/
thermally_induced_focal_shift

ADDITIONAL VARIABLES SOLVED FOR | 33

 TOTAL POWER TRANSMITTED AND REFLECTED AT GRATINGS
The Grating feature is used to model the transmission and reflection of rays at
diffraction gratings. It includes a Diffraction Order subnode to specify which
diffraction orders to release. When the ray power is solved for, the Store total
transmitted power and Store total reflected power check boxes are shown in the Grating
settings window. Selecting either of these check boxes causes an auxiliary dependent
variable to be declared, storing the total power of the transmitted and reflected rays of
all diffraction orders.

Diffraction Grating: Application Library path Ray_Optics_Module/

Tutorials/diffraction_grating

Other Dependent Variables

It is possible to define an auxiliary dependent variable for the optical path length by
selecting the Compute optical path length check box in the Additional Variables section
of the physics interface node’s Settings window. Initially the optical path length is set
to 0 for all released rays. It is possible to reset the optical path length to 0 when the
rays interact with boundaries.

The phase of a ray is necessary for some applications that require information about
the instantaneous electric fields of multiple rays, such as interferometers. To define an
auxiliary dependent variable for phase, select the Compute phase check box in the
Intensity Computation section of the physics interface node’s Settings window. This
check box is only available if the ray intensity is computed.

The instantaneous phase can be used to visualize interference patterns where the rays
intersect a surface. See the Results Analysis and Visualization section.

Other dependent variables can also be assigned for more esoteric purposes, including:

• Number times each ray has been reflected

• Help variables for more accurately tracing rays in strongly absorbing media, where
the real and imaginary parts of the refractive index are comparable in magnitude
• Help variables used to apply perturbations in ray direction due to rough surfaces
• User-defined Auxiliary Dependent Variable nodes

34 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

Order of Initialization of Auxiliary Dependent Variables
When rays are released, the variables defined for each ray are initialized in a specific
order. The initial values of ray variables can only depend on the values of variables that
have already been defined. The order of dependent variable initialization is governed
by the following rules:

• The initial ray position is always determined first.

• By default, user-defined auxiliary dependent variables (that is, those that are defined
by adding an Auxiliary Dependent Variable node to the physics interface) are
initialized after all other variables. They can instead be initialized immediately after
the ray position vector components by selecting the Initialize before wave vector
check box shown in the release feature Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables
section.
• If more than one user-defined auxiliary dependent variable is present, these variables
are initialized in the order in which the corresponding Auxiliary Dependent Variable
nodes appear in the Model Builder.
• The remaining degrees of freedom are defined in the following order (each listed
group is initialized simultaneously, and the variables within a group cannot reliably
be initialized in terms of each other):
- Help variable for the perturbation of initial ray direction at illuminated surfaces,
- Ray frequency or vacuum wavelength,
- The wave vector components, optical path length, and total power transmitted
and reflected by gratings,
- The integral of the attenuation coefficient along ray paths and the components
of the unit vector that indicates the direction corresponding to one of the
principal radii of curvature,
- The principal radii of curvature, initial principal radii of curvature, intensity,
Stokes parameters, and help variables for computing the curvature tensor and
intensity, and
- The total power transmitted by the ray.

Items in each bullet point may not be initialized as functions of items in a later bullet
point. For example, the initial ray direction vector may depend on the ray frequency,
but the initial principal radii of curvature may not depend on the total power
transmitted by the ray.

ADDITIONAL VARIABLES SOLVED FOR | 35

 Ana ly s i s T y pe s
The Geometrical Optics interface is compatible with three study types: Ray Tracing,
Time Dependent, and Bidirectionally Coupled Ray Tracing. In this section some of the
more relevant study settings are explored in greater detail.

In this section:

• Using the Ray Tracing Study Step

• Using the Bidirectionally Coupled Ray Tracing Study Step

Using the Ray Tracing Study Step

The Ray Tracing and Time Dependent study steps are very similar, and either one could
be used for the vast majority of geometrical optics models. The Ray Tracing study step
has some additional features that make it more convenient to use, such as more
reasonable default values and built-in stop conditions.

A NOTE ON GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY

If a physics interface solves for the displacement field, such as the Solid Mechanics
interface, then the check box Include geometric nonlinearity appears in the Study
Settings section. It is very important to select this check box when tracing rays in a
system that is deformed due to external forces or thermal stress. If the check box is
cleared, then rays are instead traced in the undeformed geometry.

TIME STEPS AND OPTICAL PATH LENGTH INTERVALS

By default, the Ray Tracing study step computes ray trajectories from t = 0 to t = 1 ns
with a time step size of 0.01 ns. However, it is often useful to think of ray tracing in
terms of the maximum distance of ray propagation instead of the maximum time. To
express the duration of the study in terms of a maximum optical path length, change
the Time step specification setting from the default, Specify time steps, to Specify
maximum path length. Then select a Length unit (default m), enter a set of Lengths
(default range(0,0.01,1)), and enter a Characteristic group velocity (default
c_const, a built-in constant for the speed of light in a vacuum). With the default solver
settings, the time-dependent solver must take at least one time step whenever the
optical path length of a ray moving at the Characteristic group velocity would have
reached one of the values in the list of Lengths.

36 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

BUILT-IN STOP CONDITIONS
The Ray Tracing study step includes options to create a Stop condition node in the
default solver sequence. The Stop condition node can terminate the study before the
full range of specified times or optical path lengths has been simulated, if a condition
is met before then.

To use one of the built-in stop conditions, select one of the following options from the
Stop condition list in the Study Settings:

• None: The study ends at the specified maximum time or maximum optical path
length.
• No active rays remaining: The study terminates if all rays have been stopped or
absorbed. A ray can be absorbed by a boundary, or it can be removed by the Ray
Termination domain feature.
• Active rays have intensity below threshold: This option is only available when ray
intensity is computed. The study terminates if every ray in the model is either
stopped, absorbed, or has sufficiently low intensity.
• Active rays exceed maximum number of reflections: This option is only usable when
the Count reflections check box is selected in the physics interface Additional Variables
section. The study terminates if every ray in the model is either stopped, absorbed,
or has been reflected the specified number of times.

Stop Condition in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

COUPLED PHYSICS INTERFACES

If other physics interfaces are also solved for in the Ray Tracing study step, it is assumed
that these other fields vary over the same time scale as the ray propagation. This is
seldom true. If instead the coupled physics do not change over the time scale for ray
propagation, consider a study with two steps: Stationary for all other fields and Ray
Tracing just for the rays.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Ray Tracing
• Studies and Solvers

ANALYSIS TYPES | 37
 Using the Bidirectionally Coupled Ray Tracing Study Step
The Bidirectionally coupled ray tracing study step is a dedicated study step for ray
heating and similar applications.

It should only be used if all of the following criteria are met:

1 Rays are being traced.

2 Some other field, such as temperature or structural displacement, is solved for in a
domain where the rays are being traced.
3 All fields, apart from the ray paths themselves, are stationary.
4 The ray paths are affected by the field being solved for. This could include rays
interacting with a deformed geometry, or a refractive index that depends on the
values of field variables like strain or temperature.
5 The rays generate enough heat to significantly affect one of the fields being solved
for in the domain, usually temperature.

If condition 4 isn’t satisfied, instead use a Stationary study step for the fields, followed
by a Ray Tracing study step for the rays.

In addition to the settings that are available for the Ray tracing study step, it is possible
to specify a Number of iterations. The default value is 5. If the Bidirectionally coupled
ray tracing study step is used with The Ray Heating Interface, the following iterative
solver loop is automatically set up to compute the ray trajectories and temperature:

1 Solve for the temperature field, assuming that the rays do not generate any heat
source.
2 Using the temperature computed during the previous step, compute the ray paths
and any heat sources that occur due to ray attenuation in an absorbing medium.
3 Using the heat source computed in the previous step, compute the temperature
field.
4 Alternate between steps 2 and 3 for the specified Number of iterations, or specify a
Global variable whose convergence will be used to terminate the loop.

The result of the iterative solver loop is that the heat source generated by the
attenuation of rays is taken into account when computing the temperature. Through
the thermo-optic dispersion model, the temperature in turn affects the ray paths. Thus,
a bidirectional coupling is established between the two physics interfaces.

It is possible to extend this bidirectional coupling to include other physical effects. For
example, to include structural deformation due to thermal stress, add the Solid

38 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

Mechanics physics interface and the Thermal Expansion and Temperature Coupling
Multiphysics couplings.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Bidirectionally Coupled Ray Tracing

• Studies and Solvers

ANALYSIS TYPES | 39
 Results Analysis and Visualization
The results of a ray tracing simulation can be interpreted and visualized using a variety
of built-in features. In the following, some dedicated features are discussed in detail.

In this section:

• Ray Trajectories Plot

• Ray Plot
• Interference Pattern Plot
• Poincaré Maps and Phase Portraits
• Computing Monochromatic Aberrations

Ray Trajectories Plot

The Ray Trajectories plot is a default plot that shows each ray as a line in 2D or 3D. The
final ray position can be rendered as a point or vector. It is also possible to modify the
Ray Trajectories plot by adding the Color Expression, Deformation, or Filter attributes.

When the ray intensity is computed, you can also plot polarization ellipses along the
ray paths, using the built-in variables (gop.pax, gop.pay,gop.paz) for the
semi-major axis and (gop.pbx, gop.pby,gop.pbz) for the semi-minor axis.

Figure 2-3: Polarization ellipses as a ray crosses a linear polarizer, linear wave retarder,
and a second linear polarizer.

Linear Wave Retarder: Application Library path Ray_Optics_Module/

Tutorials/linear_wave_retarder

40 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

Ray Plot
The Ray plot can be added to 1D plot groups. There are two primary ways to use this
plot:

1 Plot an expression versus time for all rays, or as a data series operation such as a sum
or average over all rays.
2 Plot two expressions against each other, creating a separate curve for each ray, at a
specified time.

The following plot is an example of usage case 2. Polychromatic light is transmitted

through a multilayer film, and then the intensity at the final time step is plotted against
vacuum wavelength for all rays.

Figure 2-4: Reflectance of a distributed Bragg reflector with 21 dielectric layers is plotted
as a function of free-space wavelength.

Distributed Bragg Reflector: Application Library path

Ray_Optics_Module/Prisms_and_Coatings/distributed_bragg_reflector

RESULTS ANALYSIS AND VISUALIZATION | 41

 Interference Pattern Plot
The pattern of fringes resulting from the interference of two or more rays can be
plotted using the dedicated Interference Pattern plot. The Interference Pattern plot is
available in 2D plot groups and requires a Cut Plane data set pointing to a Ray data set.
The interference pattern is then plotted using the locations and properties of rays as
they intersect the cut plane.

Figure 2-5: Interference pattern resulting from two point sources at slightly different
distances from a surface.

The Interference Pattern can only be plotted if the ray intensity and phase are solved
for; in the physics interface settings, select an appropriate intensity computation
method from the Intensity computation list, the select the Compute phase check box.

For the resulting interference pattern to be physically meaningful, it must be plotted

over a region with a length scale that is much smaller than the principal radii of
curvature of the incident wavefronts. This is equivalent to the assumption that the
wavefront associated with each ray subtends a very small solid angle, and is necessary
due to the approximation used to compute the incident intensity.

Interference Pattern Theory

42 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

Poincaré Maps and Phase Portraits
A Poincaré Map can be used to plot the intersection points of rays with a plane. To use
the Poincaré Map, a Cut Plane data set must first be defined.

By placing the Cut Plane data set at the image plane of an optical system, it is possible
to use the Poincaré Map to create spot diagrams in order to evaluate the performance
of the optical system.

A Phase Portrait can be used to plot the positions of rays in an arbitrarily defined phase
space. For example, it is possible to plot rays in a 2D space in which one coordinate
represents the optical path length and the other coordinate represents intensity. Like
the Poincaré Map, the Phase Portrait can also be used to create spot diagrams.

Figure 2-6: Structural-thermal-optical-performance (STOP) analysis of a Petzval lens

assembly. The rays are colored according to their initial field angle. Spot diagrams are
shown to the right of the main plot.

Petzval Lens STOP Analysis: Application Library path

Ray_Optics_Module/Structural_Thermal_Optical_Performance_Analysis/
petzval_lens_stop_analysis

RESULTS ANALYSIS AND VISUALIZATION | 43

 Computing Monochromatic Aberrations
The Optical Aberration plot and the Aberration Evaluation derived values node are used
to analyze the performance of lens systems within the limit of the geometrical optics
approach. In order to use the Optical Aberration plot, the following prerequisites must
be met:

• The model component must be 3D.

• An instance of the Geometrical Optics interface must be present and solved for.
• The Compute optical path length check box must be selected in the Geometrical
Optics Settings window before solving.
• An Intersection Point 3D data set must be created. This data set must point to a Ray
data set.
• In the Settings window for the Intersection Point 3D data set, Hemisphere must be
selected from the Surface type list. The Center is the location of the focus and the
Axis direction points from the focus toward the center of the exit pupil.

Using the hemisphere defined in the Intersection Point 3D data set, a Gaussian reference
sphere is defined. The Optical Aberration plot or Aberration Evaluation feature then
computes the optical path length at the intersection points of rays with this Gaussian
reference sphere and computes the Zernike coefficients that best fit the optical path
difference distribution.

Figure 2-7: Ray trajectories through a simple plano-convex lens (top) and the resulting
monochromatic aberrations (bottom). Zernike polynomials: sum of all terms (far left),
defocus (left), spherical aberration (right), and all other terms (far right).

44 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

For a list of Zernike polynomials and their derivation, see Monochromatic
Aberrations and Zernike Polynomials in Theory for the Geometrical
Optics Interface.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Interference Pattern
• Optical Aberration
• Aberration Evaluation
• Ray (Plot)
• Ray Trajectories
• Filter for Ray and Ray Trajectories
• Phase Portrait
• Poincaré Map
• Ray (Data Set) and Data Sets
• Ray Evaluation and Derived Values, Evaluation Groups, and Tables
• Plot Groups and Plots

RESULTS ANALYSIS AND VISUALIZATION | 45

 Variables and Component Couplings
This section lists some built-in component couplings and variables for the Geometrical
Optics interface.

In this section:

• Ray Statistics
• Global Variables
• Variables for Average Ray Position
• Using Ray Detectors
• Component Couplings

Ray Statistics
The Geometrical Optics interface defines a number of special variables, some of which
can only be used during results processing. These variables can be found in the Ray
statistics section in the Add/Replace Expression menus.

In the variable names below, gop is the physics interface tag. If multiple instances of
the Geometrical Optics interface are different, this tag may differ.

The following variables are defined for each ray:

• Ray index gop.pidx. Each ray is assigned a unique index starting from 1 up to the
total number of rays. This expression can be used as an input argument to a
function. For example, randomnormal(gop.pidx) would sample pseudorandom
numbers from a normal distribution with unit variance. The random numbers
would be distinct for each ray.
• Ray release feature gop.prf. If there are multiple release features in a model, it is
useful to visualize which rays correspond to each release feature. Rays from each
release feature are assigned a unique integer, starting at 1. This variable can also be
used to filter ray trajectories in postprocessing so that only the rays released by a
specific feature are shown.
• Ray release time gop.prt. Usually, all primary rays are released at t = 0. To allow
other release times to be specified, select the Allow multiple release times check box
in the physics interface Advanced Settings section.

46 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

If the Store ray status data check box is selected in the physics interface Additional
Variables section, then the following additional variables are created:

• The release time of a given ray (variable name gop.rti). Unlike gop.prt, this
works for secondary rays and thus allows for extraction of the time at which a
secondary ray was released. This includes reflected rays at material discontinuities
and higher diffraction orders at gratings.
• Stop time gop.st, when a ray gets absorbed at a boundary or annihilated by the Ray
Termination feature.
• Final status gop.fs. This indicates the status of a ray at a given point in time. When
used during postprocessing, the value always indicates the status of the ray at the last
time step. The value is an integer which has one of the following values:
- 0 for unreleased rays.
- 1 for rays that are still propagating.
- 2 for frozen rays.
- 3 for stuck rays.
- 4 for rays that have disappeared.

Global Variables
The following quantities can be evaluated globally, using the Global plot or Global
Evaluation feature. They could be used in a Ray Evaluation, but they would just give the
same value for every ray.

• Total number of rays, gop.Nt. This total includes both primary and secondary rays,
and includes rays that have disappeared or have not been released.
• Total number of rays in selection, gop.Nsel. If a selection has been applied to the
Ray data set, the number of rays in that selection can be evaluated.
• Transmission probability, gop.alpha is the ratio of the number of rays in a selection
to the total number of rays.

For each ray release feature, the total number of rays released by feature is also defined.
This variable has physics feature scope, so for example, a Release from Grid node with
tag relg1 would define a variable called gop.relg1.Ntf.

This global variable is uniquely defined for each release feature, and gives the total
number of rays that are released by that feature. This includes rays that have
disappeared or have otherwise stopped propagating due to interaction with the
surrounding boundaries. It does not include any secondary rays.

VARIABLES AND COMPONENT COUPLINGS | 47

 Variables for Average Ray Position
Some other variables for average ray position, both absolute and relative, are also
defined. These variables exist with both physics scope and physics feature scope; for
example, the variable gop.rrms is the RMS spot size for all rays in the model, but
gop.relg1.rrms is the RMS spot size only for rays produced by Release from Grid 1.

• Components of the average ray position gop.qavex, gop.qavey, and gop.qavez,

which are simple arithmetic means over the respective ray coordinates.
• Relative ray position gop.deltaqx, gop.deltaqy, and gop.deltaqz. These are the
ray positions relative to the average ray position. for example, the relative
x-component gop.deltaqx is qx-gop.qavex.
• RMS spot size gop.rrms.
• Maximum relative radial position gop.rmaxall.

Many Ray Optics tutorials use the RMS spot size as a figure-of-merit
during postprocessing. For example, see the Petzval Lens: Application
Library path Ray_Optics_Module/Lenses_Cameras_and_Telescopes/
petzval_lens

Using Ray Detectors

A Ray Detector is a domain or boundary feature that provides information about rays
arriving on a set of selected domains or surfaces from a release feature. The feature
provides convenient expressions that can be used in the Filter attribute of the Ray
Trajectories plot, which allows only the rays which reach the ray detector selection to
be shown. The following variables are defined by the Ray Detector feature, assuming a
physics interface with tag gop and a detector with tag rd1:

• gop.rd1.Ntf is number of transmitted rays from the release feature to the ray
detector at the end of the simulation.
• gop.rd1.alpha is the transmission probability from the release feature to the ray
detector.
• gop.rd1.rL is a logical expression for ray inclusion. This can be set in the Filter
node of the Ray Trajectories plot in order to visualize the rays which connect the
release feature to the detector.

48 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

 The Ray Detector feature defines new variables but does not otherwise
affect the solution. Therefore, you can add a Ray detector to a completed
model and evaluate the variables it defines without recomputing the
solution. To do so, right click on the Study node and select Update
Solution. The new variables described above will be immediately available
for results processing.

Component Couplings
The purpose of a model is often to compute the sum, average, maximum value, or
minimum value of a quantity over a group of rays, such as the average intensity or the
maximum path length. An instance of the Geometrical Optics interface with physics
interface tag gop creates the following component couplings:

• gop.gopop1(expr) evaluates the sum of the expression expr over the rays. The
sum includes all rays that are active, frozen, or stuck to boundaries. It excludes rays
that have not yet been released and those that have disappeared.
• gop.gopop_all1(expr) evaluates the sum of the expression expr over all rays,
including rays those that are not yet released or have disappeared. Since the
coordinates of unreleased and disappeared rays are not-a-number (NaN), the sum
may return NaN if the model includes unreleased or disappeared rays. An expression
such as gop.gopop1(isnan(qx)) can be used to compute the total number of
unreleased and disappeared rays.
• gop.gopaveop1(expr) evaluates the average of the expression expr over the
active, frozen, and stuck rays. Unreleased and disappeared rays contribute to neither
the numerator nor the denominator of the arithmetic mean.
• gop.gopaveop_all1(expr) evaluates the average of the expression expr over all
rays. It is likely to return NaN if the model includes unreleased or disappeared rays.
• gop.gopmaxop1(expr) evaluates the maximum value of the expression expr over
all active, frozen, and stuck rays.
• gop.gopmaxop_all1(expr) evaluates the maximum value of the expression expr
over all rays.
The treatment of NaN values in maximum component couplings can be
platform-dependent, so use caution when evaluating the maximum over all rays
including disappeared and unreleased rays.

VARIABLES AND COMPONENT COUPLINGS | 49

 • gop.gopminop1(expr) evaluates the minimum value of the expression expr over
the active, frozen, and stuck rays.
• gop.gopminop_all1(expr) evaluates the minimum value of the expression expr
over all rays.
The treatment of NaN values in minimum component couplings can be
platform-dependent, so use caution when evaluating the minimum over all rays
including disappeared and unreleased rays.
• gop.gopmaxop1(expr, evalExpr) evaluates the expression evalExpr for the ray
that has the maximum value of the expression expr out of all active, frozen, and
stuck rays. For example, the expression gop.gopmaxop1(gop.I, qx) would
evaluate the x-coordinate qx of the ray with the greatest intensity gop.I.
• gop.gopmaxop_all1(expr, evalExpr) evaluates the expression evalExpr for
the ray that has the maximum value of the expression expr for all rays, including
disappeared and unreleased rays.
• gop.gopminop1(expr, evalExpr) evaluates the expression evalExpr for the ray
that has the minimum value of the expression expr out of all active, frozen, and
stuck rays. For example, the expression gop.gopminop1(gop.I, qx) would
evaluate the x-coordinate qx of the ray with the minimum intensity gop.I.
• gop.gopminop_all1(expr, evalExpr) evaluates the expression evalExpr for
the ray that has the minimum value of the expression expr for all rays, including
disappeared and unreleased rays.

The built-in component couplings defined by the Geometrical Optics interface are
summarized in Table 2-1.
TABLE 2-1: BUILT-IN COMPONENT COUPLINGS FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE

NAME DESCRIPTION

gop.gopop1(expr) Sum over rays

gop.gopop_all1(expr) Sum over all rays
gop.gopaveop1(expr) Average over rays
gop.gopaveop_all1(expr) Average over all rays
gop.gopmaxop1(expr) Maximum over rays
gop.gopmaxop_all1(expr) Maximum over all rays
gop.gopminop1(expr) Minimum over rays
gop.gopminop_all1(expr) Minimum over all rays
gop.gopmaxop1(expr, evalExpr) Evaluate at maximum over rays

50 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING

TABLE 2-1: BUILT-IN COMPONENT COUPLINGS FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE

NAME DESCRIPTION

gop.gopmaxop_all1(expr, evalExpr) Evaluate at maximum over all rays

gop.gopminop1(expr, evalExpr) Evaluate at minimum over rays
gop.gopminop_all1(expr, evalExpr) Evaluate at minimum over all rays

VARIABLES AND COMPONENT COUPLINGS | 51

52 | CHAPTER 2: RAY OPTICS MODELING
 3

Ray Optics Interfaces

This chapter describes the physics interfaces found under the Optics>Ray Optics
branch ( ).

In this chapter:

• The Geometrical Optics Interface

• Theory for the Geometrical Optics Interface

53
 T he Ge o m e t r i cal O p t i c s In t erfac e
The Geometrical Optics (gop) interface ( ), found under the Optics>Ray Optics
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, computes the paths of electromagnetic
waves in the high frequency limit. The wavefronts are treated as rays that can propagate
through optically large geometries and reflect or refract at boundaries. The physics
interface includes built-in options to compute the ray intensity, polarization, phase,
and optical path length. It is also fully compatible with deformed geometries such as
systems with thermal stress.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Medium Properties, Material Discontinuity, and Ray Properties. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, light sources or
boundary conditions. You can also right-click Geometrical Optics to select physics
features from the context menu.

Geometrical Optics Physics Interface Settings

The Label is the physics interface name. The default is Geometrical Optics.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is gop.

RAY RELEASE AND PROPAGATION

The settings in this section affect the way in which primary and secondary rays are
released.

Wavelength Distribution of Released Rays

Select an option from the Wavelength distribution of released rays list: Monochromatic
(the default), Polychromatic, specify vacuum wavelength, or Polychromatic, specify
frequency.

• For Monochromatic all rays in the model have the same vacuum wavelength and
frequency, which is entered as a value or expression in the Ray Properties node.

54 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

• For Polychromatic, specify vacuum wavelength a degree of freedom is allocated for the
vacuum wavelength of each ray in the model. These degrees of freedom are
initialized when the rays are released and are controlled by the Vacuum Wavelength
section in the settings for the ray release features, such as Release from Grid.
• For Polychromatic, specify frequency a degree of freedom is allocated for the
frequency of each ray in the model. These degrees of freedom are initialized when
the rays are released and are controlled by the Initial Ray Frequency section in the
settings for the ray release features, such as Release from Grid.

Refractive Index of Exterior Domains

Enter a value for the Refractive index of exterior domains (dimensionless). The default
value is 1. This value of the refractive index is used when tracing rays outside of the
domain selection of the Geometrical Optics physics interface. It is also used when rays
propagate in the void region outside the geometry. Some limitations apply, as
described in the Geometry and Meshing section of the Ray Optics Modeling chapter.

Maximum Number of Secondary Rays

The Maximum number of secondary rays prevents an inordinate number of rays from
being generated by capping them at the number supplied in the text field. Secondary
rays are released when an existing ray is subjected to certain boundary conditions. For
example, when a ray undergoes refraction at a Material Discontinuity between
different media, the incident ray is refracted and a reflected ray is created; the degrees
of freedom for this reflected ray are taken from one of the available secondary rays,
which are preallocated when the study begins. Secondary rays are also used to model
the interaction of rays with diffraction gratings, using the Grating boundary condition.

If an insufficient number of secondary rays are preallocated, a reflected ray may not be
released when an existing ray undergoes refraction, even if some radiation should be
reflected at the material discontinuity, and a warning message will be generated by the
study. However, if a very large number of secondary rays are preallocated, then the
number of degrees of freedom may become unnecessarily large. Thus, the Maximum
number of secondary rays should only be large enough that all reflected rays which
significantly affect the solution can be released. Note that rays undergoing total
internal reflection at material discontinuities are not considered secondary rays and do
not require extra preallocated degrees of freedom.

Use Geometry Normals for Ray-Boundary Interactions

By default the Use geometry normals for ray-boundary interactions check box is cleared.
Then, whenever rays are reflected or refracted at boundaries, the surface normal is
computed using the underlying mesh discretization of the boundary rather than the

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 55

 exact shape of the geometry itself. If this check box is selected, then the surface normal
will instead be computed from an analytic representation of the geometry surfaces, if
such an analytic representation can be obtained.

For the simple case of ray reflection by a parabolic edge in 2D, three example plots are
shown in Figure 3-1 below. In the leftmost plot, linear geometry shape order has been
specified; in other words, Linear has been selected from the Geometry shape order list
in the settings for the model component. The left figure also uses mesh normals. The
reflected ray directions are visibly inaccurate because the boundary mesh is very coarse.
The center figure uses Linear geometry shape order and geometry normals. Although
the mesh is equally coarse, the reflected ray directions are much more accurate. The
rightmost figure uses Quadratic shape order; because the edge is parabolic, this shape
order results in reflected ray directions that are exact (to within machine precision) no
matter whether mesh normals or geometry normals are used, because quadratic
elements can perfectly represent a parabola.

Figure 3-1: Comparison of ray reflections at a parabolic boundary, using various

definitions of the mesh normal.

The Use geometry normals for ray-boundary interactions check box has no effect on the
solution if the mesh can deform. This is true, for example, when the geometry is
subjected to structural loads or thermal stresses. In this case the mesh normal is always
used.

INTENSITY COMPUTATION
The settings in this section control the treatment of ray intensity and polarization.
These settings are also important in multiphysics applications such as ray heating.

Intensity Computation
Select an option from the Intensity computation list: None (the default), Compute
intensity, Compute power, Compute intensity and power, Compute intensity in graded
media, or Compute intensity and power in graded media. For None no additional variables

56 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

are computed along the rays. For other options, the ray intensity or ray power is
computed as described below.

• For Compute intensity auxiliary dependent variables are used to compute the
intensity and polarization of each ray. For a complete list of the auxiliary dependent
variables that are defined, see Intensity, Wavefront Curvature, and Polarization in
Theory for the Geometrical Optics Interface. This option is more accurate and is
usually less computationally demanding than Compute intensity in graded media but
is only valid for computing intensity in homogeneous media. The refractive index
can still change discontinuously at boundaries, where the Fresnel equations are
automatically used to compute the intensity of the reflected and refracted rays.
The default name for the intensity variable is gop.I.
• For Compute power a the total power transmitted by each ray is defined as an
auxiliary dependent variable. Information about the ray polarization is also available.
The Deposited Ray Power (Boundary) subnode is available for the Wall feature. In
addition, if a heat transfer interface such as the Heat Transfer in Solids interface is
included in the model, the Ray Heat Source multiphysics node can be used to
compute the heat source due to attenuation of rays within domains.
The default name for the power variable is gop.Q.
• The option Compute intensity and power functions as a combination of the options
Compute intensity and Compute power.
• The Compute intensity in graded media option functions like Compute intensity but
is valid for both homogeneous and graded-index media. If all media in the model
are homogeneous then it is recommended to select Compute intensity instead, since
it is the more accurate method.
• The Compute intensity and power in graded media option functions like Compute
intensity and power but is valid for both homogeneous and graded-index media. If
all media in the model are homogeneous then it is recommended to select Compute
intensity and power instead, since it is the more accurate method.

Compute Phase
The Compute phase check box is only shown if the ray intensity is computed. Select the
check box to allocate an auxiliary dependent variable for the phase of each ray. When
the phase of each ray is computed, it is possible to plot interference patterns and
visualize the instantaneous electric field components of polarized rays in
postprocessing. When this check box is selected, the total number of degrees of
freedom increases by 1 per ray. This option is based on the assumption that the
coherence length of the radiation is arbitrarily large.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 57

 Use Corrections for Strongly Absorbing Media
The Use corrections for strongly absorbing media check box is shown if the ray intensity
is computed. Select the check box to accurately model reflection and refraction of rays
at boundaries between strongly absorbing media, in which the imaginary part of the
refractive index is very large. This option allocates two or three auxiliary dependent
variables per ray based on space dimension. For more information about the way this
option affects the intensity calculation, see Refraction in Strongly Absorbing Media in
Theory for the Geometrical Optics Interface.

Tolerance for Curvature Tensor Computation

When the Intensity computation is set to Compute intensity in graded media or Compute
intensity and power in graded media enter a Tolerance for curvature tensor computation
(dimensionless). This tolerance is used internally when computing the principal radii
of curvature of propagating wavefronts in a graded medium. A larger tolerance makes
the solution less accurate but more stable.

ADDITIONAL VARIABLES
The options in this section can be used to solve for additional variables other than those
that are used to compute intensity or define the ray frequency. By default, all of the
check boxes in this section are cleared so that these variables are not solved for.

Compute Optical Path Length

Select the Compute optical path length check box to allocate an auxiliary dependent
variable for the optical path length of each ray. The default variable name is gop.L. It
is possible to reset the optical path length to 0 when rays interact with boundaries.

Count Reflections
Select the Count reflections check box to allocate an auxiliary dependent variable for the
number of reflections undergone by each ray, including reflections by the Wall and
Material Discontinuity features. The default variable name is gop.Nrefl. The auxiliary
variable begins at 0 when rays are released and is incremented by 1 every time a ray is
reflected at a boundary.

Store Ray Status Data

Select the Store ray status data check box to add new variables for quantities that
cannot necessarily be recovered from the ray trajectory data alone. This is especially
true if automatic remeshing is used in a model. The variables created include the
following, all of which would be preceded by the physics interface tag (e.g. gop.):

• The release time of a given ray (variable name rti).

• The time at which a ray stopped at a boundary (variable name st).

58 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

• The final status of the ray (variable name fs). This indicates the status of a ray at the
final time step. The value is an integer which has one of the following values:
- 0 for unreleased rays
- 1 for rays that are still in the modeling domain
- 2 for frozen rays
- 3 for stuck rays
- 4 for rays that have disappeared

To summarize the total number of rays having each final status, the following global
variables are also defined.
TABLE 3-1: GLOBAL VARIABLES BASED ON RAY STATUS

NAME DESCRIPTION

fac Fraction of active rays at final time step

fds Fraction of disappeared rays at final time step
ffr Fraction of frozen rays at final time step
fse Fraction of secondary rays released
fst Fraction of stuck rays at final time step
nsr Number of released secondary rays
nsrf Number of released secondary rays at final time step
nsu Number of unreleased secondary rays
nsuf Number of unreleased secondary rays at final time step

The global variable names in Table 3-1 all take the unreleased secondary rays into
account. For example, suppose an instance of the Geometrical Optics interface
includes 100 primary rays and 100 allocated secondary rays. At the last time step,
suppose that 80 of the primary rays have disappeared at boundaries and that 40
secondary rays have been emitted, all of which are still active. Then the variable
gop.fac, the fraction of active rays at the final time step, would have the value
(20 + 40)/(100 + 100) or 0.3.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
This section is only shown when Advanced Physics Options are enabled (click the Show
button in the Model Builder window). These options are hidden by default because
it is only necessary to modify them under very specific circumstances.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 59

 Wall Accuracy Order
The Wall accuracy order sets the accuracy order of the time stepping used for time steps
during which a ray-wall interaction happens. Select an order of 1 to use a forward Euler
step and compute the direction or ray propagation both before and after the wall
interaction. Select an order of 2 (the default) to use a second-order Taylor method to
compute the trajectory before the wall interaction. After the ray-wall interaction a
second-order Runge-Kutta method is used. Usually this setting has no effect on the
ray tracing calculation because the rays move along straight lines, but the higher wall
accuracy order is more accurate if graded-index media are present.

Arguments for Random Number Generation

Select an option from the Arguments for random number generation list: Generate unique
arguments (the default), Generate random arguments, or User defined. This setting
determines how the additional argument to random functions is defined in features
such as the Wall boundary condition with the Diffuse scattering wall condition.
Typically the random numbers are functions of the ray index, position, time, and
another argument i, defined as follows:

• For Generate unique arguments the additional argument is based on the position of
each node in the Model Builder. As a result, random numbers generated in different
nodes are created independently of each other, but the same result can be
reproduced by running the same study several times.
• For Generate random arguments the additional argument is randomly created,
causing the random functions to return different results each time the study is run.
• For User defined the additional argument is defined by a user input in the Settings
window for each feature. Independent solutions can be obtained by running a
parametric sweep for different values of i.

Allow Multiple Release Times

The Allow multiple release times check box, which is cleared by default, allows an array
of release times for the rays to be specified in any of the ray release features. If the check
box is cleared, all rays are released at time t = 0.

Exclude Jacobian Contributions from Ray Equations

By default the Exclude Jacobian contributions from ray equations check box is cleared. If
this check box is selected, then expressions for the time derivatives of the degrees of
freedom on rays are not included in the Jacobian matrix. Excluding contributions to
the Jacobian can significantly improve solution time if the number of rays in the model
is very large. The drawback is that the Jacobian is not exact, so smaller time steps or

60 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

path length intervals may be needed to obtain an accurate solution. This drawback is
most noticeable when computing the ray intensity or power in an absorbing medium.

Treat Unmeshed Releasing Entities as Errors

By default the Treat unmeshed releasing entities as errors check box is selected. Certain
ray release features, such as the Inlet and Release features, compute the ray release
positions based on a geometric entity, which must be meshed. While this check box is
selected, failure to mesh the selections of such features will result in an error message
when running any study in the model. If this check box is cleared, failure to mesh the
selections of such features will result in them releasing zero rays, but will otherwise not
interrupt the computation. Other physics features will still be able to release rays
normally.

Maximum Number of Wall Interactions per Time Step

Enter a value for the Maximum number of wall interactions per time step. The default
value is 1000. If a ray undergoes more than the specified number of boundary
interactions in a single time step taken by the solver, the ray will disappear. This is
included as a safeguard to prevent rays from getting stuck in infinite loops if the time
between successive ray-wall interactions becomes infinitesimally small.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the components of the Ray position and
Wave vector. The name can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables
must be unique within a model. In 3D, the default ray position vector components are
qx, qy, and qz; and the default wave vector components are kx, ky, and kz.

• Theory for the Geometrical Optics Interface

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 61

 List of Geometrical Optics Interface Physics Features
The Geometrical Optics Interface has the following nodes and subnodes (listed in
alphabetical order) available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• Accumulator (Boundary) • Mueller Matrix

• Accumulator (Domain) • Nonlocal Accumulator
• Auxiliary Dependent Variable • Photometric Data Import
• Axial Symmetry • Ray Continuity
• Circular Wave Retarder • Ray Detector
• Deposited Ray Power (Boundary) • Ray Properties
• Deposited Ray Power (Domain) • Ray Termination
• Diffraction Order • Release
• Grating • Release from Data File
• Ideal Depolarizer • Release from Edge
• Illuminated Surface • Release from Grid
• Inlet • Release from Grid on Axis
• Inlet on Axis • Release from Point
• Linear Polarizer • Release from Point on Axis
• Linear Wave Retarder • Solar Radiation
• Material Discontinuity • Thin Dielectric Film
• Medium Properties • Wall
• Mirror

62 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Medium Properties
Use the Medium Properties node to specify the refractive index of the medium. This
node is created by default and includes all of the selected domains for the physics
interface.

MEDIUM PROPERTIES
Use the settings in this section to specify how the real part of the refractive index is
defined. If the ray intensity or power is computed, then you can also specify the
imaginary part of the refractive index, which is used to describe absorption within the
medium.

Optical Dispersion Models

It is possible to specify the Refractive index, real part, n (dimensionless) using one of
several optical dispersion models. The options are:

• Specify refractive index (the default): use this option to enter a value or expression
for the real part of the refractive index n directly. By default the Refractive index, real
part uses values From material. It is also possible to enter a User defined value or
expression. Only ray propagation in isotropic media can be modeled with the
Geometrical Optics interface.
• Get dispersion model from material: the dispersion model in each domain is
automatically deduced by checking which material properties are defined in each
domain. This will often result in different optical dispersion models being used in
different domains, especially if the model contains glasses from two or more distinct
manufacturers.
For example, suppose that a model contains two lenses consisting of two different
glasses, and that the first glass is defined using Sellmeier coefficients whereas the
second glass is defined using Schott coefficients. Then selecting Get dispersion model
from material will automatically express the refractive index using the Sellmeier
equation in the first lens and the Schott (polynomial) equation in the second. An

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 63

 alternative way to use different optical dispersion models in different domains is to
use more than one instance of the Medium Properties node and select the dispersion
models manually.
• An optical dispersion model where the refractive index is a function of wavelength
may be selected. The following built-in dispersion models are available (See
Table 3-3 for details):
- Cauchy,
- Conrady,
- Herzberger,
- Schott,
- Schott extended,
- Sellmeier,
- Sellmeier modified, type 1,
- Sellmeier modified, type 2, or
- Temperature-dependent Sellmeier.
The coefficients for each of these dispersion models are taken From material by
default. Alternatively, User defined coefficients may be entered.

For the built-in optical dispersion models, the wavelength is always

assumed to be in units of microns (μm). For example, in the Schott
(polynomial) model, the coefficients A0, A1, A2, A3, etc. have units of 1,
μm, μm2, μm3, and so on. If another source were to provide these
coefficients using nanometers instead of microns, then some manual
conversion would be required.

For the options Specify refractive index and Temperature-dependent Sellmeier, the
refractive index is assumed to be absolute, such that n = 1 is the refractive index of an
ideal vacuum. For all other optical dispersion models, however, the refractive index
computed by the dispersion equation is a relative index defined with respect to air at a
specified reference temperature and pressure. Thus, for each of these other optical
dispersion models, the Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) and Reference pressure
Pref (SI unit: Pa) can either be taken From material or User defined.

If the reference pressure Pref ≠ 0, then it is assumed that the refractive indices are
relative to air at the reference temperature and pressure; that is n = nrel × nair. The
conversion from relative to absolute refractive index is made using a model for the

64 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

refractive index of air. The Temperature-dependent Sellmeier model always returns
absolute indices. If User defined coefficients are selected, the default coefficients for
each of the built-in dispersion models give nrel = 1 (or, n = 1, if Pref = 0). See Optical
Dispersion Models for further details.

If ray intensity or power is computed, specify the Refractive index, imaginary part k
(dimensionless). By default the Refractive index, imaginary part k uses values From
material. For User defined enter a value or expression. The convention followed by the
Geometrical Optics interface is that an the imaginary part of the refractive index is
negative in absorbing media. A positive value indicates a gain medium in which the
intensity increases as the ray propagates.

How to Automatically Detect Optical Dispersion Models

The option Get dispersion model from material is unique because it allows a single
Medium Properties node to detect different optical dispersion models from a large
number of different materials having different domain selections. For example, the
materials used in the Petzval Lens tutorial are shown in Figure 3-2 below. To
automatically detect the optical dispersion models of the loaded glasses, take the
following steps:

1 Add materials to the model using the Optical Material Library. Most of the glasses
in this material library use an optical dispersion model, specified by the glass
manufacturer, to define the refractive index. As the materials are added, the
coefficients used by the optical dispersion model are automatically loaded.
2 Locate the default Medium Properties node.
3 From the Optical dispersion model list, select Get dispersion model from material. If
the glasses loaded in step 1 also provide thermo-optic coefficients, it is important to
specify an accurate value of the Temperature as well.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 65

 1

Figure 3-2: Workflow for automatically detecting optical dispersion models from the glasses
in an optical prescription.

Thermo-Optic Dispersion Models

A temperature-dependent offset in the Refractive index may be specified using a
thermo-optic dispersion model. Two options are possible:

• None (the default): no offset will be applied.

• Schott: this is the only built-in thermo-optic dispersion model available. The
coefficients used to compute a temperature dependent offset in the refractive index
can either be taken From material (the default), or User defined. A reference
temperature is also required. This may also be taken From material (the default), or
User defined.

For further details, see Thermo-Optic Dispersion Models.

66 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

Wall
Use the Wall node to determine what happens to the rays when contact with a
boundary is made.

The Accumulator (Boundary) subnode is available from the context menu (right-click
the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. If the ray intensity or
power is computed, the Thin Dielectric Film subnode is also available. If the ray power
is computed, the Deposited Ray Power (Boundary) subnode is also available.

WALL CONDITION
Select a Wall condition: Freeze (the default), Specular Reflection, Stick, Disappear, Pass
through, Diffuse scattering, Mixed diffuse and specular reflection, or General reflection.

TABLE 3-2: WALL CONDITION OPTIONS

OPTIONS DESCRIPTION

Freeze Select to fix the ray position and wave vector at the instant a wall is
struck. So, the ray position no longer changes after contact with the
wall and the wave vector of the ray remains at the same value as when
the ray struck the wall. This boundary condition is typically used to
recover the ray intensity or phase at the instant contact was made with
the wall.
Specular Select to specularly reflect from the wall, so that the angle of incidence
Reflection and the angle of reflection are equal.
Stick Select to fix the ray position at the instant the wall is struck. The wave
vector components are set to zero.
Disappear This option means that the ray is not displayed once it has made
contact with the wall. Use it if the ray location after contact with the
wall is not of interest.
Pass through This option allows rays to cross the boundary unimpeded. It does not
cause rays to be refracted at the boundary between different materials,
though; to model refraction, instead use the Material Discontinuity
feature.
Diffuse Select to reflect rays at a wall according to Lambert’s cosine law. That
scattering is, the probability of a reflected ray propagating in a given direction
within a solid angle dω is given by cos(θ)dω where θ is the angle
between the direction of the ray and the wall normal.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 67

 TABLE 3-2: WALL CONDITION OPTIONS

OPTIONS DESCRIPTION

Mixed Select to reflect rays at a wall either specularly or according to

diffuse and Lambert’s cosine law, based on a user-defined probability.
specular
reflection
General Select to allow an arbitrary direction vector to be specified after a ray
reflection makes contact with the wall. The ray direction vector components can
be functions of the incident ray direction, phase, or any other quantity.

GENERAL REFLECTION SETTINGS

This section is available when General reflection (see Table 3-2) is selected as the Wall
condition.

Enter values for the Reflected ray direction vector Lp (dimensionless) either in Cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z) (the default) or select the Specify tangential and normal direction
vector components check box to enter coordinates in the tangent-normal coordinate
system (t1, t2, n). In this case the normal direction is selected so that an incident ray is
reflected back into the domain it previously occupied if the specified normal direction
vector component is positive. The tangential directions are oriented so that they form
a right-handed coordinate system, together with the normal direction.

PRIMARY RAY CONDITION

Use this section to apply two different wall conditions on the same set of boundaries
based on a probability or logical expression.

Select a Primary ray condition: None (the default), Probability, or Expression. When the
default, None, is kept, it means that the Wall condition is always respected by the
incident rays.

Probability
If Probability is selected, the Wall condition is applied with a certain probability. Enter
a value for the Probability, γ (dimensionless). If the Wall condition is not used, the ray
instead behaves according to the Otherwise setting.

The value of γ should always be between 0 and 1.

68 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

For example, if the Wall condition is set to:

• Freeze and γ is set to 0.1, then for every 10 rays that strike the wall, on average one
freezes and the remaining 9 rays behave according to the Otherwise setting.
• Stick and γ is set to 0.5 then on average half of the rays stick to the wall and the other
half behave according to the Otherwise setting.

Expression
If Expression is selected, the Evaluation expression e (dimensionless) is evaluated
whenever a ray strikes the wall. The default expression is 1. If the Evaluation expression
is nonzero, the ray behaves according to the Wall condition, otherwise the ray behaves
according to the Otherwise setting.

Otherwise
The options available for the Otherwise setting are the same as for the Wall Condition,
except that General reflection and Mixed diffuse and specular reflection are not available.
The Otherwise setting can be used to make rays interact with a wall differently with a
certain probability or when a certain condition is satisfied. For example, to model
reflection at a partially specular surface in which 50% of the ray intensity is absorbed
and 30% is reflected specularly:

• Select Mixed diffuse and specular reflection as the Wall condition,

• set the Probability of specular reflection to 0.3/(1-0.5),
• set the Primary ray condition to Probability,
• set the Probability to 1-0.5, and
• select Freeze as the Otherwise option.

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
This section is available when

• the ray intensity or power is solved for in the model, and

• the Wall condition is set to any option that can reflect rays, including the following:

- Specular Reflection,
- Diffuse scattering,
- General reflection, or
- Mixed diffuse and specular reflection.

Select one of the following from the Compute reflected intensity using list: Absorption
coefficients or Reflection coefficients.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 69

 For Absorption coefficients enter the Absorption coefficient α (dimensionless). The
default is 0. The intensity or power of the reflected ray will be proportional to 1 − α.

For Reflection coefficients enter the Reflection coefficient r (dimensionless). The default
value is 1. The intensity or power of the reflected ray will be proportional to r2.

If the Wall condition is set to Mixed diffuse and specular reflection, this section is instead
called Absorption Coefficients and the absorption coefficients for the diffusely and
specularly reflected rays are specified separately. All of the text fields are given
subscripts s and d for specularly and diffusely reflected rays, respectively.

NEW VALUE OF AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model.

When a ray crosses or touches a boundary, the values of the user-defined auxiliary
dependent variables can be changed. The value can be a function of any combinations
of ray variables and variables defined on the boundary.

Select the Assign new value to auxiliary variable check box or boxes based on the
number of auxiliary variables in the model. Then enter the new value or expression in
the field. For example, if there is an auxiliary variable, psi, then enter a value for psinew
in the field. So, to increment the value of psi by 1 when a ray touches or crosses a
boundary, enter psi+1 in the text field for psinew.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
If the Primary ray condition is set to Probability, or if the Diffuse scattering or Mixed
diffuse and specular reflection wall condition is used, then the Wall feature generates
random numbers.

If, in addition, the Arguments for random number generation setting is set to User defined
in the physics interface Advanced Settings section, the Advanced Settings section is
available.

Enter the Additional input argument to random number generator i (dimensionless). The
default value is 1.

The Advanced Settings section is also shown if the Compute optical path length check
box is selected under the physics interface Additional Variables section. Select the Reset
optical path length check box to set the optical path length to 0 when a ray touches the
wall.

70 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

Mirror
Use the Mirror node to specularly reflect rays at a boundary. This feature functions as
a special case of the Wall node, except that the wall condition is always specular
reflection.

See Wall for information on the following sections: Absorption Coefficient, New Value of
Auxiliary Dependent Variables, and Advanced Settings.

Axial Symmetry
The Axial Symmetry node is automatically added to 2D axisymmetric models. The
options available for the feature are the same as for Wall, except as follows. The
Boundary Selection is locked and is only applicable to edges on the symmetry axis. The
only wall conditions available are Specular reflection (the default), Freeze, Stick, and
Disappear. In addition, the Primary Ray Condition section is not included. The Axial
Symmetry boundary condition does not affect ray intensity or polarization, except to
introduce a phase delay of π in reflected rays to compensate for the change in the
principal curvature direction.

The Axial Symmetry condition only applies to straight boundaries that are
both on the axis of symmetry and adjacent to a domain in the selection of
the physics interface. If rays are propagating in the void region outside of
the selected domains, it is possible for the rays to enter the region where
r < 0, even though no geometry is defined there.

To ensure that rays cannot propagate into the region where r < 0, draw
line segments on the parts of the symmetry axis where no geometric
entities exist, then add the Wall node to these edges. Keep in mind that
rays can only be subjected to boundary conditions if the corresponding
boundaries are meshed.

Accumulator (Boundary)
The Accumulator subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Wall or
Material Discontinuity parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Each
Accumulator subnode defines a variable, called the accumulated variable, on each
boundary element in the selection of the parent node. The accumulated variables are
incremented when rays interact with the boundaries where they are defined.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 71

 ACCUMULATOR SETTINGS
Select an option from the Accumulator type list: Density (default) or Count.

• For Density the accumulated variable is divided by the surface area of the boundary
element where it is defined.
• For Count the accumulated variable is the sum of the source terms of all rays that hit
the boundary element, and is unaffected by the boundary element size.

Select an option from the Accumulate over list: Ray-wall interactions (the default) or
Rays in boundary elements.

• For Ray-wall interactions the accumulated variable is affected by all rays that hit the
boundary element.
• For Rays in boundary elements the accumulated variable is only affected by rays that
freeze or stick to the boundary element.

Enter the Accumulated variable name. The default is rpb. The accumulated variable is
defined as <scope>.<name>, where <scope> includes the name of the physics
interface node, parent boundary condition, and the Accumulator node, and <name> is
the accumulated variable name.

For example, if the Accumulator subnode is added to a Wall node in an instance of the
Geometrical Optics interface using the default variable name rpb, the accumulated
variable name might be gop.wall1.bacc1.rpb.

Enter a Source R. The unit of the source term depends on the settings in the Units
section. Whenever a ray collides with a boundary element in the selection of the parent
node, the accumulated variable in that element is incremented by the source term. If
the Accumulator type is set to Density, the source term is divided by the area of the
boundary element (in 3D) or the length of the boundary element (in 2D).

For example, if the source is 1 and Count is selected from the Accumulator type list, a
variable is created to store the number of times each boundary element is hit by a ray.

UNITS
Select a Dependent variable quantity from the list; the default is Dimensionless [1]. To
enter a unit, select None from the list and in the Unit field enter a value, for example, K,
m/s, or mol/m^3.

SMOOTHING
The accumulated variables are computed using discontinuous shape functions. Select
the Compute smoothed accumulated variable check box to compute a smoothed

72 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

accumulated variable by computing the average value of the variable within a sphere of
a user-defined radius. Then enter a Smoothing radius r (SI unit: m). The default is 1 m.

Accumulator Theory: Boundaries

Material Discontinuity
The Material Discontinuity node is the default feature on all boundaries.

The Geometrical Optics interface always applies reflection and refraction at boundaries
between different media using a deterministic ray splitting approach. The direction of
the refracted ray is computed using Snell’s law, based on the refractive index on either
side. If extra degrees of freedom have been allocated for secondary rays, a reflected ray
is also released. If the incident ray undergoes total internal reflection, no refracted ray
is produced and no secondary rays are needed to release the reflected ray.

If the ray intensity or power is solved for in the model, the Material Discontinuity feature
computes the new values of these variables for the reflected and refracted rays.

The maximum number of reflected rays can be controlled via the

Maximum number of secondary rays text field, which is found under the Ray
Release and Propagation section for the physics interface.

The Accumulator (Boundary) subnode is available from the context menu (right-click
the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Thin Dielectric
Film subnode is also available if the following conditions are met:

• The ray intensity or power is being computed, and

• One of the following options is selected from the Thin dielectric films on boundary
list in the Coatings section: Add layers to surface or Add layers to surface, repeating.

COATINGS
This section is available if ray intensity or power is being computed in the model. Use
the options in this section to add thin dielectric layers to the boundary between the
media. These thin dielectric layers are used, together with the refractive indices on
either side, to modify the Fresnel equations for the reflection and transmission
coefficients at the boundary.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 73

 The thicknesses of the thin dielectric layers must be small relative to the coherence
length of the radiation. They are usually comparable in length scale to the free-space
wavelength.

Select an option from the Thin dielectric films on boundary list. The default is None. The
following options are available.

• None: no dielectric films are on the boundary. The intensity of the reflected and
refracted light is computed solely using the Fresnel equations with the refractive
indices of the two adjacent domains.
• Add layers to surface: you can add any number of thin dielectric films to the
boundary by adding one or more Thin Dielectric Film subnodes; right click the
Material Discontinuity node or select Thin Dielectric Film from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu. If multiple thin films are added to a single surface, they are
arranged in the same order as the corresponding Thin Dielectric Film subnodes in the
Model Builder, from the upside of the boundary toward the downside.

Anti-Reflective Coating with Multiple Layers: Application Library path

Ray_Optics_Module/Prisms_and_Coatings/antireflective_coating_multilayer

• Add layers to surface, repeating: this option functions like the Add layers to surface
option described above. Add individual dielectric coatings to the boundary using
the Thin Dielectric Film subnode. In addition, enter a value or expression for the
Number of repeating unit cells N (dimensionless). The default value is 3. In the
settings windows for the Thin Dielectric Film subnodes, you can decide which layers
constitute a unit cell that will be repeated the specified number of times. Use this
option to specify periodic arrangements with a large number of repeatind dielectric
layers, without having to add each layer manually.

Distributed Bragg Reflector: Application Library path

Ray_Optics_Module/Prisms_and_Coatings/distributed_bragg_reflector

• Anti-reflective coating: the incident ray is refracted with unit transmittance and zero
reflectance.
• Single-layer coating, specified thickness: this is a simplified version of the Add layers to
surface option that only allows a single dielectric layer. Enter a value or expression
for the Film refractive index n (dimensionless). The default value is 1. Then enter a
value or expression for the Film thickness t (SI unit: m). The default value is 1 μm.

74 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

• Specify reflectance: enter a value or expression for the reflectance at the boundary
directly. Enter a value or expression for the Reflectance R (dimensionless). The
default is 0.1. If the Specify different values for s- and p-polarization check box is
selected, you can instead enter separate values for the reflectance of p- and
s-polarized light, called Rp and Rs respectively. The layers are considered
non-absorbing so that the sum of the reflectance and transmittance is unity.
• Specify transmittance: enter a value or expression for the transmittance at the
boundary directly. Enter a value or expression for the Transmittance T
(dimensionless). The default is 0.9. If the Specify different values for s- and
p-polarization check box is selected, you can instead enter separate values for the
transmittance of p- and s-polarized light, called Tp and Ts respectively. The layers
are considered non-absorbing so that the sum of the reflectance and transmittance
is unity.

Real and Ideal Optical Coatings

The options Anti-reflective coating, Specify reflectance, and Specify transmittance all
include a check box called Treat as single layer dielectric film, which is cleared by
default. While this check box is cleared, the specified reflectance or transmittance
applies to all rays, regardless of wavelength or angle of incidence, and the remaining
inputs in this section are not shown. This makes complicated multilayer films easier to
set up because you can enter the reflectance or transmittance explicitly without having
to know the properties of each layer in the coating. If the coating properties depend
on the wavelength or angle of incidence, you can usually build this dependence into
the model by defining the film reflectance or transmittance as an Interpolation function
of the ray properties. The tradeoff is that accurate information about the
discontinuities in ray phase is lost, even if the Compute phase check box is selected in
the physics interface Intensity Computation section, because this information depends
on the complex-valued Fresnel coefficients.

If the Treat as single layer dielectric film check box is selected, then instead the Material
Discontinuity automatically computes the thickness of a single layer needed to produce
the given reflectance or transmittance. The drawback is that the specified reflectance
or transmittance will only be attained for rays at a specific wavelength and angle of
incidence.

For Specify reflectance and Specify transmittance enter the Film refractive index n
(dimensionless). The default is 1. If it is impossible to construct a single layer of this
refractive index and obtain the specified reflectance or transmittance, then the
boundary is treated as having no dielectric films. For Anti-reflective coating, the

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 75

 refractive index of the coating is not an input because it is always the geometric mean
of the refractive indices in the two adjacent domains.

For Anti-reflective coating, Specify reflectance, and Specify transmittance enter the
following:

• Vacuum wavelength for specified film properties λ0 (SI unit: m). The default is
660 nm.
• Angle of incidence for specified film properties θi (SI unit: m). The default is 0.
• Select an option from the Angle of incidence specification list: With respect to upside
(the default) or With respect to downside. You can see which side is the upside by
selecting the Show boundary normal check box (see Advanced Settings below); the
normal vector rendered in the Graphics window points from the upside to the
downside.
• Select an option from the Specified film behavior applies to list: S-polarized radiation
(the default) or P-polarized radiation.

RAYS TO RELEASE
Use the inputs in this section to control whether the incident ray is split into a reflected
and refracted ray at the material discontinuity. Select an option from the Release
reflected rays list: Always (the default), Never, or Based on logical expression.

• If Always is selected, whenever a ray hits the material discontinuity, the incident ray
is refracted across the boundary, and a reflected ray is produces using some of the
preallocated degrees of freedom for secondary rays.
• If Never is selected, the incident ray is refracted, but no reflected ray is produced.
This does not prevent a ray from undergoing total internal reflection at the
boundary.
• If Based on logical expression is selected, enter a value or expression for the Evaluation
expression e (dimensionless). The default is 1. A reflected ray is produced only if the
value of this expression is nonzero for the incident ray.

If the ray intensity is solved for in the model, enter a Threshold intensity Ith
(SI unit: W/m2). The default is 1 mW/m2. If the interaction of a ray with a material
discontinuity would create a reflected ray of intensity less than the threshold intensity,
the release of this reflected ray is suppressed.

If the ray power is solved for in the model, enter a Threshold power Qth (SI unit: W).
The default is 10-3 mW. If the interaction of a ray with a material discontinuity would

76 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

create a reflected ray of power less than the threshold power, the release of this
reflected ray is suppressed.

If both the Evaluation expression and the Threshold intensity are specified, a reflected
ray is only released if the value of the expression is nonzero and the intensity of the
reflected ray exceeds the threshold. In other words, a ray must satisfy all of the criteria
in the Rays to Release section in order to be released, not just one of them.

The release of reflected rays at a material discontinuity can be suppressed to prevent an

arbitrarily large number of degrees of freedom from being used to model rays of
extremely low intensity. Keep in mind that this can lead to a reduction in the total
energy of the system.

AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES, REFRACTED RAY

If an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the model then there is an
option to reinitialize the values of auxiliary dependent variables for the refracted ray.
These settings are the same as in the New Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables
section for the Wall feature.

AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES, REFLECTED RAY

If an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the model then there is an
option to reinitialize the values of auxiliary dependent variables for the reflected ray.
These settings are the same as in the New Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables
section for the Wall feature.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
Select the Show boundary normal check box to view the boundary normal in the
Graphics window.

Visualization of the boundary normal is important when adding multiple

Thin Dielectric Film subnodes, since the thin films are oriented from the
upside of the boundary to the downside in the same order as their
corresponding nodes in the Model Builder.

If the Compute optical path length check box is selected in the physics interface
Additional Variables section, select the Reset optical path length check box to set the

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 77

 optical path length of reflected and refracted rays to 0. Otherwise both the reflected
and refracted ray inherit the optical path length of the incident ray.

Material Discontinuity Theory

Thin Dielectric Film

Use the Thin Dielectric Film subnode to model the interaction of rays with walls or
material discontinuities that are coated with thin, transparent dielectric layers. The
presence of these layers modifies the Fresnel coefficients used to compute the intensity
or power of the reflected and refracted rays. The films must be very thin relative to the
coherence length of the radiation and are usually comparable to or smaller than the
wavelength. The subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Material
Discontinuity or Wall parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

The Thin Dielectric Film subnode is applied to all boundaries in the selection of the Wall
or Material Discontinuity parent node. The effects of the Thin Dielectric Film subnodes
are applied when computing the coefficients of reflection and transmission, which are
necessary for the reinitialization of Stokes parameters during reflection and refraction
if the intensity is solved for in the model.

FILM PROPERTIES
Enter a Film refractive index n (dimensionless). The default value is 1. Then enter a Film
thickness t (SI unit: m). The default is 1 μm.

REPEATING MULTILAYER FILMS

If Add layers to surface, repeating is selected from the Thin dielectric films on boundary
list in the Coatings section in the settings window for the parent node, this section is
used to determine which layers are part of the repeating unit cell of a periodic
multilayer film. If the Repeat layer in multilayer films check box is selected, the layer is
repeated a number of times equal to the Number of repeating unit cells specified in the
parent node settings window. If the check box is cleared, the layer will appear only once
in multilayer films.

Thin Dielectric Film Theory

78 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

Ray Properties
The Ray Properties node is added by default. Only one instance of this node can exist
for each physics interface. The Ray Properties node defines the equations for ray
propagation and may also include inputs for some ray properties.

RAY PROPERTIES
This section is shown when Monochromatic is selected from the Wavelength distribution
of released rays list in the physics interface Ray Release and Propagation section.
Otherwise the frequency or vacuum wavelength of released rays is controlled separately
by each ray release feature.

Select an option from the Ray property specification list: Specify vacuum wavelength (the
default) or Specify frequency.

• For Specify vacuum wavelength enter a Vacuum wavelength λ0 (SI unit: m). The
default is 660 nm.

• For Specify frequency enter a Ray frequency v (SI unit: Hz). The default is
4.54 × 1014 Hz.

Photometric Data Import

The Photometric Data Import node is only available in 3D, and only if the
ray intensity is solved for in the model.

Use the Photometric Data Import node to import photometric data files that can be
used to initialize the ray intensity and power as a function of the initial ray direction.
The Photometric Data Import node supports the *.ies file extension, the standard
photometric data file format of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
(IESNA).

PHOTOMETRIC DATA IMPORT

Enter a File name, or click the Browse button to locate a photometric data file. When a
valid file path has been entered, click the Import button to load the photometric data
into the model. A shortened version of the name of the photometric data file will then

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 79

 be displayed, along with a Discard button. Click the Discard button to discard the
loaded photometric data and clear the File name field.

After creating an instance of the Photometric Data Import feature and

loading an appropriately formatted IES file into the model, initialize the
ray intensity as a function of initial ray direction by changing the following
settings in a ray release feature such as the Release or Release from Grid
feature:

• Select Spherical, Hemispherical, Conical, or Lambertian from the Ray

direction vector list in the physics feature Ray Direction Vector section.
• Locate the Total Source Power section. From the Intensity initialization
list, select an instance of the Photometric Data Import feature.
• Enter values or expressions for the Photometric horizontal and
Photometric zero directions.

Photometric Data Formatting

The format of the imported photometric data file must be consistent with
ANSI/IESNA LM-63-02 (R2008), IESNA Standard file format for the electronic
transfer of photometric data and related information, Illuminating Engineering
Society (2002).

Release
Use the Release node to release rays within domains based on arbitrary expressions or
based on the positions of the mesh elements.

RELEASE TIMES
This section is only available when the Allow multiple release times check box has been
selected in the physics interface Advanced Settings section. Enter Release times
(SI unit: s) or click the Range button ( ) to select and define a range of specific times.
At each release time, rays are released with initial position and ray direction vector as
defined next.

INITIAL POSITION
Select an Initial position: Density (the default) or Mesh based.

80 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

Density
For Density enter a value for the Number of rays per release N (dimensionless). The
default is 100. Then enter a value or expression for the Density proportional to ρ
(dimensionless). The default is 1.

The Density proportional to ρ can be an expression rather than a number; the resulting
ray distribution approximately has a number density that is proportional to this
expression. The resulting distribution looks a bit random, and it depends on the order
in which the mesh elements are numbered. The distribution is probably not exactly the
same in different COMSOL Multiphysics versions, but the total number of rays
released is always N.

The Density proportional to expression must be strictly positive.

Advanced Options for Density-Based Release

The following options can be adjusted to make the number density of rays more closely
conform to the Density proportional to expression.

Select a Release distribution accuracy order between 1 and 5 (the default is 5), which
determines the integration order that is used when computing the number of rays to
release within each mesh element. The higher the accuracy order, the more accurately
rays will be distributed among the mesh elements.

The Position refinement factor (default 0) must be a nonnegative integer. When the
refinement factor is 0, each ray is always assigned a unique position, but the density is
taken as a uniform value over each mesh element. If the refinement factor is a positive
integer, the distribution of rays within each mesh element is weighted according to the
density, but it is possible for some rays to occupy the same initial position. Further
increasing the Position refinement factor increases the number of evaluation points
within each mesh element to reduce the probability of multiple rays occupying the
same initial position.

Mesh Based
For Mesh based the rays are released from a set of positions determined by a selection
of geometric entities (of arbitrary dimension) in the mesh. Given a Refinement factor
between 1 and 5, the centers of the refined mesh elements are used. Thus, the number
of positions per mesh element is refine^dim, except for pyramids, where it is
2
(4*refine -1)*refine/3.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 81

 RAY DIRECTION VECTOR
Select an option from the Ray direction vector list: Expression (the default), Spherical,
Hemispherical, Conical, or Lambertian (3D only).

• For Expression a single ray is released in the specified direction. Enter coordinates
for the Ray direction vector L0 (dimensionless) based on space dimension.
• For Spherical a number of rays are released at each point, sampled from a spherical
distribution in wave vector space. Enter the Number of rays in wave vector space Nw
(dimensionless). The default is 50.
• For Hemispherical a number of rays are released at each point, sampled from a
hemispherical distribution in wave vector space. Enter the Number of rays in wave
vector space Nw (dimensionless). The default is 50. Then enter coordinates for the
Hemisphere axis r based on space dimension.
• For Conical a number of rays are released at each point, sampled from a conical
distribution in wave vector space. Enter the Number of rays in wave vector space Nw
(dimensionless). The default is 50. Then enter coordinates for the Cone axis r based
on space dimension. Then enter the Cone angle α (SI unit: rad). The default is
π/3 radians.
• The Lambertian option is only available in 3D. A number of rays are released at each
point, sampled from a hemisphere in wave vector space with probability density
based on the cosine law. Enter the Number of rays in wave vector space Nw
(dimensionless). The default is 50. Then enter coordinates for the Hemisphere axis r
based on space dimension.

If Conical is selected, select an option from the Conical distribution list: Uniform density
(the default), Specify polar and azimuthal distributions, Marginal rays only, or Marginal
and axial rays only.

• For Uniform density rays are released with polar angles from 0 to the specified cone
angle. The rays are distributed in wave vector space so that each ray subtends
approximately the same solid angle.
• For Specify polar and azimuthal distributions specify the Number of polar angles N φ
(dimensionless) and the Number of azimuthal angles Nθ (dimensionless). Rays are
released at uniformly distributed polar angles from 0 to the specified cone angle. A
single axial ray ( φ = 0 ) is also released. For each value of the polar angle, rays are
released at uniformly distributed azimuthal angles from 0 to 2π. Unlike other
options for specifying the conical distribution, it is not necessary to directly specify
the Number of rays in wave vector space Nw (dimensionless), which is instead derived
from the relation N w = N φ × N θ + 1 .

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• For Marginal rays only the rays are all released at an angle α with respect to the cone
axis. The rays are released at uniformly distributed azimuthal angles from 0 to 2π.
• For Marginal and axial rays only the rays are all released at an angle α with respect to
the cone axis, except for one ray which is released along the cone axis. The marginal
rays are released at uniformly distributed azimuthal angles from 0 to 2π.

Figure 3-3: Comparison of the four available cone-based release distributions.

For Spherical, Hemispherical, Conical, and Lambertian, select an option from the
Sampling from Distribution list: Deterministic (the default) or Random. If Deterministic is
selected, the initial ray direction vectors are computed using an algorithm that seeks to
distribute the rays as evenly as possible in wave vector space. This algorithm will give
the same initial ray directions whenever the study is run. If Random is selected, the
initial direction of each ray is sampled from a probability distribution in wave vector
space using pseudorandom numbers. The result may be the same when rerunning the
study multiple times on the same computer, but the solution is likely to be different
on different architectures.

INITIAL RAY FREQUENCY

This section is available when Polychromatic, specify frequency is selected from the
Wavelength distribution of released rays list in the physics interface Ray Release and
Propagation section.

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 Select a Distribution function: None (the default), Normal, Lognormal, Uniform, or List of
values.

When None is selected, enter an initial value ν0 (SI unit: Hz). The default value is
4.54 × 1014 Hz.

Select Normal to create a normal distribution function, Lognormal to create a

log-normal distribution function, or Uniform to create a uniform distribution function.
For any of these selections, the Number of values sets the number of points in the
distribution function. Enter a user-defined Mean (default 4.54 × 1014 Hz) and
Standard deviation (default 1014 Hz). Select List of values to enter a list of distinct
frequency values.

VACUUM WAVELENGTH
This section is available when Polychromatic, specify vacuum wavelength is selected from
the Wavelength distribution of released rays list in the physics interface Ray Release and
Propagation section.

Select a Distribution function: None (the default), Normal, Lognormal, Uniform, or List of
values.

When None is selected, enter a value or expression for the Vacuum wavelength λ0
(SI unit: m). The default is 660 nm. All rays released by this feature will have the same
wavelength.

Select Normal to create a normal distribution function, Lognormal to create a

log-normal distribution function, or Uniform to create a uniform distribution function.
For any of these selections, the Number of values sets the number of points in the
distribution function. Enter a user-defined Mean (default 660 nm) and Standard
deviation (default 100 nm). Select List of values to enter a list of distinct wavelength
values directly.

INITIAL PHASE
This section is available when the Compute phase check box is selected under the
physics interface Intensity Computation section. Enter an Initial phase Ψ0 (SI unit: rad).
The default value is 0.

INITIAL INTENSITY
This section is available when the ray intensity is solved for in the model and Expression
is selected as the Ray direction vector. Enter a value for the Initial intensity I0
(SI unit: W/m2). The default is 1000 W/m2.

84 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

INITIAL RADII OF CURVATURE
This section is available when the ray intensity is solved for in the model and Expression
is selected as the Ray direction vector. Select a Wavefront shape. In 3D the available
options are Plane wave (the default), Spherical wave, and Ellipsoid. In 2D the available
options are Plane wave (the default) and Cylindrical wave.

• For an idealized plane wave the radii of curvature would be infinite. However,
because the algorithm used to compute intensity requires finite values, when Plane
wave is selected the initial radii of curvature are instead given an initial value that is
108 times greater than the characteristic size of the geometry.
• For a Spherical wave or Cylindrical wave, enter the Initial radius of curvature r0
(SI unit: m).
• For an Ellipsoid, enter the Initial radius of curvature, 1 r1,0 (SI unit: m) and the Initial
radius of curvature, 2 r2,0 (SI unit: m). Also enter the Initial principal curvature
direction, 1 e1,0 (dimensionless).

Principal Radii of Curvature

INITIAL POLARIZATION
This section is available when the ray intensity or power is solved for.

Select an Initial polarization type: Unpolarized (the default), Fully polarized, or Partially
polarized.

Select an Initial polarization: Along principal curvature direction (the default) or User
defined.

• For Fully polarized and Partially polarized rays in 3D enter an Initial polarization
parallel to reference direction a1,0 (dimensionless), Initial polarization perpendicular
to reference direction a2,0 (dimensionless), and Initial phase difference δ0
(SI unit: rad).
• For Fully polarized and Partially polarized rays in 2D enter an Initial polarization, in
plane axy,1 (dimensionless), Initial polarization, out of plane az,0 (dimensionless), and
Initial phase difference δ0 (SI unit: rad).
• For User defined also enter an Initial polarization reference direction u
(dimensionless).

For Partially polarized, also enter an Initial degree of polarization P0 (dimensionless).

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 TOTAL SOURCE POWER
This section is available:

• when the ray intensity is solved for, and

• when Spherical, Hemispherical, or Conical is selected as the Ray direction vector.
• It is also available when the ray power is solved for, and then any choice of Ray
direction vector displays this section.

Select an option from the Intensity initialization list. By default Uniform distribution is
selected. If any Photometric Data Import nodes have been added to the model then
they can also be selected from the list.

If Uniform distribution is selected, enter a Total source power Psrc (SI unit: W). The
default is 1 W. In 2D, instead enter the Total source power per unit thickness Psrc
(SI unit: W/m). The default is 1 W/m. If any Photometric Data Import feature is
selected from the list, the source power is instead obtained directly from the imported
photometric data (IES) file. Enter values or expressions for the components of the
Photometric horizontal ph (dimensionless) and Photometric zero pz (dimensionless). By
default these vectors point in the positive x- and z-axes, respectively.

The relationship between the photometric horizontal, photometric

vertical, and ray direction vector, and its effect on the initial ray intensity,
is explained in ANSI/IESNA LM-63-02 (R2008), IESNA Standard file
format for the electronic transfer of photometric data and related
information, Illuminating Engineering Society (2002).

Currently the Photometric Data Import feature does not support the
options TILT=INCLUDE or TILT=<FILENAME> that are included in some
IES files. Only TILT=NONE is allowed.

INITIAL VALUE OF AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model.

For each of the Auxiliary Dependent Variable nodes added to the model, select a
Distribution function for the initial value of the auxiliary dependent variables and
whether the initial value of the auxiliary dependent variables should be a scalar value
or sampled from a distribution function.

86 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

The number of rays simulated can increase substantially and the following options are
available for each Auxiliary Dependent Variable added to the model.

When None is selected, enter an initial value. The symbol for the initial value is the
auxiliary variable name followed by a subscript 0, so for the default name rp the initial
value has symbol rp0.

For the initial value of the auxiliary dependent variables, select Normal to create a
normal distribution function, Lognormal to create a log-normal distribution function,
or Uniform to create a uniform distribution function. For any selection, the Number of
values sets the number of points in the distribution function. Enter a user-defined Mean
(default 0) and Standard deviation (default 1). Select List of values to enter a set of
numerical values directly.

By default auxiliary dependent variables are initialized after all other degrees of
freedom. Select the Initialize before wave vector check box to compute the initial value
of the auxiliary dependent variable immediately after computing the initial wave
vectors of the rays. By selecting this check box it is possible to define the initial ray
direction as a function of the auxiliary dependent variables.

Deposited Ray Power (Domain)

The Deposited Ray Power node is used to compute a heat source based on the
attenuation of rays as they propagate through a domain with a complex refractive
index. This feature is available when the ray power is solved for. The Deposited Ray
Power node defines a dependent variable with default name <name>.Qsrc, where
<name> is the name of the Geometrical Optics physics interface, for example
gop.Qsrc.

Attenuation Within Domains

Deposited Ray Power (Boundary)

When the ray power is solved for, the Deposited Ray Power subnode is available from
the context menu (right-click the Wall, parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu. The Deposited Ray Power subnode computes the total incident energy
flux on a surface based on the power of incident rays.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 87

 SMOOTHING
Select the Compute smoothed accumulated variable check box to enter a Smoothing
radius r (SI unit: m) The smoothing radius functions like the corresponding setting for
the Accumulator (Boundary) node.

Accumulator (Domain)
Use the Accumulator node to define additional degrees of freedom on a domain. Each
Accumulator defines a variable, called the accumulated variable, on each domain
element in the selection list. The values of the accumulated variables are determined
by the properties of rays in each domain element.

ACCUMULATOR SETTINGS
Select an Accumulator type: Density (default) or Count.

• For Density the accumulated variable is divided by the volume of the mesh element
where it is defined.
• For Count the accumulated variable is unaffected by the element size.

Select an option from the Accumulate over list: Elements (the default) or Elements and
time.

• For Elements the value of the accumulated variable in an element is the sum of the
source terms of all rays in that element. If the Accumulator type is set to Density, this
sum is divided by the mesh element volume.
• For Elements and time the time derivative of the accumulated variable in an element
is the sum of the source terms of all rays in that element. If the Accumulator type is
set to Density, this sum is divided by the mesh element volume. As each ray
propagates through a series of mesh elements, it leaves behind a contribution to the
accumulated variable that remains even after the ray has moved on.

Enter the Accumulated variable name. The default is rpd. The accumulated variable is
defined as <name>.<varname>, where <name> is the physics interface name and
<varname> is the accumulated variable name. For example, in an instance of the
Geometrical Optics interface with default name gopand default accumulated variable
name rpd, the variable would be named gop.rpd.

Enter a Source R. The unit of the source depends on the settings in the Units section.
The source term is used to calculate the accumulated variable in a manner specified by
the Accumulate over and Accumulator type settings.

88 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

If Elements and time is selected from the Accumulate over list, select an option from the
Source interpolation list: Constant, Linear (the default), Quadratic, or Exponential. The
Source interpolation determines what functional form the Source is assumed to follow
during each time step taken by the solver. This information is used to compute the
accumulated variable in mesh elements that the rays pass through during each time
step.

UNITS
Select a Dependent variable quantity from the list; the default is Dimensionless [1]. To
enter a unit, select None from the list and in the Unit field enter a value, for example, K,
m/s, or mol/m^3.

Nonlocal Accumulator
Use the Nonlocal Accumulator subnode to communicate information from a ray’s
current position to the position from which it was released.

The subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Inlet parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Each Nonlocal accumulator subnode defines a variable, called the accumulated variable,
that is computed using variables defined on rays released by the parent Inlet node or
on domains and boundaries encountered by such rays.

ACCUMULATOR SETTINGS
Select an Accumulator type: Density (default) or Count.

• For Density the accumulated variable is divided by the volume of the mesh element
where it is defined.
• For Count the accumulated variable is unaffected by the element size.

Select an option from the Accumulate over list: Elements (default) or Elements and
time.

• For Elements the accumulated variable is proportional to the instantaneous value of

the Source term R for all applicable rays.
• For Elements and time the time derivative of the accumulated variable is proportional
to the instantaneous value of the Source term R for all applicable rays, and thus the
accumulated variable considers the time history of rays in the modeling domain
instead of just their current values.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 89

 Enter the Accumulated variable name. The default is rpi.

Enter a Source R. The unit of the source depends on the settings in the Units section.
The source term is used to calculate the accumulated variable in a manner specified by
the Accumulate over and Accumulator type settings.

Select a Source geometric entity level: Domains, Boundaries, or Domains and boundaries.

• If Domains is selected, rays only contribute to the accumulated variable on their

releasing surface if they are still active; that is, they are still propagating through a
domain.
• If Boundaries is selected, the rays only contribute to the accumulated variable if they
have become stuck or frozen to a boundary somewhere in the model.
• If Domains and boundaries is selected, all of the active, stuck, and frozen rays released
by a feature can contribute to the accumulated variable.

UNITS
Select a Dependent variable quantity from the list; the default is Dimensionless [1]. To
enter a unit, select None from the list and in the Unit field enter a value, for example, K,
m/s, or mol/m^3.

SMOOTHING
Select the Compute smoothed accumulated variable check box to enter a Smoothing
radius r (SI unit: m). The default is 0.1 m.

Inlet
Use the Inlet node to determine how to release rays on an interior or exterior boundary
in a specific direction.

The Nonlocal Accumulator subnode is available from the context menu (right-click
the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

See Release for information on the following sections: Release Times, Initial Ray
Frequency, Vacuum Wavelength, Initial Phase, Initial Intensity, Total Source Power, Initial
Polarization, and Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

It is possible to specify the initial ray direction in terms of the global coordinates or in
another coordinate system defined for the model Component. Select an option from
the Coordinate system list. By default Global coordinate system is selected. If other

90 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

coordinate systems are defined, they can also be selected from the list. When specifying
the initial ray direction (see the Ray Direction Vector section), direction components can
be specified using the basis vectors of whichever coordinate system has been selected
from the list.

When a coordinate system other than Global coordinate system is selected from the
Coordinate system list, arrows will appear in the Graphics window to indicate the
orientation of the basis vectors of the coordinate system on the selected boundaries.

INITIAL POSITION
Select an Initial position: Uniform distribution (the default for 2D components)
Projected plane grid (the default for 3D components), Mesh based, or Density. Mesh
based and Density have the same settings as described for the Release node.

For 2D components, if Uniform distribution is selected, enter the Number

of rays per release N (dimensionless). The union of the selected
boundaries is divided into N segments of approximately equal length, and
a ray is placed in the middle of each segment.

For 3D components, if Projected plane grid is selected, enter the Number

of rays per release N (dimensionless). The rays are distributed on a plane
grid in planes that are approximately tangential to the selected boundaries
(for a plane boundary, you get a uniform distribution).

RAY DIRECTION VECTOR

Select an option from the Ray direction vector list: Expression (the default),
Hemispherical, Conical, or Lambertian (3D only).

• For Expression a single ray is released in the specified direction. Enter coordinates
for the Ray direction vector L0 (dimensionless) based on space dimension. Select the
Specify tangential and normal vector components check box to specify the initial
direction using a coordinate system based on the directions tangential and normal
to the surface (t1, t2, n).
• For Hemispherical a number of rays are released at each point, sampled from a
hemispherical distribution in wave vector space. Enter the Number of rays in wave
vector space Nw (dimensionless). The default is 50. Then enter coordinates for the
Hemisphere axis r based on space dimension. Select the Specify tangential and normal

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 91

 vector components check box to specify the hemisphere axis using a coordinate
system based on the directions tangential and normal to the surface (t1, t2, n).
• For Conical a number of rays are released at each point, sampled from a conical
distribution in wave vector space. Enter the Number of rays in wave vector space Nw
(dimensionless). The default is 50. Then enter coordinates for the Cone axis r based
on space dimension. Then enter the Cone angle α (SI unit: rad). The default is
π/3 radians. Select the Specify tangential and normal vector components check box to
specify the cone axis using a coordinate system based on the directions tangential
and normal to the surface (t1, t2, n).
• The Lambertian option is only available in 3D. A number of rays are released at each
point, sampled from a hemisphere in wave vector space with probability density
based on the cosine law. Enter the Number of rays in wave vector space Nw
(dimensionless). The default is 50. Then enter coordinates for the Hemisphere axis r
based on space dimension. Select the Specify tangential and normal vector
components check box to specify the hemisphere axis using a coordinate system
based on the directions tangential and normal to the surface (t1, t2, n)

When the Specify tangential and normal vector components check box is
selected, arrows indicating the normal direction on the selected
boundaries will appear in the Graphics window.

Note that the normal direction may be opposite the built-in variable for
the boundary normal (for example, nx, ny, and nz) to ensure that a
positive value causes rays to be released into the simulation domain. This
often occurs when the Inlet is applied to exterior boundaries.

When the normal direction used by the Inlet feature is opposite the
normal vector defined by the geometry, the tangential directions are
similarly inverted to ensure that the boundary coordinate system is
right-handed.

If Conical is selected, select an option from the Conical distribution list: Uniform density
(the default), Specify polar and azimuthal distributions, Marginal rays only, or Marginal
and axial rays only.

• For Uniform density rays are released with polar angles from 0 to the specified cone
angle. The rays are distributed in wave vector space so that each ray subtends
approximately the same solid angle.

92 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

• For Specify polar and azimuthal distributions specify the Number of polar angles N φ
(dimensionless) and the Number of azimuthal angles Nθ (dimensionless). Rays are
released at uniformly distributed polar angles from 0 to the specified cone angle. A
single axial ray ( φ = 0 ) is also released. For each value of the polar angle, rays are
released at uniformly distributed azimuthal angles from 0 to 2π. Unlike other
options for specifying the conical distribution, it is not necessary to directly specify
the Number of rays in wave vector space Nw (dimensionless), which is instead derived
from the relation Nw = N φ × Nθ + 1.
• For Marginal rays only the rays are all released at an angle α with respect to the cone
axis. The rays are released at uniformly distributed azimuthal angles from 0 to 2π.
• For Marginal and axial rays only the rays are all released at an angle α with respect to
the cone axis, except for one ray which is released along the cone axis. The marginal
rays are released at uniformly distributed azimuthal angles from 0 to 2π.

The four Conical distribution options are illustrated in Figure 3-3.

For Hemispherical, Conical, and Lambertian, select an option from the Sampling from
Distribution list: Deterministic (the default) or Random. If Deterministic is selected, the
initial ray direction vectors are computed using the same algorithm, which seeks to
distribute the rays as evenly as possible in wave vector space, whenever the study is run.
If Random is selected, the initial direction of each ray is sampled from a probability
distribution in wave vector space using pseudo-random numbers.

INITIAL RADII OF CURVATURE

This section is available when the ray intensity is solved for in the model and Expression
is selected as the Ray direction vector. Select a Wavefront shape. In 3D the available
options are From surface curvature (the default), Plane wave, Spherical wave, and
Ellipsoid. In 2D the available options are Plane wave (the default) and Cylindrical wave.

• For a Spherical wave or Cylindrical wave, enter the Initial radius of curvature r0
(SI unit: m).
• For an Ellipsoid (3D only), enter the Initial radius of curvature, 1 r1,0 (SI unit: m)
and the Initial radius of curvature, 2 r2,0 (SI unit: m). Also enter the Initial principal
curvature direction, 1 e1,0 (dimensionless).

Principal Radii of Curvature

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 93

 Inlet on Axis
Use the Inlet on Axis node to release rays from specified edges along the axis of
symmetry in a 2D axisymmetric geometry. It functions like the Inlet node, except that
it can only be applied to the axis of symmetry and that the options in the Ray Direction
Vector section are slightly different.

See Release for information on the following sections: Release Times, Initial Ray
Frequency, Vacuum Wavelength, Initial Phase, Initial Intensity, Initial Radii of Curvature,
Total Source Power, Initial Polarization, and Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables.

INITIAL POSITION
Select an Initial position: Uniform distribution (the default), Mesh based, or Density. Mesh
based and Density have the same settings as described for the Release node.

If Uniform distribution is selected, enter the Number of rays per release N

(dimensionless). The default is 100. The union of the selected boundaries is divided
into N segments of approximately equal length, and a ray is placed in the middle of
each segment.

RAY DIRECTION VECTOR

Select an option from the Ray direction vector list: Expression (the default), Spherical,
or Conical.

• For Expression a single ray is released in the specified direction. Enter the radial and
axial components of the Ray direction vector L0 (dimensionless).
• For Spherical a number of rays are released at each point, from the negative
z-direction to the positive z-direction in the half-plane with r > 0. These rays are
sampled from an anisotropic hemispherical distribution in wave vector space, so that
rays are more heavily weighted toward the r-direction rather than the ±z directions.
In 3D this would correspond to a spherical distribution of rays such that each ray
subtends approximately the same solid angle in wave vector space.
Enter the Number of rays in wave vector space Nw (dimensionless). The default is 50.
Then enter coordinates for the Hemisphere axis r based on space dimension. Select
the Specify tangential and normal vector components check box to specify the
hemisphere axis using a coordinate system based on the directions tangential and
normal to the surface (t1, t2, n).
• For Conical a number of rays are released at each point, sampled from a conical
distribution in wave vector space. Enter the Number of rays in wave vector space Nw
(dimensionless). The default is 50. Then enter coordinates for the Cone axis r based

94 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

 on space dimension. Then enter the Cone angle α (SI unit: rad). The default is
π/3 radians. Unlike the Spherical distribution, the rays in the Conical distribution
each subtend the same angle in 2D, not the same solid angle in 3D.

For Hemispherical and Conical, select an option from the Sampling from Distribution list:
Deterministic (the default) or Random. If Deterministic is selected, the initial ray
direction vectors are computed using the same algorithm, which seeks to distribute the
rays as evenly as possible in wave vector space, whenever the study is run. If Random is
selected, the initial direction of each ray is sampled from a probability distribution in
wave vector space using pseudo-random numbers.

Illuminated Surface
Use the Illuminated Surface node to release rays under the assumption that the emitted
rays are specularly reflected from an external radiation source. It is assumed that the
entire selected surface has direct line of sight to the external radiation source; that is,
shadowing due to other geometric entities is not taken into account.

See Release for information on the following sections: Release Times, Initial Ray
Frequency, Vacuum Wavelength, Initial Phase, Initial Polarization, and Initial Value of
Auxiliary Dependent Variables.

See Inlet for information on the following sections: Initial Position.

RAY DIRECTION VECTOR

Select the Rays to release: Reflected (the default) or Refracted.

• For Reflected select the Reflection coefficient specification: Using absorption coefficient
(the default) or Using refractive indices.
• For Refracted enter a value for Refractive index of exterior domains next
(dimensionless). The default is 1.

Select an Incident ray direction vector: User-defined direction (the default), User-defined
point source, or Solar radiation (3D components only).

Then based on the selection enter the applicable information:

• For User-defined direction enter the components of the Incident ray direction vector
Li (dimensionless) based on space dimension.
• For User-defined point source enter the Point source location rsrc (SI unit: m).
• For Solar radiation see Solar Radiation for information about the options.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 95

 ANGULAR PERTURBATIONS
If User-defined direction or Solar radiation is selected from the Incident ray direction
vector list, you can include small perturbation factors designed to take the finite size of
the sun (or another light source) into account. Select an option from the Corrections
for finite source diameter list: None (the default), Create light cones at release points, or
Sample from conical distribution.

• For None no perturbation to the initial ray direction is applied.

• For Create light cones at release points a cone-shaped distribution of rays is released
at each point. Enter a value for the Number of rays in wave vector space
(dimensionless) Nw (dimensionless). The default is 50. A cone-shaped distribution
containing Nw rays is released at each point, which may cause a very large number
of rays to be released.
• For Sample from conical distribution a single ray is released at each release point. This
ray is given a random perturbation with uniform probability density within a
cone-shaped distribution in wave vector space.

For Create light cones at release points and Sample from conical distribution, specify the
Maximum disc angle Ψm (SI unit: rad). The default is 4.65 mrad, approximately the size
of the solar disc when viewed from Earth.

For Create light cones at release points and Sample from conical distribution, select a Limb
darkening model: None (the default), Empirical power law, Linear, or User defined. The
limb darkening model is typically used to reduce the intensity of solar radiation that is
released from the periphery of the solar disk, relative to radiation that is released near
the center. For Linear enter a Limb darkening coefficient β (dimensionless). The default
value is 0.8. For User defined enter a Limb darkening coefficient fL (dimensionless). The
default value is 1.

Select the Include surface roughness check box to include an additional perturbation
term based on uncertainty in the orientation of the surface normal, which is common
in imperfect reflecting surfaces. Enter a value or expression for the Surface slope error
σφ (SI unit: rad). The default is 1 mrad. The surface normal is then perturbed by a
random angle, which is sampled from a Rayleigh distribution.

INCIDENT RAY INTENSITY

This section is available when the ray intensity is solved for. Enter a value for the
Incident ray intensity Ii (SI unit: W/m2). The default is 1000 W/m2.

96 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

TOTAL SOURCE POWER
This section is available:

• when the ray intensity is solved for, and

• when Spherical, Hemispherical, or Conical is selected as the Ray direction vector.
• It is also available when the ray power is solved for, and then any choice of Ray
direction vector displays this section.

Enter a Total source power Psrc (SI unit: W). The default is 1 W. In 2D, instead enter
the Total source power per unit thickness Psrc (SI unit: W/m). The default is 1 W/m.

Illuminated Surface Theory

Grating
Use the Grating node to treat a boundary as a diffraction grating that can release
reflected and transmitted rays of multiple diffraction orders. A Diffraction Order
subnode for reflected and transmitted rays of order m = 0 is added by default. Change
the settings for this default subnode to release rays of a different diffraction order. You
can also release rays of multiple diffraction orders from the same boundary by adding
more Diffraction Order subnodes from the from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

The Accumulator (Boundary) subnode is also available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Releasing Secondary Rays

When two or more rays are released from a Grating boundary, one of the released rays
uses the same degrees of freedom as the incident ray. The remaining degrees of
freedom must be preallocated in memory as secondary rays. The total number of
secondary rays that can be released in the model is controlled by the Maximum number
of secondary rays field in the physics interface Ray Release and Propagation section.

For example, if both reflected and transmitted rays of diffraction orders m = −1, m = 0,
and m = 1 are released from a boundary, then for every incident ray, a total of five
secondary rays are released. If the diffraction order m = −1 is the first subnode to
appear in the Model Builder, then the transmitted ray of order m = −1 uses the same
degree of freedom as the incident ray, and the other rays are secondary rays. If the
Maximum number of secondary rays is 500 and more than 100 rays interact with the

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 97

 grating, then no more secondary rays are emitted and a warning is generated by the
solver, indicating that the Maximum number of secondary rays should be increased.

DEVICE PROPERTIES
Select an option from the Rays to release list: Reflected and transmitted (the default),
Reflected, or Transmitted. Then enter the a Grating constant d (SI unit: m). The default
is 600 nm.

If the ray power is solved for, the Store total transmitted power and Store total reflected
power check boxes are shown. Select these check boxes to declare auxiliary dependent
variables for the total power of all transmitted and reflected diffraction orders,
respectively.

GRATING ORIENTATION

This section is only available in 3D. In 2D, the lines of the grating are
always assumed to point directly out of the plane, as shown in Figure 3-4.

Select an option from the Grating orientation list: Specify direction of grating lines
(the default) or Specify direction of periodicity.

• If Specify direction of grating lines is selected, select an option from the Direction of
grating lines list: User defined (the default) or Parallel to reference edge. For User
defined enter the components of the direction of grating lines Tl (dimensionless)
directly. The default is the positive x-axis. For Parallel to reference edge, the Reference
Edge Selection section is shown. Select a single edge, which must be adjacent to at
least one boundary in the selection for the Grating feature.
• If Specify direction of periodicity is selected, select an option from the Direction of
periodicity list: User defined (the default) or Parallel to reference edge. For User
defined enter the components of the direction of periodicity Tp (dimensionless)
directly. The default is the positive x-axis. For Parallel to reference edge, the Reference
Edge Selection section is shown. Select a single edge, which must be adjacent to at
least one boundary in the selection for the Grating feature.

The vectors Tl and Tp are illustrated in Figure 3-5, along with typical paths for
incident reflected, and transmitted rays.

98 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

Figure 3-4: Diagram of diffraction grating orientation in 2D.

Figure 3-5: Diagram illustrating the options to specify grating orientation in 3D.

Grating Theory

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 99

 Diffraction Order
Add the Diffraction Order subnode to the Grating feature. Each Diffraction Order
subnode can either release transmitted rays, reflected rays, or both transmitted and
reflected rays of the specified order, depending on the option selected from the Rays
to release list in the parent Grating node.

DEVICE PROPERTIES
Enter a Diffraction order m (dimensionless). The default is 0 for the first Diffraction
Order added. When more diffraction orders are added to the model, the new default is
the highest diffraction order currently present, plus 1.

When the ray intensity or power is solved for, enter the Reflectance R and the
Transmittance T (both dimensionless). If the reflectance or transmittance of a certain
diffraction order is exactly zero, that diffraction order will not be released.

AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES, REFRACTED RAY

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model. The settings are the same as for the Material Discontinuity feature.

AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES, REFLECTED RAY

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model. The settings are the same as for the Material Discontinuity feature.

Linear Polarizer
Use the Linear Polarizer node to define a linear polarizer on a boundary selection. Add
this node from the Optical Devices submenu when ray intensity or power is solved for
in the model. The Accumulator (Boundary) subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

DEVICE PROPERTIES
Select a Transmission axis specification:

• User defined (the default). Then enter coordinates for the Transmission axis T
(dimensionless).
• Parallel to reference edge (for 3D components). The Reference Edge Selection section
is then shown. Add an edge to this selection to specify the transmission axis

100 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

 orientation. Only a single edge may be selected. The edge must be adjacent to a
boundary in the physics feature selection.
• In-plane or Out-of-plane (for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components)

NEW VALUE OF AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model. The settings are the same as for the Wall feature.

Linear Polarizer Theory

Ideal Depolarizer
Use the Ideal Depolarizer node to reinitialize the Stokes parameters so that the
outgoing ray is completely unpolarized. Add this node from the Optical Devices
submenu when ray intensity or power is solved for in the model. The Accumulator
(Boundary) subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node)
or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

NEW VALUE OF AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model.

Ideal Depolarizer Theory

Linear Wave Retarder

Use the Linear Wave Retarder node to define a linear wave retarder on a boundary
selection. Add this node from the Optical Devices submenu when ray intensity or power
is solved for in the model. The Accumulator (Boundary) subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 101

 DEVICE PROPERTIES
Select a Fast axis specification:

• User defined (the default). Then enter coordinates for the Fast axis F
(dimensionless).
• Parallel to reference edge (for 3D components). The Reference Edge Selection section
is then shown. Add an edge to this selection to specify the fast axis orientation. Only
a single edge may be selected. The edge must be adjacent to a boundary in the
physics feature selection.
• In-plane or Out-of-plane (for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components)

For any selection, enter a value for the Retardance δ (SI unit: rad).

NEW VALUE OF AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model. The settings are the same as for the Wall feature.

Linear Wave Retarder Theory

Circular Wave Retarder

Use the Circular Wave Retarder node to define a circular wave retarder on a boundary
selection. Add this node from the Optical Devices submenu when ray intensity or power
is solved for in the model. The Accumulator (Boundary) subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.

DEVICE PROPERTIES
Enter a value for the Retardance δ (SI unit: rad).

By default the Sense of rotation depends on ray trajectory check box is not selected. This
means a positive value of the retardance always corresponds to clockwise rotation of
the polarization ellipse. Select the check box then a positive value of the retardance
corresponds to clockwise rotation of the polarization ellipse only when the ray crosses
the boundary in the direction indicated by the normal vector in the Graphics window.

102 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

The Reverse sense of rotation check box is available when the Sense of rotation depends
on ray trajectory check box is selected. Click to select this check box to reverse the
direction of the normal vector shown in the Graphics window.

NEW VALUE OF AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model. The settings are the same as for the Wall feature.

Circular Wave Retarder Theory

Mueller Matrix
Use the Mueller Matrix node to define Mueller matrices for customized optical
components. Add this node from the Optical Devices submenu when ray intensity or
power is solved for in the model. The Accumulator (Boundary) subnode is available
from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu.

DEVICE PROPERTIES
Select a Reference axis specification:

• User defined (the default). Then enter coordinates for the Reference axis R
(dimensionless).
• Parallel to reference edge (for 3D components). The Reference Edge Selection section
is then shown. Add an edge to this selection to specify the reference direction
orientation. Only a single edge may be selected. The edge must be adjacent to a
boundary in the physics feature selection.
• In-plane or Out-of-plane (for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components).

For any choice, select Isotropic (the default), Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic from
the list and then enter a value or expression for the Mueller matrix M in the matrix or
field.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 103

 NEW VALUE OF AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model. The settings are the same as for the Wall feature.

Theory of Mueller Matrices and Optical Components

Auxiliary Dependent Variable

Use the Auxiliary Dependent Variable node to solve additional first-order ordinary
differential equations for each ray released.

AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Enter a Field variable name. The default is rp and can be changed to anything provided
it does not conflict with the name of the variables for the position or momentum
degrees of freedom. The name should not conflict with other auxiliary dependent
variables.

Enter a Source R. The unit of the source depends on the unit of the auxiliary dependent
variable and the option selected from the Integrate list described below.

Select a way to Integrate the equation you have defined: With respect to time or Along
ray trajectory. If you are interested in the residence time of a group of rays in a given
system then you can set the Source to 1 and set Integrate to With respect to time. To
compute the length of the ray trajectory you can set the Source to 1 and set Integrate
to Along ray trajectories.

UNITS
These settings are the same as for Accumulator (Domain).

Release from Edge

Use the Release from Edge node to release rays from positions along a set of edges in a
3D geometry.

See Release for information on the following sections: Release Times, Ray Direction
Vector, Initial Ray Frequency, Vacuum Wavelength, Initial Phase, Initial Intensity, Initial
Radii of Curvature, Total Source Power, Initial Polarization, and Initial Value of Auxiliary
Dependent Variables.

104 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

INITIAL POSITION
Select an Initial position: Mesh based (the default), Uniform distribution, or Density. Mesh
based and Density have the same settings as described for the Release node. If Uniform
distribution is selected, enter the Number of rays per release N (dimensionless). The
union of the selected edges is divided into N segments of approximately equal length,
and a ray is released from the middle of each segment.

Release from Point

Use the Release from Point node to release rays from a set of points in a geometry. By
default one ray is released at every selected point, although it is possible to release
multiple rays at each point if the initial direction or an auxiliary dependent variable is
sampled from a distribution.

See Release for information on the following sections: Release Times, Ray Direction
Vector, Initial Ray Frequency, Vacuum Wavelength, Initial Phase, Initial Intensity, Initial
Radii of Curvature, Total Source Power, Initial Polarization, and Initial Value of Auxiliary
Dependent Variables.

Release from Point on Axis

The Release from Point on Axis feature is similar to the Release from Point feature,
except that it can only release rays from points along the axis of symmetry in a 2D
axisymmetric geometry.

See Inlet for information on the following sections: Ray Direction Vector.

For all other sections, see Release from Point.

Release from Grid

Use the Release from Grid node to release rays from a user-defined grid of points.

See Release for information on the following sections: Release Times, Ray Direction
Vector, Initial Ray Frequency, Vacuum Wavelength, Initial Phase, Initial Intensity, Initial
Radii of Curvature, Total Source Power, Initial Polarization, and Initial Value of Auxiliary
Dependent Variables.

INITIAL COORDINATES
Select an option from the Grid type list: All combinations (the default), Specified
combinations, Cylindrical (3D only), or Hexapolar (3D only).

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 Linear, Rectangular, and Arbitrary Grids
For All combinations and Specified combinations enter Initial coordinates based on space
dimension (qx,0, qy,0, and qz,0 for 3D components) for the ray positions or click the
Range button ( ) to select and define a range of specific coordinates.

If Specified combinations is selected, the number of initial coordinates entered for each
space dimension must be equal, and the total number of rays released is equal to the
length of one of the lists of initial coordinates. If All combinations is selected, the total
number of rays released is equal to the product of the lengths of each list of initial
coordinates.

For example, suppose a 2D component includes a Release from Grid node with the
following initial coordinates:

• qx,0 = range(0,1,3)
• qy,0 = range(2,2,8)

If All combinations is selected, a total of 16 rays will be released, including every possible
combination of the initial x- and y-coordinates. If Specified combinations is selected, 4
rays will be released with initial positions (0,2), (1,4), (2,6), and (3,8).

Cylindrical Grids
For Cylindrical, enter coordinates for the Center location qc (SI unit: m). By default, the
distribution is centered at the origin. Then enter the components of the Cylinder axis
direction rc (dimensionless). The rays will be released at specified radial distances and
angles in the plane containing the point qc and orthogonal to the direction rc.

Select an option from the Radial distribution list: Uniform radius intervals (the default),
Uniform number density, or User defined.

For Uniform radius intervals or Uniform number density enter a value or expression for
the Radius Rc (SI unit: m). The default is 1 m. Then enter a positive integer for the
Number of radial positions Nc (dimensionless). The default is 5.

For User defined enter a list of Radial coordinates qr (SI unit: m) directly. An arbitrary
number of radial coordinates can be entered in the list. The default is 1 m.

The effect of the Radial distribution setting on the resulting ray placement is illustrated
in Figure 3-6. For Uniform radius intervals, the distances between the concentric rings
of rays are all equal, but the number density of rays is greater at the center of the
distribution than at the outer edge. The option Uniform number density corrects this
imbalance by defining nonuniform increments in the radial position between the
concentric rings.

106 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

Enter a positive integer for the Number of angles N φ (dimensionless). The default is 10.

The total number of rays released (before accounting for distributions of ray direction
or auxiliary dependent variables at each release point) is Nc × N φ + 1 because a single
ray is also released at the center of the distribution.

Figure 3-6: Comparison of the cylindrical release in which rays are positioned at uniform
radius intervals (left), with uniform number density (center), or at user-defined radii
(right).

Hexapolar Grids
For Hexapolar, enter coordinates for the Center location qc (SI unit: m). By default, the
distribution is centered at the origin. Then enter the components of the Cylinder axis
direction rc (dimensionless). The rays will be released at specified radial distances and
angles in the plane containing the point qc and orthogonal to the direction rc.

Enter a value or expression for the Radius Rc (SI unit: m). The default is 1 m. Then
enter a positive integer for the Number of radial positions Nc (dimensionless). The
default is 5.

Unlike the Cylindrical grid types described in the previous section, each concentric ring
of the Hexapolar grid releases a different number of rays, as shown in Figure 3-7. One
ray is always released at the center. The first ring of rays surrounding the center has 6
rays arranged in a regular hexagon. Each ring of rays beyond the first has 6 more rays
than the ring preceding it, with the grid points arranged in a regular polygon. The
radius increments between consecutive rings are uniform.

The total number of grid points generated is

N grid = 1 + 3N c ( N c + 1 )

Thus the relationship between the number of radius intervals and the total number of
grid points is quadratic.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 107

 Figure 3-7: Comparison of hexapolar grids with 2 rings (left), 5 rings (middle), and 10
rings (right).

Release from Grid on Axis

The Release from Grid on Axis feature is similar to the Release from Grid feature, except
that it can only release rays from a grid of points along the axis of symmetry in a 2D
axisymmetric geometry; that is, qr,0 = 0 for all released rays.

See Inlet for information on the following sections: Ray Direction Vector.

For all other sections, see Release from Grid.

Release from Data File

Use a Release from Data File node to specify the initial ray position, direction, and values
of auxiliary dependent variables using data from a text file.

See Release for information on the following sections: Release Times, Initial Ray
Frequency, Vacuum Wavelength, Initial Phase, Initial Intensity, Initial Radii of Curvature,
Total Source Power, and Initial Polarization.

Formatting Guidelines for Files Containing Ray Data

The imported data file should be a text file (*.txt) arranged in a spreadsheet format;
that is, each row corresponds to a distinct ray and should have the same number of
columns as all other rows. Columns can be separated by spaces, tabs, or a combination
of the two. Begin a line with the percent (“%”) character to include comments or
empty lines in the data file.

For example, a data file containing the following text would release rays at the positions
(0.1, 0.2, 0.6) and (0.2, 0.4, 0.8) in a three-dimensional geometry:

% Ray release positions

108 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

 % qx0 qy0 qz0
0.1 0.2 0.6
0.2 0.4 0.8

INITIAL POSITION
Browse your computer to select a text file, then click Import to import the data. To
remove the imported data, click Discard. Enter the Index of first column containing
position data i to indicate which column represents the first coordinate of the ray
position vectors. The default value, 0, indicates the first column.

RAY DIRECTION VECTOR

Select an option from the Ray direction vector list: Expression (the default), From file,
Spherical, Hemispherical, Conical, or Lambertian (3D only).

• For From file, enter the Index of first column containing velocity data i. The default
is 3. The columns are zero-indexed; that is, an index of 0 corresponds to the first
column.
• For all other settings, the settings are the same as for the Release node.

INITIAL VALUE OF AUXILIARY DEPENDENT VARIABLES

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model.

For each of the active Auxiliary Dependent Variable nodes in the model, choose an
option from the Distribution function list: From file, None (the default), Normal,
Lognormal, Uniform, or List of Values.

• When From file is selected, enter the Index of column containing data. The default
value is 3. The columns are zero-indexed; that is, an index of 0 corresponds to the
first column.
For all other options, the settings are the same as for the Release node.

Ray Continuity
Use the Ray Continuity node to specify that rays should cross a pair boundary as if it
were invisible. Pair boundaries appear when the geometry sequence ends in Form
Assembly instead of Form Union. Such boundaries require special handling because the
mesh elements on either side of the pair boundary aren’t required to match up exactly.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 109

 PAIR SELECTION
Select one or more identity pairs to allow rays to cross between the source and
destination boundaries of these pairs. Such identity pairs are typically created
automatically on interior boundaries when the geometry sequence ends in a Form
Assembly node instead of a Form Union node.

The Ray Continuity node does not cause the ray position components to
change discontinuously; the source and destination boundaries for the
identity pairs must be overlapping.

If the geometry sequence ends in a Form Union node, the Ray Continuity
node usually isn’t necessary because rays can freely cross interior
boundaries where no boundary condition has been applied.

Solar Radiation
The Solar Radiation node uses the solar position to specify the initial direction vector
of rays. The node is selected from the Physics toolbar, Global menu.

See Release for information on the following sections: Release Times, Initial Ray
Frequency, Vacuum Wavelength, Initial Phase, and Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent
Variables.

INITIAL COORDINATES
These settings are the same as for the Release from Grid node.

North, West, and the up directions correspond to the x, y, and z

directions, respectively.

SOURCE
Select an option from the Location defined by list: Coordinates (the default) or City.

For City select a predefined city and country combination from the list. Click to select
the Include daylight saving time (Time zone + 1) check box to add one hour to the
default setting for the city selected. For example, if New York City, USA is selected and
the default standard time zone is UTC -5 hours. If the check box is selected, the
daylight savings time is used instead (UTC -4 hours). This feature doesn’t
automatically deduce whether daylight savings should be applied based on the selected
city and date; you must specify it explicitly.

110 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

If Coordinates is selected, or your city is not listed, in the Location table define the:

• Latitude, a decimal value, positive in the northern hemisphere (the default is Las
Vegas, USA latitude, 36.1). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion.
This is because the latitude value is expected to represent degrees but the model’s
unit for angles may be different (for example, the SI unit for the angle is radians).
• Longitude, a decimal value, positive at the East of the Prime Meridian (the default is
Las Vegas, USA longitude, -115.2). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the latitude value is expected to represent degrees but
the model’s unit for angles may be different (for example, the SI unit for the angle
is radians).
• Time zone, the number of hours to add to UTC to get local time (the default is Las
Vegas, USA time zone, -8). For example in New York City, USA the time zone is UTC
-5 hours (standard time zone) or UTC -4 hours (with daylight savings time).

For either selection, in the Date table enter the:

• Day, the default is 01. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion. This
is because the value is expected to represent days but the model’s unit for time may
be different (for example, the SI unit for time is second).
• Month, the default is 10 (October). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the value is expected to represent months but the
model’s unit for time may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is second).
• Year, the default is 2014. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion.
This is because the value is expected to represent years but the model’s unit for time
may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is second). The solar position is
accurate for a date between 2000 and 2199.

For either selection, in the Local time table enter the:

• Hour, the default is 12. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion. This
is because the value is expected to represent hours but the model’s unit for time may
be different (for example, the SI unit for time is second).

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 • Minute, the default is 0. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion.
This is because the value is expected to represent minutes but the model’s unit for
time may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is second).
• Second, the default is 0.

The sun position is updated if the location, date, or local time changes
during a simulation. Because the time scale of ray propagation is typically
many orders of magnitude smaller than the time scale for significant
changes in solar position, modeling ray propagation at different times of
day typically requires a Parametric Sweep over the larger time scale. Note
that no validity range is prescribed on the time inputs. It is possible to
enter values that exceed the expected boundary. For example, entering 5h
2min 81s is equivalent to 5h 3min 21s. This makes it easier, for example,
to run a Parametric Sweep over the time of day using only a single
parameter.

For either selection, in the Solar irradiance field Is (SI unit: W/m2) define the incident
radiative intensity coming from the sun.

ANGULAR PERTURBATIONS
Select an option from the Corrections for finite source diameter list: None (the default),
Create light cones at release points, or Sample from conical distribution.

• For None no perturbation to the initial ray direction is applied.

• For Create light cones at release points a cone-shaped distribution of rays is released
at each point. Enter a value for the Number of rays in wave vector space
(dimensionless) Nw (dimensionless). The default is 50. A cone-shaped distribution
containing Nw rays is released at each point, which may cause a very large number
of rays to be released.
• For Sample from conical distribution a single ray is released at each release point. This
ray is given a random perturbation with uniform probability density within a
cone-shaped distribution in wave vector space.

For Create light cones at release points and Sample from conical distribution, specify the
Maximum disc angle Ψm (SI unit: rad). The default is 4.65 mrad.

For Create light cones at release points and Sample from conical distribution, select a Limb
darkening model: None (the default), Empirical power law, Linear, or User defined. The
limb darkening model is typically used to reduce the intensity of solar radiation that is

112 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

released from the periphery of the solar disk, relative to radiation that is released near
the center. For Linear enter a Limb darkening coefficient β (dimensionless). The default
value is 0.8. For User defined enter a Limb darkening coefficient fL (dimensionless). The
default value is 1.

The options for accounting for finite source diameter and solar limb
darkening are discussed in the Illuminated Surface Theory section.

Ray Termination
Use the Ray Termination feature to remove rays from the model as they exit the
geometry, or to annihilate rays of sufficiently low intensity or power. Only one Ray
Termination node can be added to the model, but it is possible to combine
position-based and intensity-based criteria for removing rays if the ray intensity or
power is computed by the model.

TERMINATION CRITERIA
Select an option from the Spatial extents of ray propagation list: Bounding box, from
geometry (the default), Bounding box, user defined, or None. This list controls whether
rays are terminated based on their positions.

• For Bounding box, from geometry, a ray is immediately terminated if it reaches the
surface of the bounding box of the geometry, defined as the smallest rectangle or
rectangular prism with edges parallel to the axes of the global coordinate system that
encloses all of the geometric entities. This bounding box is extended by 5% in each
direction so that rays can still interact with boundaries that coincide with the
perimeter of the bounding box. Therefore rays can propagate a short distance away
from the geometry before disappearing.
• For Bounding box, user defined, a ray is immediately terminated if it reaches the
surface of a box of user-specified dimensions. To define the box, enter maximum
and minimum values of each spatial coordinate.
• For None, the rays that propagate outward from the geometry will continue to
propagate until the study is complete. If the maximum path length for the
Ray Tracing study step is too large, this may result in trajectories that are extremely
long relative to the characteristic geometry size.

If rays are released from outside the bounding box, they won’t immediately disappear;
instead, they will only disappear if they enter the bounding box and then exit it again.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 113

 Intensity- and Power-Based Termination Criteria
If the ray intensity or power is being computed in the model, you can then terminate
rays based on either or both of these quantities.

Select an option from the Additional termination criteria list. None (the default) is always
available. If ray intensity is solved for, then Intensity is available. If ray power is solved
for, then Power is available. If both ray intensity and power are solved for, the Intensity
and Power option is also shown.

• For Intensity or Intensity and power, enter the Threshold intensity Ith
(SI unit: W/m2). The default is 1e-3[W/m^2]. Rays will be removed from the
model if their intensity decreases below the specified value.
• For Power or Intensity and power, enter the Threshold power Qth (SI unit: W). The
default is 1e-3[mW].

The Ray Termination feature can terminate rays at the exact time at which
their intensity or power reaches the specified threshold (to within
numerical precision), if there exists a closed-form analytic expression for
this time. Such a closed-form analytic solution exists if:

• The rays represent planar wavefronts in an absorbing medium, or

• The rays represent spherical or ellipsoidal wavefronts in a
non-absorbing medium.

Otherwise, the rays are stopped at the first discrete time step taken by the
solver for which the intensity or power is less than the threshold value.

Ray Termination Theory

Ray Detector
Use the Ray Detector feature to compute information about rays that are located in a
set of selected domains or on a set of selected boundaries. The detector may detect all
rays or only the rays released by a specified release feature. Computed variables are the
number of rays transmitted, the transmission probability, and a logical expression
which can be used to filter the rendered rays during results processing.

114 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

The Ray Detector feature is also capable of computing the total transmitted ray power.
If the ray power is solved for, then a global variable for the total power transmitted to
the detector is available.

RAY DETECTOR
Select an option from the Release feature list: All (the default), or any of the features
which are capable of releasing rays. When All is selected, the variables computed are
summed over all release features in the model.

THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 115

 Theory for the Geometrical Optics
Interface
The Geometrical Optics Interface theory is described in this section:

• Introduction to Geometrical Optics

• Optical Dispersion Models
• Thermo-Optic Dispersion Models
• Material Discontinuity Theory
• Intensity, Wavefront Curvature, and Polarization
• Wavefront Curvature Calculation in Graded Media
• Refraction in Strongly Absorbing Media
• Attenuation Within Domains
• Ray Termination Theory
• Illuminated Surface Theory
• Theory of Mueller Matrices and Optical Components
• Thin Dielectric Film Theory
• Grating Theory
• Interference Pattern Theory
• Monochromatic Aberrations and Zernike Polynomials
• Accumulator Theory: Domains
• Accumulator Theory: Boundaries
• References for the Geometrical Optics Interface

Introduction to Geometrical Optics

Assume that the electric field E of an electromagnetic wave can be represented in the
form

E = ae iΨ

116 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

where a is the slowly varying amplitude and the phase Ψ is a function of the position
vector q and time t. If the field is observed only at locations that are very far from any
source, the phase can be expressed as

Ψ = k ⋅ q – ωt + α

where k is the wave vector, ω is the angular frequency, and α is an arbitrary phase shift.
In an isotropic medium, the wave vector and the angular frequency are further related
by the expression

ck
ω = ------------
n(q)

where n(q) is the refractive index of the medium. It follows that the wave vector and
angular frequency can be expressed in terms of the phase:

∂Ψ ∂Ψ
k = -------- ω = – --------
∂q ∂t

Following Landau and Lifshitz in Ref. 1, the wave vector and frequency are analogous
to the generalized momentum p and Hamiltonian H of a solid particle,

∂S ∂S
p = ------- H = – -------
∂q ∂t

where S is the integral of the Lagrangian along the particle’s trajectory. From this
analogy, it follows that the ray trajectory can be computed by solving six coupled
first-order ordinary differential equations for the components of k and q:

∂ω
------- = ∂ω
dk dq
-------- = – ------- -------
dt ∂q dt ∂k

In regions of constant refractive index, the simplified equations of motion are:

dk dq ck
-------- = 0 ------- = ----------
dt dt n k

These first-order equations for the ray trajectory are only valid in regions that are many
wavelengths away from any point source; that is, Ψ » 1 .

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 117

 Optical Dispersion Models
The Refractive index, real part, n (dimensionless) may be expressed as a function of
wavelength using an optical dispersion model. Each model requires a set of coefficients
to be specified. These can be determined, for example, by making a least squares fit to
a set of refractive index measurements at discrete wavelengths.

At least one optical dispersion model (Temperature-dependent Sellmeier) allows the

refractive index to be expressed as a function of both wavelength and temperature. All
other optical dispersion models may be used together with a thermo-optic dispersion
model to calculate temperature-dependent indices. This is discussed in Thermo-Optic
Dispersion Models.

RELATIVE VS. ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDICES

It is important to appreciate that the refractive indices given by manufacturers are often
relative to air at a certain temperature and pressure. Therefore, each of the optical
dispersion models (except Temperature-dependent Sellmeier) require a reference
temperature Tref (SI unit: K) and pressure Pref (SI unit: Pa) to be specified. This is
interpreted to be the temperature and pressure of the air in which the refractive indices
used to generate the model were measured. The reference pressure is absolute. If the
reference pressure Pref ≠ 0, then it is assumed that the dispersion model will give
relative refractive indices nrel (dimensionless). The conversion of refractive index from
relative (nrel) to absolute (n) is made using a model for the refractive index of air
(nair). That is,

n = n rel × n air .

The model, described in Ref. 2, used to calculated the refractive index of air is

n air, STP ( λ ) – 1 P
n air ( λ, T, P ) = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
- ----------
- ,
1 + 3.4785 ×10 ( T – T std ) P std
–3

where T = Tref and P = Pref and nair,STP is the refractive index of air at standard
temperature and pressure. By definition, the standard temperature is Tstd = 15 °C and
the standard pressure is Pstd = 101,325 Pa and then (with a CO2 concentration of
0.03%) nair,STP is given by

–8  2,949,810λ - 25,540λ
2 2
n air, STP ( λ ) = 1 + 10 ×  6432.8 + -------------------------------- + ------------------------  .
2 2
 146λ – 1 41λ – 1 

118 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

OPTICAL DISPERSION MODELS
The built-in optical dispersion models are listed in Table 3-3.
TABLE 3-3: LIST OF OPTICAL DISPERSION MODELS

NAME EXPRESSION

Cauchy B C
n rel = A + -----2- + -----4-
λ λ
Conrady B C
n rel = A + ---- + ---------
-
λ λ 3.5
Herzberger A1 A2 2 4
n rel = A 0 + --------------------------- + ----------------------------------
2 2
+ A3 λ + A4 λ
2
λ – 0.028 ( λ – 0.028 )
Schott
2 2 A2 A3 A4 A5
n rel = A 0 + A 1 λ + ------2- + ------4- + ------6- + ------8-
λ λ λ λ
Schott
2 2 4 A3 A4 A5 A6 A A
extended - + ------- + ------- + -------7- + -------8-
n rel = A 0 + A 1 λ + A 2 λ + ------2- + ------
4 6 8 10 12
λ λ λ λ λ λ
Sellmeier 2 2 2
2 A1 λ A2 λ A3 λ
n rel = 1 + ------------------
2
- + ------------------
2
- + ------------------
2
-
λ – B1 λ – B2 λ – B3

Sellmeier 2 2 2 2
n rel – 1 A1 λ A2 λ A3 λ
modified, -------------------
- = ------------------
- + ------------------
- + ------------------
-
2 2 2 2
type 1 n rel + 2 λ – B1 λ – B2 λ – B3

Sellmeier 2 2
2 B1 λ B2 λ
modified, n rel = A + ------------------
2
- + ------------------
2
-
type 2 λ – C1 λ – C2

Temperature 2
3 4 4
S i ( T )λ
   λij Tj
- dependent j
n2 = 1 + --------------------------
- , Si ( T ) = S ij T , λ i ( T ) =
Sellmeier 2 2
i = 1 λ – λi ( T ) j=0 j=0

All optical dispersion models assume that coefficients have been determined with
expressions where the wavelengths have units of μm. For example, in the Schott
model, the coefficients have units 1, μm, μm2, μm3, and so on. The input wavelength
can still have any unit; the normalization to microns is done automatically.

The Temperature-dependent Sellmeier model (Ref. 3, Ref. 4) assumes coefficients based

on absolute temperature specified in Kelvin (K).

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 119

 Thermo-Optic Dispersion Models
The Refractive index, real part, n (dimensionless) may be expressed as a function of
both wavelength and temperature by using an expression of the form

n (λ,T) = n ( λ ) + Δn (λ,T) .

The wavelength-dependent (non-temperature-dependent) component of this

equation, n(λ), might be any one of the optical dispersion models discussed above, or
it could be specified by other means. The change in refractive index as a function of
temperature, Δn(λ,Τ) can be computed using a thermo-optic dispersion model.

SCHOTT THERMO-OPTIC DISPERSION MODEL

An expression for the change in refractive index as a function of temperature, Δn(λ,T)
is given in Ref. 5. It may be derived by integrating the dispersion formula for the
thermo-optic coefficient (dn/dT). That is,

2
dn (λ,T)- n (λ,T 0) – 1  2 E 0 + 2E 1 ΔT
------------------- = -------------------------------  D 0 + 2D 1 ΔT + 3D 2 ΔT + --------------------------------,
dT 2n (λ,T 0)  2
λ –λ
2

TK

which gives

2
n (λ,T 0) – 1  2 3 E 0 ΔT + E 1 ΔT 
Δn (λ,T) = -----------------------------  D 0 ΔT + D 1 ΔT + D 2 ΔT + ---------------------------------------
- .
2n (λ,T 0)  λ –λ
2 2

TK

In the above formula T0 is the reference temperature against which the temperature
difference ΔT = T - T0 is computed and D0, D1, D2, E0, E1, and λTK, are glass specific
coefficients.

Initial Conditions: Direction

There are several options available for specifying the initial direction of rays. These
options work by assigning values to the degrees of freedom corresponding to the wave
vector k (SI unit: rad/m) of each ray.

EXPRESSION
The default is to enter an expression for the Ray direction vector L0 (dimensionless).
This vector need not have a magnitude of unity because it is always normalized
automatically. The initial wave vector is

120 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

 ωnL 0
k = ---------------
c L0

where ω (SI unit: rad/s) is the angular frequency, c = 299,792,458 m/s is the speed of
light in a vacuum, and n (dimensionless) is the refractive index.

SPHERICAL
When Spherical is selected the initial wave vectors are sampled from a distribution in
wave vector space at each release point. The number of rays released from each point
is usually equal to the specified value Nw (dimensionless), although it may be larger if
the initial values of any auxiliary dependent variables are also sampled from a
distribution.

In 2D the initial wave vector components are

ωn
k x = -------- cos θ
c
ωn
k y = -------- sin θ
c

where θ goes from 0 to 2π in Nw steps. In 3D the initial wave vector components are
sampled according to the expressions

ωn
k x = -------- cos θ sin ϕ
c
ωn
k y = -------- sin θ sin ϕ
c
ωn
k z = -------- cos ϕ
c

The azimuthal angle θ is uniformly distributed from 0 to 2π. The polar angle ϕ is
sampled from the interval [0, π] with probability density proportional to sin ϕ. The
polar angle is arbitrarily chosen as the angle that the initial wave vector makes with the
positive z-axis, but any direction could be chosen because the sphere is isotropic.
Therefore each ray subtends approximately the same solid angle in wave vector space.

HEMISPHERICAL
The Hemispherical option is the same as the Spherical option, except that in 2D θ goes
from 0 to π and in 3D ϕ goes from 0 to π/2. The angle (θ in 2D or ϕ in 3D) is measured
from the direction given by the Hemisphere axis setting.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 121

 CONICAL
The Conical option is the same as the Spherical option, except that in 2D θ goes from
0 to α and in 3D ϕ goes from 0 to α. The angle (θ in 2D or ϕ in 3D) is measured from
the direction given by the Cone axis setting.

LAMBERTIAN
The Lambertian option releases rays within a hemisphere in 3D, but the probability
distribution function is different from that of the Hemispherical option. Recall that for
an isotropic hemispherical distribution the polar angle ϕ has a probability density
proportional to sin ϕ; for the Lambertian distribution the probability density is instead
proportional to sin ϕ cos ϕ. Because of this extra cosine term, distributions following
this probability density are said to follow Lambert’s cosine law.

Material Discontinuity Theory

At a Material Discontinuity between two different media, the wave vector is
reinitialized using Snell’s law. First, the angle of incidence θi is computed:

ni ⋅ ns
θ i = acos  -----------------
 ni ns 

where ni is a unit vector in the direction of the incident ray and ns is a unit vector
normal to the material discontinuity.

At a boundary between two isotropic, non-absorbing media, the refracted ray

propagates in the direction nt given by the following relations:

n t = ηn i + γn s

γ = – η cos θ i + cos θ t

n1
η = ------
n2

θ t = asin ( η sin θ i )

where the ray propagates from the medium with refractive index n1 into the medium
with refractive index n2. Because the two media are non-absorbing, the quantities n1,
n2, θi, and θt are real-valued. If the media are weakly absorbing, the real parts of n1
and n2, are used. If the media are strongly absorbing, several corrections to Snell’s law

122 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

and the Fresnel equations must be made, as discussed in Refraction in Strongly
Absorbing Media.

If the maximum number of secondary rays has not yet been released, a reflected ray is
also released at the material discontinuity with the initial direction

n r = n i – 2n s cos θ i

If the ray intensity is computed, the release of secondary rays may be suppressed when
the intensity of the reflected ray is less than the user-defined Threshold intensity Ith
(SI unit: W/m2). Similarly, when ray power is computed, a Threshold power Qth
(SI unit: W) can be specified.

Intensity, Wavefront Curvature, and Polarization

The following describes the algorithm used to compute the ray intensity and
polarization when Intensity computation is set to Compute intensity or Compute intensity
and power in the physics interface Intensity Computation section. In this algorithm, each
ray is treated as a propagating wavefront subtending a small solid angle. The algorithm
is only valid when the rays propagate in homogeneous media. The following auxiliary
dependent variables are defined for each ray:

In 3D:

• The initial ray intensity I0 and normalized Stokes parameters sn1, sn2, and sn3. By
allocating four degrees of freedom in this way it is possible to characterize any
intensity magnitude and polarization state.
• The integral A of the attenuation coefficient along the ray path.
• Two initial principal radii of curvature, r1,i and r2,i.
• Two principal radii of curvature, r1 and r2, which represent the maximum and
minimum radii of curvature of the intersection of the wavefront with an arbitrary
plane.
• Three components of a unit vector e1 in the direction corresponding to the first
principal radius of curvature. This information is used to reinitialize the principal
radii of curvature at curved boundaries.

In 2D:

• The initial ray intensity I0 and normalized Stokes parameters sn1, sn2, and sn3.
• The integral A of the attenuation coefficient along the ray path.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 123

 • One initial principal radius of curvature, r1,i.
• One radius of curvature r1 of the wavefront. All wavefronts are assumed to be
converging or diverging cylindrical waves, so it is not necessary to define a second
radius of curvature.

A different algorithm is used to compute the intensity and polarization of each ray if
the Intensity computation is instead set to Compute intensity in graded media or Compute
intensity and power in graded media. This algorithm accounts for the effect of graded
media on the ray intensity, but it is also slower and less accurate for homogeneous
media. The following auxiliary dependent variables are defined for each ray:

In 3D:

• The intensity help variable Γ and the normalized Stokes parameters sn01, sn02, and
sn03, which characterize the intensity and polarization of the ray. They are
reinitialized at material discontinuities and walls.
• The integral A of the attenuation coefficient along the ray path.
• Two principal curvature calculation help variables α1 and α2 and the rotation angle
φ which indicates the orientation of the principal curvature directions. An
additional help variable is used internally to detect poles in the local coordinate
system definition and to redefine the local coordinate system accordingly.
In 2D:

• The intensity help variable Γ and the normalized Stokes parameters sn01, sn02, and
sn03, which characterize the intensity and polarization of the ray. They are
reinitialized at material discontinuities and walls.
• The integral A of the attenuation coefficient along the ray path.
• One principal curvature calculation help variable α1.

For the options Compute Power, Compute intensity and power, and Compute intensity
and power in graded media an additional auxiliary dependent variable is defined to
indicate the total power transmitted by each ray. Like intensity, power is affected by
absorbing media and by reflection or refraction at boundaries. Unlike intensity, power
doesn’t change due to the focusing or divergence of a ray bundle.

THE STOKES PARAMETERS

The four Stokes parameters completely characterize the intensity and polarization of a
fully polarized, partially polarized, or unpolarized ray. The Stokes parameters can be
interpreted as indicators of the ray intensity that would be measured when sending a
ray through various arrangements of polarizers and wave retarders.

124 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

The Stokes parameters of a ray are defined as in Ref. 6 as follows. Consider a ray
propagating along the z-axis of a Cartesian coordinate system, with electric field
components polarized within the xy-plane. In 3D models the x-axis is parallel to the
first principal curvature direction e1. In 2D models the x-axis is always oriented in the
out-of-plane direction.

Let I(θ,ε) be the intensity of radiation polarized in the xy-plane at an angle θ

counterclockwise from the x-axis, when a phase angle of ε is introduced between the
x- and y-components. For example, I(0,0) is the intensity that would be measured after
sending a ray through a linear polarizer with a transmission axis parallel to the x-axis,
and I(π/4,π/2) is the intensity that would be measured after sending a ray through a
system of polarizers and wave retarders that only transmits radiation with right-handed
circular polarization. The four Stokes parameters are then defined as follows:

• s 0 = I ( 0, 0 ) + I ( π ⁄ 2, 0 ) is the sum of the intensity of linearly polarized light in the

x- and y-directions. It represents the total intensity of the ray.
• s 1 = I ( 0, 0 ) – I ( π ⁄ 2, 0 ) is the difference in intensity between light that is linearly
polarized in the x-direction and light that is linearly polarized in the y-direction.
• s 2 = I ( π ⁄ 4, 0 ) – I ( 3π ⁄ 4, 0 ) is the difference in intensity between linearly
polarized light in the direction of the line y = x and linearly polarized light in the
direction of the line y = −x.
• s 3 = I ( π ⁄ 4, π ⁄ 2 ) – I ( 3π ⁄ 4, π ⁄ 2 ) is the difference in intensity between light with
right-handed circular polarization and light with left-handed circular polarization.

For example, a ray with linear polarization parallel to the x-axis has Stokes parameters
s0 = s1 = I and s2 = s3 = 0. A fully polarized ray is characterized by the relation

s 02 = s 12 + s 22 + s 32

A partially polarized or unpolarized ray is characterized by the relation

s 02 ≥ s 12 + s 22 + s 32

The degree of polarization P is defined as

s 12 + s 22 + s 32
P = ----------------------------------
s0

A degree of polarization P = 1 corresponds to fully polarized radiation, whereas a

degree of polarization P = 0 corresponds to unpolarized radiation.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 125

 In the COMSOL implementation of ray intensity calculation, the degrees of freedom
are not the Stokes parameters themselves, but rather normalized Stokes parameters
sn1, sn2, and sn3. Then the actual Stokes parameters are recovered through the
relations s1 = Isn1, s2 = Isn2, and s3 = Isn3. The reason for this decoupling is that the
normalized Stokes parameters remain bounded, enabling accurate reinitialization of
ray power, even if a ray is reflected or refracted very close to a caustic, where the
intensity (in the geometrical optics limit) can become arbitrarily large.

PRINCIPAL RADII OF CURVATURE

In 3D models, each ray is treated as a wavefront for which two principal radii of
curvature, r1 and r2, are defined. In addition, the values of the two principal radii of
curvature are stored as r1,i and r2,i whenever the ray reaches a boundary.

Within domains, the equations

dr 1 dr
--------- = – 1 --------2- = – 1
ds ds

are solved. Negative radii of curvature indicate that the wavefront is expanding as the
ray propagates, while positive radii of curvature indicate that the wavefront is
converging. A continuous locus of points at which either of the principal radii of
curvature equals zero is called a caustic surface. The unit vector e1 is defined so that
r1 is the radius of curvature of the intersection of the wavefront with the plane tangent
to e1 and the wave vector k. Similarly, if a vector e2 is defined so that

k × e1
e 2 = ------------------
k × e1

Then r2 is the radius of curvature of the intersection of the wavefront with a plane
tangent to e2 and k. The components of e1 are stored as auxiliary dependent variables
for each ray. The components of e2 can then be derived from e1 and k at any time.

The principal radii of curvature are reinitialized at material discontinuities, and the
orientation of the unit vectors e1 and e2 may change. If the unit vector in the direction
of the incident ray ni is not parallel to the surface normal ns, then it is possible to
define a unique tangent plane, called the plane of incidence, that contains the incident,
reflected, and refracted rays. The unit vector normal to this plane, u0, is defined as

ni × ns
u 0 = --------------------
ni × ns

126 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

If the ray is normal to the surface, then the incident ray is parallel to the refracted ray
and antiparallel to the reflected ray, and u0 can be any arbitrary unit vector orthogonal
to ni. In addition to the unit vector normal to the plane of incidence, the following
unit vectors tangent to the incident wavefront, refracted wavefront, reflected
wavefront, and surface normal are defined:

ui = ni × u0
ut = nt × u0
ur = nr × u0
us = ns × u0

where the subscripts i, t, and r denote the incident, refracted, and reflected wavefronts,
respectively. For a wavefront propagating in a direction n, with principal curvatures
k1 = 1/r1 and k2 = 1/r2 defined for directions e1 and e2, respectively, the principal
curvatures in two other orthogonal directions e 1' and e 2' (both orthogonal to n) are

k 1' = k 1 cos2 θ + k 2 sin2 θ (3-1)

k 2' = k 1 sin2 θ + k 2 cos2 θ
k 12' = ( k 1 – k 2 ) cos θ sin θ

where θ is the angle of rotation about n which transforms the vectors e1 and e2 to e 1'
and e 2' , respectively. Because k 1' and k 2' are not principal curvatures, it is necessary
to include off-diagonal elements of the wavefront curvature tensor equal to k 12' .

The following algorithm is used to reinitialize the principal radii of curvature of the
wavefront and their orientations. The reinitialization of the curvature variables follows
the method of Stavroudis in Ref. 7.

1 Given ni and ns, compute unit vectors in the directions of the reflected and
refracted rays, nr and nt.
2 Compute the vectors u0, ui, ut, ur, and us.
3 Compute the angle of rotation θ(i) needed to transform the local coordinate system
with axes parallel to e1, e2, and ni to a local coordinate system with axes parallel to
u0, ui, and ni. (Note: the superscript (i) is used to distinguish this coordinate system
rotation angle from the angle of incidence of the ray, often denoted θi.)
4 Transform the principal curvatures to the local coordinate system defined by u0, ui,
and ni by using Equation 3-1, substituting θ(i) for θ.
5 Given the two principal curvatures of the surface, k1,s and k2,s with directions e1,s
and e2,s, transform the curvature variables to a local coordinate system with axes

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 127

 parallel to u0, us, and ns. Let the new curvature variables be denoted by k 1, s' ,
k 2, s' , and k 12, s' .
6 The curvatures of the wavefront and the surface have now been defined in
coordinate systems that share the axis u0 and only differ by a rotation by the angle
of incidence θi about u0. Defining the variables η and γ as in Material Discontinuity
Theory, compute the curvature variables of the refracted ray in a coordinate system
defined by u0, ut, and nt using the equations

k 1, t' = ηk 1' + γk 1, s'

η cos θ i γ
k 12, t' = ------------------ k 12' + -------------- k 12, s'
cos θ t cos θ t
η cos2 θ i γ
k 2, t' = -------------------- k ' + ----------------- k '
cos2 θ t 2 cos2 θ t 2, s

7 Obtain the principal curvatures of the refracted ray by rotating the coordinate
system defined by u0, ut, and nt by an angle θ(t) about nt. The angle θ(t) is defined
as
2k 12, t'
θ ( t ) = --- atan  ----------------------------
1
2  k 1, t' – k 2, t'

8 Reinitialize the principal curvatures of the refracted ray:

(t) (t) (t) (t)
k 1, t = k 1, t' cos2 θ + 2k 12, t' cos θ sin θ + k 2, t' sin2 θ
(t) (t) (t)
k 2, t = k 1, t ' sin2 θ – 2k 12, t' cos θ sin θ + k 2, t' cos2 θ ( t )

9 Invert the principal curvatures to obtain the principal radii of curvature of the
refracted ray. Rotate u0 about nt by the angle θ(t) to obtain the reinitialized
principal curvature direction e1,t.
10 If a reflected ray is released, compute the curvature variables of the reflected ray in
a coordinate system defined by u0, ur, and nr using the equations

k 1, r' = k 1' – 2k 1, s' cos θ i

k 12, r' = – k 12' + 2k 12, s'

2
k 2, r' = k 2' – -------------- k 2, s'
cos θ i

128 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

11 Obtain the principal curvatures of the reflected ray by rotating the coordinate
system defined by u0, ur, and nr by an angle θ(r) about nr. The angle θ(r) is defined
as
2k 12, r'
θ ( r ) = --- atan  -----------------------------
1
2  k 2, r' – k 1, r'

12 Initialize the principal curvatures of the reflected ray:

(r) (r) (r) (r)
k 1, r = k 1, r' cos2 θ + 2k 12, r' cos θ sin θ + k 2, r' sin2 θ
(r) (r) (r)
k 2, r = k 1, r' sin2 θ – 2k 12, r' cos θ sin θ + k 2, r' cos2 θ ( r )

13 Invert the principal curvatures to obtain the principal radii of curvature of the
reflected ray. Rotate u0 about nr by the angle θ(r) to obtain the initialized principal
curvature direction e1,r.

In 2D components, only one principal radius of curvature is computed; each ray is

treated as a cylindrical wave. In addition, no auxiliary degrees of freedom for the
principal curvature direction are required because the out-of-plane direction can
always be treated as one of the axes of the local coordinate system that defines the
orientation of the wavefront.

In 2D axisymmetric model components, radii of curvature are computed for the

in-plane direction, i.e. the rz-plane, as well as the out-of-plane or azimuthal directions.
During ray-boundary interactions, these radii of curvature are reinitialized as if the ray
interacted with a 3D surface of revolution, which may have finite radii of curvature in
both the in-plane and out-of-plane directions.

STOKES VECTOR CALCULATION

The values of the intensity I and normalized Stokes parameters are stored as the
auxiliary dependent variables I0, sn1, sn2, and sn3 when a ray is released. These
auxiliary variables are updated when the ray hits a boundary. At any point along the
ray’s trajectory, each Stokes parameter is equal to

r 1, i r 2, i
s 0 = I = I 0 ------------------- s 1 = Is n1 s 2 = Is n2 s 3 = Is n3
r1 r2

In 2D, the second principal radius of curvature r2 is treated as an arbitrarily large

distance that remains constant for each ray. Because s1 and s2 are based on the
differences in intensity between orthogonal polarizations of radiation, a local
coordinate system must be defined for the ray. Because auxiliary degrees of freedom

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 129

 have already been allocated for e1 as explained in Principal Radii of Curvature, a local
coordinate system is defined with axes parallel to e1, e2, and k. The axes parallel to e1
and e2 then function as the x- and y-axes in The Stokes Parameters, respectively.

STOKES VECTOR REINITIALIZATION

Reflection and Refraction of S- and P-polarized Rays

When a fully polarized ray arrives at a material discontinuity, the intensity of the
reflected and refracted rays can be computed using the Fresnel equations:

2n 1 cos θ i
t p = ------------------------------------------------
n 2 cos θ i + n 1 cos θ t
2n 1 cos θ i
t s = ------------------------------------------------
n 1 cos θ i + n 2 cos θ t
n 2 cos θ i – n 1 cos θ t
r p = ------------------------------------------------
n 2 cos θ i + n 1 cos θ t
n 1 cos θ i – n 2 cos θ t
r s = ------------------------------------------------
n 1 cos θ i + n 2 cos θ t

where the subscripts s and p denote s- and p-polarized rays, or rays with linear
polarizations perpendicular to and parallel to the plane of incidence, respectively. The
incident ray is assumed to move from a region of refractive index n1 toward a region
of refractive index n2. The angles θi and θt are the angle of incidence and angle of
refraction, respectively.

If n1 > n2 and the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle θ = asin(n2/n1), the
incident ray undergoes total internal reflection, and the reflected ray has intensity equal
to that of the incident ray.

The intensity of the transmitted and reflected waves are related to the intensity of the
incident wave Ii by the equations

2
Ir = Ii rp
n 2 cos θ t 2
I t = --------------------- I i t p
n 1 cos θ i

for p-polarized rays, and

130 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

 2
Ir = Ii rs
n 2 cos θ t 2
I t = --------------------- I i t s
n 1 cos θ i

for s-polarized rays. The coefficients being multiplied by the incident ray intensity are
called the reflectance R and transmittance T:

2
Rp = rp
n 2 cos θ t 2
T p = --------------------- t p
n 1 cos θ i
2
Rs = rs
n 2 cos θ t 2
T s = --------------------- t s
n 1 cos θ i

Phase Shift Calculation for Reflected and Refracted Rays

Any fully polarized ray can be resolved into a pair of s- and p-polarized rays, with a
phase shift δ between them. The reflected s- and p-polarized rays at a material
discontinuity may then undergo different phase shifts; this may, for example, cause a
linearly polarized incident ray to be yield a reflected ray with elliptical polarization. In
addition, a phase shift may be applied to the transmitted ray if one or more Thin
Dielectric Film subnodes are added to a Material Discontinuity node. The phase shifts
of s- and p-polarized rays are computed from the complex-valued Fresnel coefficients:

Ψ s, r = arg ( r s )
Ψ p, r = arg ( r p )
Ψ s, t = arg ( t s )
Ψ p, t = arg ( t p )

Unpolarized and Partially Polarized Rays

An unpolarized ray has the following properties:

• The instantaneous intensity of the ray changes at random.

• At a given instant in time, the ray has an equal probability of being polarized in any
direction orthogonal to the ray trajectory.
• The previous two properties are not affected by the transmission of the ray through
a wave retarder or a polarization rotator.

An unpolarized ray has Stokes parameters s 1 = s 2 = s 3 = 0 .

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 131

 A partially polarized ray is neither completely deterministic nor completely random. It
is characterized by a degree of polarization between 0 and 1.

Often, the ray being reflected or refracted at a boundary is unpolarized or partially

polarized; or the polarization direction neither lies in the plane of incidence nor
perpendicular to it. In this case, a more general formulation for the new values of the
Stokes parameters is needed. The Stokes parameters of the reflected and refracted rays
can be expressed in terms of the Stokes parameters of the incident ray, the
transmittance or reflectance at the boundary, and the phase delay introduced by the
boundary (if any) (Ref. 11):

s 0t Ts + Tp Ts – Tp 0 0 s0
s 1t Ts – Tp Ts + Tp 0 0 s1
=
s 2t 0 0 2 T s T p cos δ 2 T s T p sin δ s 2
s 3t 0 0 – 2 T s T p sin δ 2 T s T p cos δ s 3

s 0r Rs + Rp Rs – Rp 0 0 s0
s 1r Rs – Rp Rs + Rp 0 0 s1
=
s 2r 0 0 – 2 R s R p cos δ – 2 R s R p sin δ s 2
s 3r 0 0 2 R s R p sin δ – 2 R s R p cos δ s 3

where the subscripts r and t represent reflection and refraction, respectively; and the
subscripts s and p indicate the transmittance or reflectance for s- and p-polarized rays.

Wavefront Curvature Calculation in Graded Media

It is possible to compute the ray intensity by changing Intensity computation to
Compute intensity or Compute intensity in graded media in the settings window for the
Geometrical Optics interface. The options Compute intensity and power and Compute
intensity and power in graded media can also be used to compute intensity, with the only
difference being that these options define an additional auxiliary dependent variable
for the total power transferred by the ray. The setting Compute intensity is more robust
and accurate than Compute intensity in graded media, but is only applicable to
homogeneous media. The setting Compute intensity in graded media can be used for
both homogeneous and graded media, but it introduces more numerical error than
Compute intensity.

132 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

ASSUMPTIONS FOR COMPUTING INTENSITY IN HOMOGENEOUS MEDIA
When Compute intensity is selected, the ray intensity is computed along each ray path
using the following assumptions:

1 The wavefront represented by each ray subtends a constant plane angle (2D) or solid
angle (3D), which can change only when rays are reflected or refracted at
boundaries.
2 Given the radii of curvature at two positions within the same domain and the
intensity at one of these two positions, the intensity at the other position can be
computed using the relationship
r 1, 0 r 2, 0
I = I 0 ---------------------
r1 r2

3 Except when rays are reflected or refracted at boundaries, the principal radii of
curvature change at a constant rate:
dr 1 dr
--------- = --------2- = – 1
ds ds

4 The principal curvature directions do not change, except when rays are reflected or
refracted at boundaries.

These assumptions are not valid in graded media, in which the refractive index changes
continuously as a function of position. It is possible for the angle between two different
rays to change as they propagate through the medium, so the solid angle subtended by
the wavefront is no longer constant. As a result, the ray intensity cannot be expressed
using the ratio of initial and final principal radii of curvature.

CURVATURE TENSOR DEFINITION IN GRADED MEDIA

The calculation of ray intensity in graded media is based on the concept of a curvature
tensor K, defined in terms of the principal curvatures κ1 and κ2 and the corresponding
principal curvature directions e1 and e2:

K = κ 1 e 1 e 1T + κ 2 e 2 e 2T

Because e1 and e2 are orthogonal, it follows that κ1 and κ2 are eigenvalues of K. It

also follows that K is singular because there is no contribution that is orthogonal to
both e1 and e2.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 133

 The signs of the principal curvatures are chosen so that positive curvature indicates that
the wavefront is converging, whereas negative curvature indicates that the wavefront
is diverging.

The selection of the coordinate system in which the curvature tensor is defined is
crucial. It is convenient to describe the coordinate system so that two of the coordinate
axes lie in the plane containing e1 and e2, since this reduces the number of nonzero
terms in K. Further reduction in the number of nonzero terms can be achieved if K
can be defined in a coordinate system in which e1 and e2 are basis vectors. This is
possible in 2D because one of the principal curvature directions is always parallel to the
out-of-plane direction, but in 3D it is not feasible because the principal curvature
directions can change as rays propagate through a graded medium.

In the most general 3D case, the curvature tensor is described using the following
symbols, each of which corresponds to a different orthonormal basis:

• KX: curvature tensor defined in the Cartesian coordinate system with basis vectors
x, y, and z.
• KW: curvature tensor defined in the coordinate system consisting of the two
principal curvature directions e1 and e2 and the direction of propagation t.
• KS: curvature tensor defined in a coordinate system in which one basis vector is the
direction of propagation t. The other two basis vectors s1 and s2 can be determined
arbitrarily, as long as they are orthogonal to each other and to t, such that
s 1 × s 2 = t . It is more convenient to operate in this coordinate system if the basis
vectors can be expressed strictly in terms of x, y, z, and t.

The basis vectors s1 and s2 are defined as follows:

t×z
s 1 = ---------------
t×z

s2 = t × s1

To avoid poles in the definition of the basis vectors, the following alternative
definitions are used when the rays propagate nearly parallel to the z-axis:

t×x
s 1 = ---------------
t×x

s2 = t × s1

The relationship between s1, s2, e1, and e2 is given by

134 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

 e 1 = s 1 cos ( φ ) – s 2 sin ( φ )

e 2 = s 1 sin ( φ ) + s 2 cos ( φ )

where the rotation angle φ is an auxiliary dependent variable that is stored for each ray.

The relationship between KS and KW is given by

T
KS = Q0 KW Q0

where Q0 is the rotation matrix:

s1 ⋅ e1 s1 ⋅ e2 s1 ⋅ t cos ( φ ) sin ( φ ) 0
Q 0 = s 2 ⋅ e 1 s 2 ⋅ e 2 s 2 ⋅ t = – sin ( φ ) cos ( φ ) 0
t ⋅ e1 t ⋅ e2 t ⋅ t 0 0 0

The relationship between KX and KS is given by

T
K X = QK S Q

where Q is the rotation matrix:

x ⋅ s1 x ⋅ s2 x ⋅ t
Q = y ⋅ s1 y ⋅ s2 y ⋅ t
z ⋅ s1 z ⋅ s2 z ⋅ t

In 2D, one of the principal curvature directions is always known, so it is possible to

define s1 and s2 so that they coincide with e1 and e2. The rotation matrix Q0 is the
identity, and the auxiliary dependent variable for the angle φ can be omitted.

DERIVATIVES OF THE CURVATURE TENSOR

Following Ref. 9, the derivative of the curvature tensor along the ray trajectory in a
graded medium is given by the expression

5
dK
-----------S- =
ds  Mi
i=1

where the terms Mi correspond to the different ways in which the curvature can
depend on the medium properties. They are defined using the following expressions:

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 135

 M1 = KS ⋅ KS
1
M 2 = – --- ( t ⋅ ∇ S n )K S
n
1
M 3 = – --- Π ( ∇ S ⊗ ∇ S n )
n
2
M 4 = -----2- Π ( ∇ S n ⊗ ∇ S n )Π
n
1
M 5 = – --- [ ( K∇ S n ) ⊗ t + t ⊗ ∇ S nK ]
n

where Π is the projection matrix:

Π = I – (t ⊗ t)

The gradient operator ∇S consists of derivatives that are taken with respect to the local
coordinates with basis vectors s1, s2, and t.

DERIVATIVES OF THE PRINCIPAL CURVATURES

By application of the chain rule, the derivatives of the nonzero elements of KS can be
expressed in terms of the principal curvatures that occupy the diagonal elements of KW
and the rotation angle φ :

∂κ ∂K S, 11 ∂K S, 12 ∂K S, 22
--------1- = -----------------
- cos ( φ ) 2 – 2 ----------------- - sin ( φ ) 2
- sin ( φ ) cos ( φ ) + -----------------
∂s ∂s ∂s ∂s

∂κ ∂K S, 11 ∂K S, 12 ∂K S, 22
--------2- = -----------------
- sin ( φ ) 2 + 2 ----------------- - cos ( φ ) 2
- sin ( φ ) cos ( φ ) + -----------------
∂s ∂s ∂s ∂s

∂φ ∂K S, 12 ∂K S, 11 ∂K S, 22
---  -----------------
1 - cos ( 2φ ) + 1
------ = ------------------ ----------------- - – ------------------ sin ( 2φ )
∂s κ2 – κ1 ∂s 2  ∂s ∂s 

NUMERICAL STABILIZATION
The principal curvatures κ1 and κ2 are not ideal choices for the auxiliary dependent
variables stored by each ray because their values can become arbitrarily large as rays
approach caustics. Similarly, the principal radii of curvature r1 and r2 are not ideal
choices because their values can become arbitrarily large when a diverging wavefront
begins to converge while propagating through a graded medium.

Instead, the auxiliary dependent variables stored by each ray are the help variables α1
and α2. In 2D, only one help variable is allocated because the out-of-plane principal

136 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

radius of curvature is assumed to be infinite. The principal curvatures are expressed in
terms of the help variables using the expression

κ i = κ 0 tan α

where κ0 = 1 1/m and i ∈ [1, 2]. The derivatives are then related by the expression

dα 1 dκ 2
---------i = ------ ---------i cos α i
ds κ 0 ds

Similarly, the intensity may become infinitely large at caustics, and its reciprocal
becomes infinitely large as rays undergo attenuation, so a help variable Γ is used to
represent the intensity of the ray:

I = I 0 tan Γ

where I0 = 1 W/m2. The relationship between the ray intensity help variable and the
principal curvatures is

dΓ
------- = 1
--- sin ( 2Γ ) [ κ 1 + κ 2 – 2κk 0 ]
ds 2

where k0 is the free space wave number and κ is the imaginary part of the refractive
index. Three additional auxiliary dependent variables are used to store information
about the remaining Stokes parameters.

Refraction in Strongly Absorbing Media

The direction of ray propagation may be described via the loci of points having
constant phase or amplitude. In a non-absorbing medium, one which may be
described by a real-valued refractive index, changes in the ray intensity are caused only
by the convergence or divergence of the wavefront, so the surfaces in which the phase
is constant are parallel to the surfaces in which the amplitude is constant.

In a weakly absorbing medium, in which the attenuation of the power transmitted by

each ray decays over a length scale much larger than the wavelength, it may be assumed
that the surfaces of constant amplitude are still parallel to the surfaces of constant
phase. The directions of the reflected and refracted rays at material discontinuities, as
well as the Fresnel coefficients that govern their intensity, may be computed using the
real parts of the refractive indices on either side of the boundary. However, as the
imaginary part of the refractive index increases in magnitude, this assumption may

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 137

 begin to present a considerable source of error because the surfaces of constant
amplitude and surfaces of constant phase are no longer parallel.

In the Settings window for the Geometrical Optics interface, select the Use corrections
for strongly absorbing media check box in the physics interface Intensity Computation
section to modify Snell’s law and the Fresnel equations to accurately model refraction
between media with complex refractive indices. This check box is available when
Intensity computation is set to Compute intensity or Compute intensity and power.

Following Chang et al. in Ref. 10, the wave vector in an absorbing medium is treated
as a bivector with complex components,

k = k 0 ( N e – iK f )

where k is the wave vector, k0 is the wave number in free space, and e and f are unit
vectors with real-valued components indicating the normal direction to the surfaces of
constant phase and surfaces of constant amplitude, respectively. The real-valued
quantities N and K, sometimes called the apparent refractive indices, are related to the
complex refractive index by the relations

2 2 2 2
N –K = n –κ

NK e ⋅ f = nκ

where n − iκ is the complex refractive index of the medium. From these relations the
apparent refractive indices can be computed as long as the dot product e ⋅ f is known.
To store information about the value of this dot product, auxiliary dependent variables
for the components of f are stored when the Use corrections for strongly absorbing
media check box is selected.

At material discontinuities, the normal vectors to the surfaces of constant amplitude

and phase follow a modified form of Snell’s law that uses the apparent refractive
indices,

N 1 sin θ 1 = N 2 sin θ 2

K 1 sin Ψ 1 = K 2 sin ψ 2

where θ and ψ are the acute angles between the surface normal and the normal vectors
to the surfaces of constant phase and surfaces of constant amplitude, respectively. The
real part of the apparent refractive index in the second domain is a root of the quartic
equation

138 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

 AN 24 + BN 22 + C = 0

A = 1
B = – [ N s2 + K s2 + ( n 22 – κ 22 ) ]
C = N s2 K s2 + ( n 22 – κ 22 )N 22 – ( nk – N s K s cos φ ) 2

where Ns = N1sin θ1, Ks = K1sin ψ1, and the angle φ is the azimuthal angle between
the normal to surfaces of constant amplitude and the plane of incidence. This equation
is obviously quadratic in N 22 and can thus be solved using the quadratic formula.

The reinitialized unit normal vectors to the surfaces of constant amplitude and phase
are

N1 N1
e 2 = ------- e 1 +  cos θ 2 – ------- cos θ 1 n
N2  N2 

K1 K1
f 2 = ------- f 1 +  cos ψ 2 – ------- cos ψ 1 n
K2 K2

whereas for the reflected ray the reinitialized unit normal vectors are

e 2 = e 1 – 2n cos θ

f 2 = f 1 – 2n cos ψ

Attenuation Within Domains

Rays can gradually lose energy as they propagate through a domain in which the
refractive index is complex. The convention of the Geometrical Optics interface is that
a lossy medium has refractive index given by n − iκ. Given the electric field E0 at one
location, the electric field of a ray with infinite wavefront radii of curvature as it
propagates through a homogeneous, lossy medium is

k 0 KL
E = E 0 exp  – --------------- cos α
N

where L is the optical path length between the points at which E and E0 are measured
and k0 is the wave number in free space. In weakly absorbing media, N = n, K = κ, and
α = 0. If the Use corrections for strongly absorbing media check box is selected, N is the
real part of the apparent refractive index, K is the complex part of the apparent
refractive index, and α is the angle between the surfaces of constant amplitude and

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 139

 surfaces of constant phase; both of these concepts are explained in Refraction in
Strongly Absorbing Media. The ray intensity and power are both proportional to the
square of the electric field norm, so these quantities change according to the relations

2k 0 KL
I = I 0 exp  – ------------------- cos α
 N 
2k KL
P = P 0 exp  – ------------------- cos α
0
 N 

When computing the ray intensity in absorbing media, the principal radii of curvature
of the wavefront must also be considered. The two contributing factors are accounted
for by allocating auxiliary dependent variables for the initial Stokes parameters
following the most recent reinitialization of the wave vector, which are expressed as
solutions to first-order differential equations of the form

ds i, 0
------------
- = – 2k 0 Kcs i, 0 (3-2)
dt

where c is the speed of light in the medium and si,0 is value of one of the Stokes
parameters of the ray before the effects of changes in the principal radii of curvature
have been applied.

The Geometrical Optics interface defines an additional dependent variable A

(dimensionless) for the path integral of the attenuation coefficient,

dI 0
--------- = 0 (3-3)
dt
I = I 0 exp ( A )
dA
-------- = – 2k 0 Kc
dt

Despite requiring an extra degree of freedom per ray, the advantage of Equation 3-3
over Equation 3-2 is that the dependent variables in Equation 3-3 all vary linearly
within a homogeneous medium. This makes Equation 3-3 much more stable when the
solver takes long time steps or optical path length intervals, compared to Equation 3-2,
potentially reducing solution time.

Ray Termination Theory

The Ray Termination feature can annihilate rays when their intensity or power
decreases below a specified threshold.

140 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

If the ray intensity is computed, then the threshold ray intensity Ith (SI unit: W/m2)
can be specified. Then the termination criterion is

I < I th

If the ray power is computed, then the threshold ray power Qth (SI unit: W) can be
specified. Then the termination criterion is

Q < Q th

It is also possible to specify termination criteria based on both intensity and power; in
this case, the rays terminate if either criterion is satisfied.

Whenever possible, the Ray Termination feature attempts to stop rays at the exact
instant when the ray intensity or power reaches a specified threshold value. A
closed-form analytic solution for the exact stop time is available under the following
circumstances:

• The rays represent planar wavefronts in an absorbing medium, or

• The rays represent spherical or ellipsoidal wavefronts in a non-absorbing medium.

If neither of these special conditions is met, the ray can only terminate if the
termination criterion is met at the beginning of a time step taken by the solver; the ray
intensity or power at the instant the ray is stopped may be less than the threshold.

PLANAR WAVEFRONTS IN AN ABSORBING MEDIUM

In this special case, the principal wavefront radii of curvature are so large that the ray
intensity can only change significantly in an attenuating medium. The exact time ts
(SI unit: s) at which the ray intensity reaches the threshold value is

t s = t 0 + τ log  -------
I
 I th

where

• t0 (SI unit: s) is the previous time step, reflection time, or refraction time,
• I (SI unit: W/m2) is the intensity at t0, and
• Ith (SI unit: W/m2) is the threshold intensity.

If the termination criterion is based on the ray power Q (SI unit: W) instead of ray
intensity, the analogous expression for the stop time is

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 141

 t s = t 0 + τ log  ---------
Q
 Q th

The characteristic time for ray attenuation τ (SI unit: s) is

λ0 N
τ = --------------
4πcK

where

• λ0 (SI unit: m) is the free-space wavelength of the radiation,

• N − iK (dimensionless) is the apparent refractive index of the medium, where N and
K are real numbers, and
• c = 299,792,458 m/s is the speed of light in a vacuum.

DIVERGING WAVEFRONTS IN A NON-ABSORBING MEDIUM

In a non-absorbing medium in which the wavefront is non-planar, the ray can only
terminate due to the intensity decreasing below the threshold, since the power does
not change. The time ts (SI unit: s) at which the ray intensity reaches the threshold in
a non-attenuating, homogeneous medium is

t s = t 0 + ----------  r 1 + r 2 + ( r 1 – r 2 ) 2 + 4 ------- r 1 r 2 
1 I
2V g  I th 

where

• t0 (SI unit: s) is the previous time step, reflection time, or refraction time,
• Vg (SI unit: m/s) is the group velocity magnitude,
• r1 (SI unit: m) is the first principal radius of curvature of the wavefront at t0,
• r2 (SI unit: m) is the second principal radius of curvature of the wavefront at t0,
• I (SI unit: W/m2) is the intensity at t0, and
• Ith (SI unit: W/m2) is the threshold intensity.

In 2D models, or in 3D models where the wavefronts are cylindrical (one extremely

large radius of curvature and one finite radius of curvature), the stop time is instead

t s = t 0 + ------  r 1 + ------- r 1 
1 I
Vg I th

where r1 (SI unit: m) is the finite principal radius of curvature of the cylindrical
wavefront.

142 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

Illuminated Surface Theory
The Illuminated Surface is used to simulate the emission of rays from a surface, under
the assumption that the emitted rays are specularly reflected from an external radiation
source. It is assumed that the entire selected surface has direct line of sight to the
external radiation source; that is, shadowing due to other geometric entities is not
taken into account.

If the Incident ray direction vector is a User defined direction or based on Solar position,
the incident rays are treated as plane waves arriving from a distant source, and the
intensity of the incident rays Ii is specified directly.

If the Incident ray direction vector is computed using a User defined point source, the
principal radii of curvature of the incident wavefront are set equal to the distance from
the source point to the initial ray position,

r 1 = r 2 = – r src – q

where q is the initial ray position, rsrc is the position vector of the point source, and
r1 and r2 are the principal radii of curvature of the incident wavefront. In 2D, only one
principal radius of curvature is defined. The incident ray intensity is derived from the
total source power Psrc,

P src
I i = ----------------------------
4π r src – q

The principal radii of curvature of the reflected rays are then computed using the
approach outlined in Principal Radii of Curvature. Because no thin films are present
on the surface, the intensity of the reflected ray is equal to the intensity of the incident
ray. The effect of specular reflection is to negate the third and fourth Stokes parameters
of the ray.

PERTURBATIONS DUE TO LIMB DARKENING AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS

It is often necessary to take the finite size of a radiation source into account when
modeling the reflection or refraction of rays at an illuminated surface. This is
particularly true in solar energy applications, in which the finite size of the solar disk
significantly affects the focusing capability of solar concentrating devices.

To release rays with a distribution of initial directions based on the finite size of the
radiation source, select Create light cones at release points or Sample from conical
distribution option from the Corrections for finite source diameter check box in the
settings window for the Illuminated Surface feature.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 143

 Selecting Create light cones at release points causes a cone of rays to be released at each
release point. Selecting Sample from conical distribution causes only a single ray to be
released at each point, but each ray’s initial direction is sampled form a cone-shaped
probability distribution function. The maximum angle between any incident ray and
the specified incident ray direction is the user-defined maximum disk angle
ψm (SI unit: rad).

The options described above are also available in the settings window for the Solar
Radiation feature, in which they have the same effects on the initial direction of the
solar radiation.

The default value of the maximum disk angle, or the maximum angle between the
direction of the incident rays and the specified Incident ray direction vector, is
ψm = 4.65 mrad based on the following expressions (see for example Ref. 14):

d sun
ψ m = asin  ------------
 2L 0 
9
d sun = 1.392 × 10 m

11
L 0 = 1.496 × 10 m

When the finite size of the sun is taken into account, radiation from the center of the
solar disc tends to be greater in intensity than radiation from the edges of the disc, a
phenomenon known as limb darkening. If Empirical power law is selected from the Limb
darkening model list in the settings window for the Illuminated Surface or Solar Radiation
feature, the solar radiation is assumed to follow a power law distribution. Given the
intensity I(0) of radiation along a line intersecting the center of the sun, the incident
solar radiation from any other point on the sun is given by the expression

I ( ψs ) α(λ )
-------------
- = μ 0
I(0)

where

μ = cos ψ s

and ψs is the angle between a line of sight to the center of the sun and a line from the
center of the sun to another visible point on its surface. The exponent α can vary
from 0, for which all solar radiation is of uniform intensity, to 1, at which the intensity
of solar radiation falls off linearly as a function of radial position on the visible solar

144 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

disc. Based on Ref. 14 the exponent α is given as a function of the free-space
wavelength λ0:

 –1 –1 –1
 – 0.023 + 0.292λ 0 λ 0 ≤ 2.4μm

a ( λ 0 ) =  0.3778 + 0.125λ –1 2.4μm
–1 –1
≤ λ 0 ≤ 2.8μm
–1
 0
 – 0.507 + 0.441λ – 1 2.8μm
–1 –1
≤ λ0
 0

If Linear is selected from the Limb darkening model list, the distribution of solar intensity
is instead

I ( ψs ) + βμ
-------------- = 1
----------------
I(0) 1+β

It is also possible to include the effect of surface roughness when computing the
incident ray direction vector at illuminated surfaces by selecting the Include surface
roughness check box. The value of the Surface slope error σ φ is used as the standard
deviation in a Rayleigh distribution of perturbation angles about the unperturbed ray
direction vector, from which a user-defined number of rays are sampled.

Theory of Mueller Matrices and Optical Components

Optical devices such as polarizers and wave retarders are often used to manipulate the
polarization of radiation. These devices can be modeled by multiplying the Stokes
vector of the incident ray si by a Mueller matrix M,

s = Ms i

As explained in The Stokes Parameters, the Stokes vector requires a set of orthogonal
coordinate axes to be defined at the location of a propagating ray. The x-axis of this
local coordinate system, e1, is the first principal curvature direction in 3D models and
the out-of-plane direction in 2D models.

Similarly, the Mueller matrix of an optical device is defined with respect to a local
coordinate system. This system need not coincide with the coordinate system that
defines the Stokes vector of the incident ray. Therefore it is usually necessary to apply
a rotation to one of these local coordinate systems before applying the Mueller matrix:

–1
s = R MRs i

where R is the rotation matrix

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 145

 1 0 0 0
R = 0 cos ( 2θ ) sin ( 2θ ) 0
0 – sin ( 2θ ) cos ( 2θ ) 0
0 0 0 1

where θ is the angle by which the local coordinate system of the ray must be rotated
so that the x-axes of the two local coordinate systems both lie in the plane of incidence
and the y-axes are parallel.

Mueller matrices of some common optical devices are tabulated in Ref. 11.

LINEAR POLARIZER THEORY

A Linear Polarizer is an optical device that produces linearly polarized light. An ideal
linear polarizer transmits radiation that is polarized in one direction, indicated by the
transmission axis T, while completely preventing the transmission of radiation
polarized in the orthogonal direction.

In a local coordinate system in which the x-axis is parallel to the transmission axis, the
Mueller matrix of the ideal linear polarizer is

11 0 0
1
M = --- 1 1 0 0
2 00 0 0
00 0 0

LINEAR WAVE RETARDER THEORY

A Linear Wave Retarder is an optical device that separates a ray into two rays with
orthogonal linear polarizations, retards the phase of one of these rays with respect to
the other, and then recombines the two rays. The direction of polarization that
undergoes this retardation is called the slow axis, and the orthogonal direction is called
the fast axis F. The phase delay between the two orthogonal components is the
retardance δ of the device.

In a local coordinate system in which the x-axis is parallel to the fast axis, the Mueller
matrix of an ideal linear wave retarder is

1 0 0 0
M = 0 1 0 0
0 0 cos δ sin δ
0 0 – sin δ cos δ

146 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

For example, a quarter-wave retarder (δ = π/2) converts circularly polarized light to
linearly polarized light, whereas a half-wave retarder (δ = π) converts left-handed
circularly polarized light to right-handed circularly polarized light.

CIRCULAR WAVE RETARDER THEORY

A Circular Wave Retarder, or polarization rotator, is an optical device that separates a
ray into two rays with left-handed and right-handed circular polarizations, retards the
phase of one of these rays with respect to the other, and recombines the two rays. A
right circular polarization rotator is represented by the Mueller matrix

1 0 0 0
M = 0 cos δ sin δ 0
0 – sin δ cos δ 0
0 0 0 1

The circular retarder rotates the polarization ellipse of the incident ray by an angle δ/2
about the origin.

IDEAL DEPOLARIZER THEORY

The Ideal Depolarizer converts radiation of any polarization to completely unpolarized
radiation. The Mueller matrix of an ideal depolarizer is

1 0 0 0
M = 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

Thin Dielectric Film Theory

When ray intensity or power is solved for, thin dielectric films can be used to change
the reflection and transmission coefficients at boundaries. Individual dielectric layers
can be applied to a boundary by using the Thin Dielectric Film subnode, which can be
added to the Material Discontinuity and Wall nodes. The Thin Dielectric Film subnode
can be added to the same boundary multiple times to create multilayer films. In
general, the thickness of these thin dielectric films is comparable in magnitude to the
wavelength of the rays; a minimum requirement is that the thickness of each layer is
much less than the coherence length of the incident rays.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 147

 COMPUTING THE FRESNEL COEFFICIENTS OF BOUNDARIES WITH THIN
DIELECTRIC FILMS
When the Thin Dielectric Film feature is used to model dielectric layers, the equivalent
Fresnel coefficients for ray propagation through the layer are computed using a
recursive algorithm. These equivalent Fresnel coefficients are, in general,
complex-valued reflection and transmission coefficients that account for the phase
delay and amplitude change in the reflected and transmitted rays resulting from the
multiple reflections that the ray undergoes within the dielectric layer, all of which are
considered to be coherent with each other. As these multiple reflected and refracted
rays propagate into the domains adjacent to the film, they can interfere constructively
or destructively with each other, which affects the total electric field amplitude that
propagates into each domain. This is illustrated in Figure 3-8 below. Due to the rays’
capability to interfere constructively or destructively with each other, the optical
thickness of the thin film has a significant effect on the amplitude and phase of the
reflected and refracted rays.

Figure 3-8: One incident ray enters a thin dielectric film and produces a large number of
coherent reflected and refracted rays in the adjacent semi-infinite media. These rays can
interfere constructively or destructively with each other.

Consider, as shown above, a thin film of thickness d and refractive index n2 bounded
by semi-infinite domains with refractive indices n1 and n3. Also consider a linearly
polarized ray with electric field amplitude E0 that propagates through the domain of
refractive index n1 and interacts with the thin film. Let the coefficients of refraction
and transmission for a ray moving from the domain of refractive index na to the

148 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

domain of refractive index nb be denoted rab and tab, respectively. When the ray arrives
at the film, the refracted ray undergoes a series of reflections at the boundaries between
the film and either adjacent domain. Following Ref. 6, the amplitudes of the refracted
rays in either domain form a pair of converging geometric series with sums

∞
E1 r 12 + r 23 e 2iβ
r eq = ------- = r 12 + t 12 t 21 r 23 e 2iβ
E0  ( r21 r23 e2iβ )k = ------------------------------------
1 + r 12 r 23 e 2iβ
-
k=0

for rays returning to the domain of refractive index n1, and

∞ iβ
E3 t 12 t 23 e
t eq = ------- = t 12 t 23 e iβ
E0  ( r 21 r 23 e 2iβ ) k = ------------------------------------
1 + r 12 r 23 e 2iβ
-
k=0

for rays entering the domain of refractive index n3. The angle β is the phase delay that
is introduced when a ray propagates from one surface of the film to the other,

2πn 2 d cos θ 2
β = --------------------------------- (3-4)
λ0

where λ0 is the free-space wavelength and θ2 is the angle between the wave vector of
a ray within the thin film and the normal to the film. The dielectric film can be modeled
as a material discontinuity with transmission and reflection coefficients teq = E3 / E0
and req = E1 / E0.

Several derivations for the equivalent Fresnel coefficients are also given by
Heavens in Ref. 12, including recursive algorithms and matrix
formulations. However, the sign conventions and symbols used in this
section have been selected to be consistent with Born and Wolf (Ref. 6)
and therefore differ from those in Ref. 12.

AUTOMATIC SETUP OF SINGLE-LAYER FILMS

The Material Discontinuity node includes options for automatic setup of single-layer
films with specified reflectance R or transmittance T. In either case the layers are
assumed to be non-absorbing, so that R + T = 1. To enable these options, select Specify
reflectance or Specify transmittance from the Thin dielectric films on boundary list, and
then select the Treat as single layer dielectric film check box.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 149

 The specified reflectance R of a thin film with refractive index n is valid only for certain
values of the angle of incidence θi and free-space wavelength λ0. After computing the
Fresnel coefficients for rays entering and leaving the layer, the reflectance can be
expressed as

2 2
r 12 + r 23 e 2iβ 2 r 12 + r 23 + 2r 12 r 23 cos ( 2β )
R = ------------------------------------
- = -------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 2
-
1 + r 12 r 23 e 2iβ r 12 r 23 + 2r 12 r 23 cos ( 2β ) + 1

Solving this expression for β and substituting the result into Equation 3-4 yields

2 2 2 2
λ0  r 12 r 23 R – r 12 – r 23 + R
d = -------------------------- acos  -----------------------------------------------------------
-
4πn cos θ 2  2 2
2r r ( 1 – R ) 
12 23

For nonzero angles of incidence, the layer thickness that yields a specified reflectance
or transmittance depends on the ray polarization. The coefficients of reflection for rays
propagating into or out of the layer are either those for S- or P-polarized radiation,
depending on the selected option in the Specified film behavior applies to list.

In some cases, the specified transmittance or reflectance will be impossible

to achieve, given the refractive indices of the layer and the surrounding
media. In such cases, rays will pass through the boundary as if no dielectric
layers were present.

AUTOMATIC SETUP OF ANTI-REFLECTIVE COATINGS

To automatically compute the refractive index and thickness of a single-layer
anti-reflective coating between two dielectric media, in the settings for the Material
Discontinuity node select Anti-reflective coating from the Thin dielectric films on
boundary list. By default the anti-reflective coating is ideal, in the sense that is always
has a reflectance of zero for rays of any wavelength and any angle of incidence.
However, if you select the Treat as single layer dielectric film check box, then instead
the single-layer coating only has a reflectance of zero for rays at a specific angle of
incidence θi (SI unit: rad) and vacuum wavelength λ0 (SI unit: m).

For oblique incidence, the refractive index of the ideal single-layer coating differs for
s- and p-polarized rays. For s-polarized rays, the refractive index n2 of a film between
media with refractive indices n1 and n3 is

2 2
n2 = ( n 1 sin θ i ) 2 + n 1 cos θ i n 3 – ( n 1 sin θ i )

150 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

For p-polarized rays, the refractive index is

2 2
2 cos θ i n a n 1 ( n 3 + n 3 – 4 cos θ i sin θ i n a n 1 n 3 )
n 2 = ------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 n a cos θ i

where

2 2
n 3 – ( n 1 sin θ i )
n a ≡ ----------------------------------------
2
-
n3

Either equation returns the value of n2 for which r12 = r23 for rays of the specified
polarization at the specified angle of incidence. An ideal anti-reflective coating is
obtained when the magnitude of the equivalent reflection coefficient is 0. This can be
obtained when r12 = r23 and the phase delay δ is equal to π/2. Substituting this
requirement into Equation 3-4 yields an expression for d:

λ0
d = -------------------------
4n 2 cos θ 2

SETUP OF REPEATING MULTILAYER FILMS

It is possible to identify a unit cell consisting of a small number of thin dielectric films
and to repeat these layers a specified number of times. To set up repeating multilayer
films, select Add layers to surface, repeating from the Thin dielectric films on boundary
list.

Select the Repeat layer in multilayer films check box in the Repeating Multilayer Films
section of the Thin Dielectric Film settings window to include the layer in the unit cell
of a repeating multilayer film. It is possible to include some layers in the unit cell while
excluding others. This could be used, for example, to ensure that a repeating multilayer
film begins and ends with the same layer, since in this case the last layer is not included
in any unit cell. However, the Thin Dielectric Film nodes for all layers in the unit cell
must be adjacent to each other in the Model Builder.

Enter a value or expression for the Number of repeating unit cells N in the Material
Discontinuity settings window. If there are p Thin Dielectric Film nodes in which the
Repeat layer in multilayer films check box is selected and q Thin Dielectric Film nodes in
which the Repeat layer in multilayer films check box is cleared, the total number of
dielectric layers in the multilayer film Nt will be Np + q.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 151

 The recursive algorithm described in the section Computing the Fresnel Coefficients
of Boundaries with Thin Dielectric Films is not well-suited to the calculation of the
effective Fresnel coefficients for an extremely large number of thin dielectric films in a
periodic arrangement. Instead, the following approach is used, in which the equivalent
Fresnel coefficients are expressed in terms of the product of a large number of 2-by-2
matrices.

Let the electric field amplitude of the incident, reflected, and transmitted rays entering
i r i
layer m be denoted E m , E m , and E m + 1 , respectively, where m ∈ [ 1, N t ] . The
ratios of the incoming and outgoing electric field amplitudes in consecutive layers m
and m+1 are

i i
Em 1 E
= ------------------------- C m m + 1
r t( m – 1 ) ( m ) r
Em Em + 1

Where Cm is a 2-by-2 matrix:

C m, 11 C m, 12 exp ( – iδ m – 1 ) r ( m – 1 ) ( m ) exp ( – iδ m – 1 )
Cm = =
C m, 21 C m, 22 r ( m – 1 ) ( m ) exp ( iδ m – 1 ) exp ( iδ m – 1 )

where δm-1 is the phase shift within the layer, with δ0 = 0.

For a multilayer film containing Nt layers including N unit cells, the relationship
between the incoming and outgoing electric field amplitudes can be expressed using
the product of Nt + 1 matrices and Nt + 1 transmission coefficients:

N +1 –1 N t + 1
E0
i  t    Ei
=  ∏ t ( m – 1 ) ( m ) 
∏ C  Nt + 1
r  m r
E0 m = 1  m = 1  ENt + 1

To simplify the matrix multiplication, the product of the matrices can be expressed in
the form

Nt + 1

∏ Cm
N
= C in ( C cell ) C out
m=1

where Cin is the product of the matrices for all layers prior to the unit cell, Cout is the
product of the matrices for all layers following the unit cell, and Ccell is the matrix for

152 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

all layers within one unit cell, including the interface between one unit cell and the
next. Next an eigenvalue decomposition is performed on Ccell:

C cell = XDX – 1

where D is a diagonal matrix with nonzero elements D11 and D22. The ratio of the
incoming and outgoing electric field amplitudes can then be expressed as

N +1 –1
E0
i  t  N
D 11 0
i
ENt + 1
=  ∏ t ( m – 1 ) ( m ) C in X X –1 C out
r   N r
E0 m = 1  0 D 22 ENt + 1

r
Because there is no reflected ray beyond the last dielectric layer, E Nt + 1 = 0 and the
equivalent Fresnel coefficients of the multilayer film can now be obtained:

r
E0
r eq = ------i-
E0

i
ENt + 1
t eq = ----------------
i
-
E0

Grating Theory
The Grating feature releases secondary rays of arbitrary diffraction order. The angles
at which transmitted and reflected diffraction orders are released are those at which the
waves generated by successive unit cells interfere constructively with each other. A
transmitted wave of diffraction order m corresponds to an angle θm with the boundary
normal so that

mλ 0 = d ( n 2 sin θ m – n 1 sin θ i )

where λ0 (SI unit: m) is the vacuum wavelength, d (SI unit: m) is the grating constant,
θi (SI unit: rad) is the angle of incidence, and n1 and n2 (dimensionless) are the
refractive indices on the incoming and outgoing sides of the boundary, respectively.
The corresponding relation for the reflected wave is

mλ 0 = dn 1 ( sin θ m – sin θ i )

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 153

 Interference Pattern Theory
The Interference Pattern plot can be used to visualize the fringes resulting from the
interference of two or more rays at a surface. The interference pattern is only valid
when it is plotted over an area with a length scale that is much smaller than the
principal radius of curvature of any incident wavefront. This is a consequence of the
treatment of each ray as a wavefront that subtends a small solid angle. Furthermore,
this plot type requires calculation of the ray intensity and instantaneous phase.

Given the phase Ψ0 of a ray at the point (qx, qy) where the ray intersects a plane, the
phase Ψ at a nearby point (qx + Δx, qy + Δy) is computed as follows. Without loss of
generality assume that the x- and y-axes are oriented so that they are parallel to the
projections of the principal curvature directions onto the cut plane. For a spherical
wavefront, the orientations of these axes may be determined arbitrarily as long as they
are orthogonal. Let ni,x and ni,y denote the x- and y- components, respectively, of the
normalized ray direction vector. Let r1 and r2 denote the principal radii of curvature
in the directions parallel to the x- and y-axes, respectively. For an incident ray with
wave vector magnitude k, the phase at (qx + Δx, qy) is

Ψ ( q x + Δx, q y ) = Ψ ( q x, q y ) + kΔr 1

Where Δr1 is the change in the principal radius of curvature of the wavefront when
moving between the two points.

2 2 2 2
( r 1 + Δr 1 ) = [ r 1 – ( n i, x r 1 ) ] + ( n i, x r 1 + Δx )

Further simplification yields

2 2
Δr 1 = r 1 + 2n i, x r 1 Δx + Δx – r 1

This equation yields an indeterminate form in the limit of infinite radii of curvature,
making it unsuitable for computing interference patterns involving plane waves. The
equation can be made more robust for plane waves by applying a Taylor series
approximation about Δx = 0,

2 2 1 2 3
r 1 + 2n i, x r 1 Δx + Δx = r 1 + n i, x Δx + --------- ( 1 – n i2, x )Δx + O ( Δx )
2r 1

Discarding terms of order Δx3 or higher yields

154 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

 1 2
Δr 1 = n i, x Δx + --------- ( 1 – n i2, x )Δx
2r 1

Similarly, the change in principal radius of curvature due to a small perturbation in the
y-direction is

1 2
Δr 2 = n i, y Δy + --------- ( 1 – n i2, y )Δy
2r 2

The rationale for discarding higher-order terms is that they all involve division by
higher powers of r1 and r2. Therefore this series approximation is only valid when the
perturbations in the x and y directions are much smaller than the principal radii of
curvature. To assume otherwise would mean that the incident wavefronts subtend very
large solid angles.

Combining the perturbations in the two principal radii of curvature yields an

expression for the phase at any point (qx + Δx, qy + Δy) on the cut plane,

1 2 1 2
Ψ = Ψ 0 + k n i, x Δx + --------- ( 1 – n i2, x )Δx + n i, y Δy + --------- ( 1 – n i2, y )Δy
2r 1 2r 2

The incident Stokes vector is then converted to an incident electric field using the
relation

n ε
I = --- -----0- ( E ⋅ E∗ )
2 μ0

and the electric field at the intersection of the ray with the cut plane can be used to
compute the electric field at a nearby point using the relation

E ( q x + Δx, q y + Δy ) = E ( q x, q y ) exp [ Ψ ( q x + Δx, q y + Δy ) – Ψ 0 ]

where it is again assumed that the ray subtends a small solid angle so that the intensity
of the incident ray is approximately uniform over the region in which the interference
pattern is plotted. It is then straightforward to compute the sum of the electric fields
of all incident rays and derive the total incident intensity from the electric field norm.

Results Analysis and Visualization in the Ray Optics Modeling chapter.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 155

 Monochromatic Aberrations and Zernike Polynomials
A standard way to quantify monochromatic aberrations is to express the optical path
difference of all incident rays as a linear combination of Zernike polynomials. With the
Ray Optics Module, the Zernike coefficients can be reported in a table using the
Aberration Evaluation feature. Alternatively, a superposition of different Zernike
polynomials can be shown on a unit circle using the Optical Aberration plot.

Several different standards exist for naming, normalizing, and organizing the Zernike
polynomials. The approach used in this section follows the standards published by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO, Ref. 15) and the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI, Ref. 16).

Each Zernike polynomial Z nm can be expressed as

Z nm = N nm R nm ( ρ )M ( mθ )

where

• N nm is the normalization term,

• R nm is the radial term,
• M ( mθ ) is the meridional term or azimuthal term,
• ρ is the radial parameter, given by ρ = r/a where r is the distance from the aperture
center and a is the aperture radius, so that 0 ≤ ρ ≤ 1,
• θ is the meridional parameter or azimuthal angle, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π,
• the lower index n is a nonnegative integer, n = 0,1,2…, and
• the upper index m is an integer, m = −n, −n + 2, …, n − 2, n so that n – m is
always even.

The normalization term N nm is

N nm = ( 2 – δ 0, m ) ( n + 1 )

where δ0,m is the Kronecker delta,

1 i = j
δ i, j = 
0 i≠j

The radial term is given by the equation

156 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

 0.5 ( n – m )
( – 1 ) s ( n – s )!
R nm ( ρ ) =  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
s! [ 0.5 ( n + m ) – s ]! [ 0.5 ( n – m ) – s ]!
ρ n – 2s
s=0

where “!” denotes the factorial operator; for nonnegative integers,

 1 n = 0
n! = 
1 × 2 × 3 × … × n n>0

The meridional term is given by the equation

 cos ( mθ ) m≥0
M ( mθ ) = 
 sin ( m θ ) m<0

The Zernike polynomials thus defined are normalized Zernike polynomials. They are
orthogonal in the sense that any pair of Zernike polynomials satisfy the equation

1 2π

 ρ dρ  Znm Zn'm' dθ = πδn, n' δm, m'

0 0

The normalized Zernike polynomials up to fifth order, along with their common
names, are given in Table 3-4.

TABLE 3-4: ZERNIKE POLYNOMIALS

TERM EXPRESSION COMMON NAME

Z 00 1 Piston

Z 1–1 2ρ sin ( θ ) Vertical tilt

Z 11 2ρ cos ( θ ) Horizontal tilt

Z 2–2 6ρ 2 sin ( 2θ ) Oblique astigmatism

Z 20 2 Defocus
3 ( 2ρ – 1 )

Z 22 6ρ 2 cos ( 2θ ) Astigmatism

Z 3–3 8ρ 3 sin ( 3θ ) Oblique trefoil

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 157

 TABLE 3-4: ZERNIKE POLYNOMIALS

TERM EXPRESSION COMMON NAME

Z 3– 1 8 ( 3ρ 3 – 2ρ ) sin ( 3θ ) Vertical coma

Z 31 8 ( 3ρ 3 – 2ρ ) cos ( 3θ ) Horizontal coma

Z 33 8ρ 3 cos ( 3θ ) Horizontal trefoil

Z 4– 4 10ρ 4 sin ( 4θ ) Oblique trefoil

Z 4– 2 10 ( 4ρ 4 – 3ρ 2 ) sin ( 2θ ) Oblique secondary astigmatism

Z 40 5 ( 6ρ 4 – 6ρ 2 + 1 ) Spherical aberration

Z 42 10 ( 4ρ 4 – 3ρ 2 ) cos ( 2θ ) Secondary astigmatism

Z 44 10ρ 4 cos ( 4θ ) Horizontal trefoil

Z 5– 5 12ρ 5 sin ( 5θ )

Z 5– 3 12 ( 5ρ 5 – 4ρ 3 ) sin ( 3θ ) †

Z 5– 1 12 ( 10ρ 5 – 12ρ 3 + 3ρ ) sin ( θ ) †

Z 51 12 ( 10ρ 5 – 12ρ 3 + 3ρ ) cos ( θ ) †

Z 53 12 ( 5ρ 5 – 4ρ 3 ) cos ( 3θ ) †

Z 55 12ρ 5 cos ( 5θ )

† This term differs from the expression in Table E.1 in ISO 24157:2008 (Ref. 15),
which contains an error.

158 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

Figure 3-9: Zernike polynomials on the unit circle.

Accumulator Theory: Domains

The Accumulator (Domain) node is used to transfer information from rays to the
domains they occupy or pass through. Each Accumulator defines a variable, called the
accumulated variable, in the selected domains. The accumulated variable is discretized
using constant shape functions, so its value is uniform over every mesh element and
may be discontinuous between adjacent mesh elements.

The name of the accumulated variable is specified in the Accumulated variable name edit
field in the Accumulator Settings section of the settings window. The default variable
name, rpd, will be used in the remainder of this section when referring to the
accumulated variable.

ACCUMULATOR TYPE
The options in the Accumulator type list are Density and Count. If Density is selected, the
source term is divided by the area or volume of the mesh element when calculating
each ray’s contribution to the accumulated variable. If Count is selected, no division by
the area or volume of the mesh element occurs.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 159

 The equations in the following section are valid for the Density type. The
corresponding value of the accumulated variable for the Count type is

rpd count = rpd density × V

where V is the mesh element volume (in 3D) or area (in 2D).

ACCUMULATION OVER ELEMENTS

When Elements is selected from the Accumulate over list, the value of the accumulated
variable in a mesh element is the sum of the source terms Ri evaluated for all rays in
that mesh element:

N
1
rpd = ----
V  Ri
i=1

where N is the total number of rays in the element and V is the area or volume of the
mesh element. In other words, the contribution of each ray to the accumulated
variable is distributed uniformly over the mesh element the ray is in, regardless of the
ray’s exact position within the element.

If Elements and time is selected from the Accumulate over list, then the sum of the
source terms for rays in the mesh element is used to define the time derivative of the
accumulated variable, rather than its instantaneous value:

N
d ( rpd -) 1
------------------
dt
= ----
V  Ri
i=1

Thus the value of the accumulated variable depends on the time history of rays in the
mesh element, instead of the instantaneous positions of the rays. As each ray
propagates, it will leave behind a trail based on its contributions to the accumulated
variables in mesh elements it has traversed. The algorithm for accumulating over time
takes into account the fraction of a time step taken by the solver that the ray spends in
each mesh element, even if it crosses between elements during the time step.

Accumulator Theory: Boundaries

The Accumulator (Boundary) feature transfers information from rays to the
boundaries they hit or pass through. Each Accumulator defines a variable, called the
accumulated variable, on the selected boundaries. The accumulated variable is

160 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

discretized using constant shape functions, so its value if uniform over every mesh
element and may be discontinuous between adjacent mesh elements.

The name of the accumulated variable is specified in the Accumulated variable name edit
field in the Accumulator Settings section of the settings window. The default variable
name, rpb, will be used in the remainder of this section when referring to the
accumulated variable.

The options in the Accumulator type list are Density and Count. If Density is selected, the
source term is divided by the surface area or length of the boundary mesh element
when calculating each ray’s contribution to the accumulated variable. If Count is
selected, no division by the surface area or length of the boundary element occurs.

The equations in the following section are valid for the Density type. The
corresponding value of the accumulated variable for the Count type is

rpb count = rpb density × V

where V is the boundary element surface area (in 3D) or length (in 2D).

When Rays in boundary elements is selected from the Accumulate over list, the
accumulated variable in a boundary element gets incremented by the source term R
whenever a ray freezes or sticks to the boundary:

R
rpb new = rpb + ----
V

where division by the mesh element area or length occurs because the accumulator is
assumed to be of type Density. Thus the source term evaluated for an incident ray is
uniformly distributed over the boundary element it freezes or sticks to.

If instead Ray-wall interactions is selected from the Accumulate over list, then the
accumulated variable gets incremented regardless of what type of ray-wall interaction
occurs. Thus, it is possible for the same ray to increment the accumulated variable in
many different boundary elements, or even in the same element multiple times.

BUILT-IN GLOBAL VARIABLES

By default, the boundary Accumulator defines the following global variables:
TABLE 3-5: BUILT-IN GLOBAL VARIABLES FOR BOUNDARY ACCUMULATORS

NAME EXPRESSION

<scope>.<name>_ave Average of accumulated variable

<scope>.<name>_int Integral of accumulated variable

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 161

 TABLE 3-5: BUILT-IN GLOBAL VARIABLES FOR BOUNDARY ACCUMULATORS

NAME EXPRESSION

<scope>.<name>_max Maximum of accumulated variable

<scope>.<name>_min Minimum of accumulated variable
<scope>.<name>_sum Sum of accumulated variable over elements
Here, <scope> includes the physics interface name and the names the Accumulator
and parent feature. For example, the average of the accumulated variable over a
boundary may be called gop.wall1.bacc1.rpb_ave, where gop is the name of the
Geometrical Optics interface, wall1 is the name of the parent Wall node, bacc1 is the
name of the Accumulator node, and rpb is the accumulated variable name. These
variables are all available in the Add/Replace Expression menus during results evaluation.

These global variables are computed by defining a set of component couplings on the
selection of the parent physics feature, such as the Wall feature to which the
Accumulators are added. The following expressions for the global variables are used.
TABLE 3-6: BUILT-IN GLOBAL VARIABLE DEFINITIONS FOR BOUNDARY ACCUMULATORS

NAME EXPRESSION

<scope>.<name>_ave <wscope>.aveop(<scope>.<name>)
<scope>.<name>_int <wscope>.intop(<scope>.<name>)
<scope>.<name>_max <wscope>.maxop(<scope>.<name>)
<scope>.<name>_min <wscope>.minop(<scope>.<name>)
<scope>.<name>_sum <wscope>.intop(<scope>.<name>/<scope>.meshVol)

Here, <wscope> is the scope of the parent boundary feature, e.g. goprac.wall1.

References for the Geometrical Optics Interface

1. L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz, The Classical Theory of Fields, 4th ed.,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1975.

2. B. Edlén, “The dispersion of standard air”, J. Optical Society of America, vol. 2,

pp. 339-344, 1953.

3. W. J. Tropf, “Temperature-dependent refractive index models for BaF2, CaF2,

MgF2, SrF2, LiF, NaF, KCL, ZnS, and ZnSe”, Optical Engineering, vol. 34,
pp. 1369-1373, 1995.

4. B. J. Frey, D. B. Leviton, T. J. Madison, “Temperature-dependent refractive index

of silicon and germanium”, Optomechanical Technologies for Astronomy, Proc. SPIE,
vol. 6273, 2006.

162 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES

5. H. J. Hoffmann, W. W. Jochs, G. Westenberger, “Dispersion formula for the
thermo-optic coefficient of optical glass”, Proc. SPIE, vol. 1327, 1990.

6. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 7th ed., Cambridge, 1999.

7. O.N. Stavroudis, The Optics of Rays, Wavefronts, and Caustics, Academic, 1972.

8. B.E.A. Saleh and M.C.Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics, Wiley, 1991.

9. R.M. More and K. Kosaka, “Wave-front curvature in geometrical optics”, Phys.

Rev. E, vol. 57, no. 5, pp. 6127–6134, 1998.

10. P.C.Y. Chang, J.G. Walker, and K.I. Hopcraft, “Ray tracing in absorbing media”,
J. Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer, vol. 96, pp. 327–341, 2005.

11. W. A. Shurcliff, Polarized Light: Production and Use, Harvard, 1962.

12. O. S. Heavens, Optical Properties of Thin Solid Films, Dover, 1991.

13. H. Anders, Thin Films in Optics, Focal Press, 1967.

14. D. Hestroffer and C. Magnan, “Wavelength dependency of the Solar limb

darkening”, Astron. Astrophysl, vol. 333, pp. 338–342, 1998.

15. ISO 24157:2008: Ophthalmic optics and instruments — Reporting aberrations

of the human eye. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva,
Switzerland.

16. ANSI Z80.28-2017: American National Standard for Ophthalmics — Methods

of Reporting Optical Aberrations of Eyes. American National Standards Institute,
Alexandria VA.

THEORY FOR THE GEOMETRICAL OPTICS INTERFACE | 163

164 | CHAPTER 3: RAY OPTICS INTERFACES
 4

Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings

The Ray Optics Module contains predefined multiphysics interfaces and couplings
to facilitate easy setup of models of ray propagation with significant attenuation and
heating. The Ray Heating physics interface described in this chapter is found under
the Optics>Ray Optics branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.

In this chapter:

• The Ray Heating Interface

• Theory for the Ray Heating Interface

165
 The Ray Heating Interface
The Ray Heating interface ( ) combines the Geometrical Optics interface with the
Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The Ray Heat Source multiphysics feature is added
automatically. The Ray Heating interface is used to model electromagnetic wave
propagation in optically large systems in which the refractive index is temperature
dependent. The energy lost due to the attenuation of rays in an absorbing medium
creates a heat source that is included in the temperature computation.

When a predefined Ray Heating interface is added from the Optics>Ray Optics
branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, Geometrical Optics and Heat
Transfer in Solids interfaces are added to the Model Builder. A Multiphysics node is also
added, which automatically includes the multiphysics coupling feature Ray Heat Source.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Geometrical Optics interface is used to model electromagnetic wave propagation
when the wavelength is much smaller than the smallest geometric entity in the model.
It includes built-in tools for computing the intensity, phase, and optical path length of
rays. The rays can be polarized, unpolarized, or partially polarized. Frequency
distributions and ray propagation in absorbing media are also supported.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface is used to model heat transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation. A Heat Transfer in Solids model is active by default on all
domains and a Heat Transfer in Fluids model is added with an empty selection. All
functionality for including other domain types, such as a fluid domain, is also available.
The temperature equation defined in solid domains corresponds to the differential
form of the Fourier’s law that may contain additional contributions like heat sources.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example Ray
Heating, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the coupling
features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

166 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

For example, if single Geometrical Optics and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are
added, COMSOL adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can choose from the available
coupling features but the modified settings are not included.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.

TABLE 4-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A RAY HEATING INTERFACE

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

COUPLING FEATURE

Geometrical Optics Compute intensity and power is selected from the

Intensity computation list in the physics interface Ray
Properties section.
Heat Transfer in Solids No changes.
Ray Heat Source The Domain Selection is the same as that of the
participating physics interfaces.
The corresponding Geometrical Optics and Heat
Transfer in Solids interfaces are preselected in the Ray
Heat Source section.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coupling Features
The Ray Heat Source coupling feature node is described in this section.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE RAY HEATING INTERFACE | 167

 • The available physics features for The Geometrical Optics Interface are listed in the
section List of Geometrical Optics Interface Physics Features.
• The available physics features for The Heat Transfer Interfaces are listed in the
sections Domain Features, Boundary Features, and Edge and Point Features in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Ray Heat Source

Use the Ray Heat Source multiphysics coupling ( ) to compute the heat source
resulting from the attenuation of rays in an absorbing medium. This heat source is
defined to a dependent variable that is defined on all domain mesh elements in the
selection of the Ray Heat Source node. The ray power should be solved for in the
coupled Geometrical Optics interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling in the model) is rhs1.

RAY HEAT SOURCE

This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. By default, the
applicable physics interface is selected in the Source and Destination lists.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder then the applicable list
defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, and in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics interface
again from the Source or Destination lists. This is applicable to all
multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the once
present physics interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

168 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Theory for the Ray Heating Interface
The Ray Heating Interface theory is described in this section:

• Unidirectional and Bidirectional Couplings

• Coupled Heat Transfer and Ray Tracing Equations
• Heat Source Calculation

Unidirectional and Bidirectional Couplings

The Ray Heating multiphysics interface combines geometrical optics with heat transfer
to compute the heat source that is generated as rays propagate through an absorbing
medium. The Ray Heating interface can either be used to set up a unidirectional or
bidirectional coupling between the constituent physics interfaces.

If the medium properties are not temperature dependent and the domains do not
undergo significant thermal expansion, then a unidirectional coupling is appropriate.
The heat source generated by the attenuation of rays can be included in the heat
transfer simulation by first computing the ray trajectories using a Ray Tracing study
step, then computing the temperature using a Stationary study step. Both study steps
are described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

If the refractive index of the medium is temperature dependent, a more accurate

approach is to set up a bidirectional coupling in which the attenuation of ray power
affects the temperature distribution, which in turn affects the ray trajectories. The two
physics can be solved for using an iterative solver loop consisting of a time-dependent
solver for the ray trajectories and a stationary solver for the temperature. Such a solver
sequence can be set up automatically using the Bidirectionally Coupled Ray Tracing
study step, also described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Coupled Heat Transfer and Ray Tracing Equations

Under static conditions, the heat equation can be written as

ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q

q = – k∇T

THEORY FOR THE RAY HEATING INTERFACE | 169

 where

• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the density,

• Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the heat capacity at constant pressure,
• T (SI unit: K) is the temperature,
• Q (SI unit: W/m3) is the heat source, and
• k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the thermal conductivity.

The propagation of each ray can be modeled using a set of coupled first-order
equations:

∂ω
------- = ∂ω
dk dq
------- = – ------- -------
dt ∂q dt ∂k

where k (SI unit: rad/m) is the wave vector, ω (SI unit: rad/s) is the angular
frequency, t (SI unit: s) is time, and q (SI unit: m) is the ray position vector. In an
isotropic medium, the frequency and wave vector are related by the expression

ck
ω = ------------
n( q)

where c = 2.99792458 × 108 m/s is the speed of light in a vacuum and n

(dimensionless) is the refractive index. If the medium is absorbing, then the intensity
of the ray decreases and it deposits some power in the domain as it passes through. This
is described in greater detail in the section Attenuation Within Domains in Theory for
the Geometrical Optics Interface.

A bidirectional coupling between the Geometrical Optics and Heat Transfer interfaces
may be required for any of the following reasons:

• The refractive index is temperature dependent.

• The medium undergoes thermal expansion and the refractive index is strain
dependent.
• The medium undergoes thermal expansion, causing rays be reflected or refracted at
different angles when entering or leaving the medium.

When none of these conditions is met, the Geometrical Optics interface affects the
Heat Transfer interface, and a unidirectional coupling is sufficient.

170 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Heat Source Calculation
Consider a ray j transferring an amount of power Qj through a domain. During a small
time interval Δt, the ray propagates a short distance Δs from initial position qj to
position qj+Δqj and its power decreases. The deposited ray power in the domain
increases by an amount equal in magnitude to the power lost by the ray but opposite
in sign:

N
∂Q j
Q src ( r, t + Δt ) ≈ Q src ( r, t ) –  --------
∂t
- Δtδ ( r – q j )
j=1

where δ is the Dirac delta function. In the limit as this time derivative becomes
arbitrarily small, this expression can be rewritten as

N
dQ src ∂Q j
--------------- = –
dt  --------
∂t
- δ ( r – qj )
j=1

In this expression, every ray is treated as an infinitesimally small point source. This can
lead to numerical issues because the heat source becomes infinitely large at the location
of each point source. In the following section an alternative expression for the domain
heat source is given.

CREATING A BOUNDED HEAT SOURCE TERM

The Ray Heat Source node defines a variable for the contribution to the heat source
by rays in each mesh element. This variable is discretized using constant shape
functions that are, in general, discontinuous across boundaries between elements. For
a mesh element j with volume Vj the average heat source Qsrc,j changes according to
the expression

N
dQ src 1 ∂Q j
--------------- = – -----
dt Vj  --------
∂t 
- δ ( r – q j ) dV
j=1

The integral on the right-hand side is a volume integral over element j. The resulting
time derivative of the heat source is the average value over the mesh element, which
may be written more concisely as

THEORY FOR THE RAY HEATING INTERFACE | 171

 Nj
dQ src, j 1 ∂Q j
------------------- = – -----
dt Vj  --------
∂t
-
i=1

where the sum is taken over all rays that are within mesh element j.

172 | CHAPTER 4: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

 5

Glossary

This Glossary of Terms contains modeling terms in a ray optics context. For
mathematical terms as well as geometry and CAD terms specific to the COMSOL
Multiphysics® software and documentation, see the glossary in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. For references to more information about a term,
see the index.

173
 Glossary of Terms
coherence The degree to which two rays interfere with each other, or to which a ray
may interfere with itself when subjected to a time delay.

diffraction order In a diffraction grating, an integer indicating the number of

wavelengths between waves emanating from adjacent unit cells before they
constructively interfere.

diffuse reflection Reflection at a surface in a random direction, following a probability

distribution based on Lambert's cosine law.

Fresnel equations A set of equations for computing the reflection coefficients and
transmission coefficients for rays as they cross a boundary between two media with
different refractive indices.

geometrical optics The analysis of electromagnetic wave propagation through

electrically large domains by treating the electromagnetic waves as rays.

grating A periodic structure from which transmitted and reflected radiation can only
propagate in specific directions governed by the frequency of radiation and the size of
the unit cell.

intensity A measure of the energy density of an electromagnetic wave; for a plane

polarized wave, the intensity is equal to the magnitude of the time-averaged Poynting
vector.

marginal ray The ray that is released from the center of the object at the maximum
aperture. This ray will pass through the edge of the aperture stop.

monochromatic light Light of uniform frequency or wavelength.

Mueller matrix A 4-by-4 matrix which can be multiplied by the Stokes vector to apply
the effects of various optical components to a ray.

optical dispersion model A function giving the refractive index as a function of

wavelength. The coefficients for any given model will usually be determined
empirically.

174 | CHAPTER 5: GLOSSARY

optical axis For simply rotationally symmetric optics, this is the axis of rotational
symmetry. The optical axis will pass through the center of curvature.

optical path length The integral of refractive index along the ray trajectory. Over a
given time interval, the optical path length of a ray is equal to the distance the ray
would have propagated in a vacuum.

phase The quantity that indicates the variation of the instantaneous electric field with
respect to time and position.

plane of incidence For non-normal incidence of a ray at a surface, the unique plane
containing the surface normal and the incident ray direction vector. For normal
incidence, any plane containing the surface normal may be selected.

polarization A description of the orientation of the electric field for a polarized or

partially polarized ray, and for the way in which this electric field varies as the ray
propagates.

polarization, circular The state of polarization in which the electric field amplitude has
two orthogonal components of equal magnitude, with a phase shift of π/2 between
them, such that the electric field vector traces a helical pattern as the ray propagates.

polarization, linear The state of polarization in which the electric field only oscillates
within a single plane.

power The energy transferred per unit time.

Poynting vector The vector representing the directional energy flux of an

electromagnetic field.

primary ray A ray that is released into a model independently of the trajectories of
other rays. Primary rays are created by release features.

principal curvature direction A unit vector which, together with the normal to a
surface, defines a plane in which one of the principal radii of curvature of a surface is
defined.

polychromatic light Light with a distribution of frequencies or wavelengths.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 175

 principal curvature The reciprocal of one of the principal radii of curvature of a
surface.

principal radii of curvature The maximum and minimum values of the radius of
curvature of curves that can be obtained via the intersection of a surface with a plane.

quasi-monochromatic light Light with a distribution of frequencies in which the

changes in free-space wavelength are much smaller than the average free-space
wavelength.

reflection coefficient A dimensionless coefficient that is used to compute the intensity

of reflected rays. At boundaries between media, reflection coefficients are computed
using the Fresnel equations.

refractive index The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a
medium. This is also known as the absolute refractive index.

refractive index, relative The ratio of the absolute refractive index to the refractive
index of air.

release feature A feature that releases a predetermined number of rays and assigns
initial values to dependent variables associated with the rays.

secondary ray A ray that is produced by the interaction of existing rays with a domain
or boundary feature. The degrees of freedom for all secondary rays are preallocated
when beginning to run a study.

Snell’s law The set of equations that indicates the directions in which reflected and
refracted rays will propagate when a ray interacts with a boundary between two media.

specular reflection Idealized reflection at a smooth surface in which the reflected ray
lies within the plane of incidence and the angles of incidence and reflection are equal.

Stokes parameters The four Stokes parameters completely characterize the intensity
and polarization of a fully polarized, partially polarized, or unpolarized ray. The Stokes
parameters can be interpreted as indicators of the ray intensity that would be measured
when sending a ray through various arrangements of polarizers and wave retarders.

thermo-optic dispersion model A function giving the change in refractive index as a

function of wavelength and temperature.

176 | CHAPTER 5: GLOSSARY

transmission coefficient A dimensionless coefficient that is used to compute the
intensity of refracted rays at boundaries between media. Transmission coefficients are
computed using the Fresnel equations.

wave vector A vector in the direction of ray propagation, which indicates the spatial
dependence of the instantaneous electric field for coherent radiation.

wave number The magnitude of the wave vector, equal to ω/c, where ω is the angular
frequency and c is the speed of light in the medium.

wave retarder An optical component that applies a phase shift to radiation of a specific
polarization with respect to radiation of an orthogonal polarization.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 177

178 | CHAPTER 5: GLOSSARY
I n d e x
A accumulator (node), boundaries 71 G general reflection, wall condition 68
accumulator (node), domains 88 grating (node) 97
accuracy order, of time stepping 60
H Herzberger dispersion model 64
Application Libraries window 11
Herzberger optical dispersion model 119
application library examples
I ideal depolarizer (node) 101
antireflective coating multilayer 74
illuminated surface (node) 95
distributed Bragg reflector 74
inlet (node)
sparse flow 27, 31, 34
ray optics 90
auxiliary dependent variable 70
inlet on axis (node) 94
auxiliary dependent variable (node) 104
intensity 56
C Cauchy dispersion model 64
intensity computation 32, 123–124
Cauchy optical dispersion model 119
interference 57
caustic surface 126
internet resources 9
circular wave retarder (node) 102
K knowledge base, COMSOL 12
common settings 9
compute intensity 57 L latitude 111
compute intensity and power 57 linear polarizer (node) 100
compute intensity and power in graded linear wave retarder (node) 101
media 57 longitude 111
compute intensity in graded media 57
M material discontinuity (node) 73
compute power 57
medium properties (node) 63
Conrady dispersion model 64
mirror (node) 71
Conrady optical dispersion model 119
mixed diffuse and specular reflection,
count reflections 58
wall condition 68
Coupling Operators 49
MPH-files 11
D deposited ray power (node), boundaries Mueller matrix (node) 103
87 multiphysics
deposited ray power (node), domains 87 ray heat source 168
diffraction order (node) 100
N nodes, common settings 9
diffuse scattering 60
nonlocal accumulator (node) 89
diffuse scattering, wall condition 67
O optical path length 58, 70
disappear, wall condition 67
documentation 9 P pass through, wall condition 67
phase 57
E emailing COMSOL 11
photometric data import (node) 79
F freeze, wall condition 67

INDEX| 179
 physics interfaces, common settings 9 specular reflection, wall condition 67
plane of incidence 126 standard settings 9
polarization 57 stick, wall condition 67
principal radii of curvature 126 store ray status data 58
sun position 112
R random number generation 60, 70
ray continuity (node) 109 T technical support, COMSOL 11
ray heat source (node), multiphysics 168 Temperature dependent Sellmeier opti-
ray index 46 cal dispersion model 119
ray position 61 Temperature-dependent Sellmeier dis-
ray properties (node) 79 persion model 64
ray termination (node) 113 thin dielectric film (node) 78
ray termination, theory 140 time zone 111
Refractive index of exterior domains 19, total number of rays 47
55 transmission probability 47
release (node) 80
W wall (node)
release from data file (node) 108
ray optics 67
release from edge (node) 104
wall condition 67
release from grid (node) 105
wave vector 61
release from grid on axis (node) 108
Wavelength distribution of released rays
release from point (node) 105
54
release from point on axis (node) 105
websites, COMSOL 12
S Schott dispersion model 64
Schott extended dispersion model 64
Schott extended optical dispersion mod-
el 119
Schott optical dispersion model 119
secondary rays 55
Sellmeier dispersion model 64
Sellmeier modified, type 1 dispersion
model 64
Sellmeier modified, type 1, optical dis-
persion model 119
Sellmeier modified, type 2 dispersion
model 64
Sellmeier modified, type 2, optical dis-
persion model 119
Sellmeier optical dispersion model 119
solar radiation (node) 110

180 | I N D E X