THE ASIAN SCHOOL, KINGDOM OF BAHRAIN

SUBJECT:PHYSICS

GRADE :12

Chapter 9-Alternating current

Alternating Current (AC) It is the current which varies in both magnitude as well as direction
alternatively and periodically.
I = I0 sin ωt or I = I0 cosωt where, I0 = peak value or maximum value of AC.
Effective Value or rms Value of AC It is defined as the value of AC over a complete cycle
which would generate same amount of heat in a given resistors that is generated by steady
current in the same resistor and in the same time during a complete cycle.
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CHAPTER 7 • v- instantaneous value of voltage ,

vm- peak value of voltage, ω - Angular
ALTERNATING CURRENT frequency.

AC Voltage and AC Current RMS Value (effective current)

• A voltage that varies like a sine function • r.m.s. value of a.c. is the d.c. equivalent
with time is called alternating voltage (ac which produces the same amount of heat
voltage). energy in same time as that of an a.c.
• It is denoted by Irms or I.
• The electric current whose magnitude • Relation between r.m.s. value and peak
changes with time and direction reverses value is
periodically is called the alternating 
current (ac current).
 
√2
Advantages of AC: • The r.m.s voltage is given by

• Easily stepped up or stepped down using 

transformer
 
√2
• Can be regulated using choke coil without Phasors
loss of energy
• A phasor is a vector which rotates about
• Easily converted in to dc using rectifier (Pn the origin with angular speed ω.
- diode)
• The vertical components of phasors V and
• Can be transmitted over distant places I represent the sinusoidally varying
quantities v and i.
• Production of ac is more economical
• The magnitudes of phasors V and I
Disadvantages of ac
represent the peak values vm and im
• Cannot used for electroplating - Polarity
of ac changes

• ac is more dangerous

• It can't store for longer time

Representation of ac
• The diagram representing alternating
voltage and current (phasors) as the
rotating vectors along with the phase
angle between them is called phasor
diagram.

AC Voltage applied to a Resistor

• An ac voltage can be represented as

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• The ac voltage applied to the resistor is

• Using the trigonometric identity,

• Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule
sin2 ωt = 1/2 (1– cos 2ωt )

< sin2 ωt > = (1/2) (1– < cos 2ωt >)

• Since < cos2ωt > = 0

• Since R is a constant, we can write this
equation as

• Thus
• Where peak value of current is

• Thus when ac is passed through a resistor • In terms of r.m.s value

the voltage and current are in phase with
each other.

• Or

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR

Phasor diagram

• Let the voltage across the source be

• Using the Kirchhoff’s loop rule

Instantaneous power

• The instantaneous power dissipated in

the resistor is
• Where L is the self-inductance
• Thus
Average power

• The average value of p over a cycle is • Integrating

or
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• Since the current is oscillating , the

• Thus a comparison of equations for the
constant of integration is zero.
source voltage and the current in an
• Using
inductor shows that the current lags the
voltage by π/2 or one-quarter (1/4) cycle.

• Where

Instantaneous power
• Or
• The instantaneous power supplied to the
inductor is

• Where XL- inductive reactance

Inductive reactance (XL)

• The resistance offered by the inductor to

an ac through it is called inductive
reactance.
• It is given by
Average power

• The average power over a complete cycle

• The dimension of inductive reactance is in an inductor is
the same as that of resistance and its SI
unit is ohm (Ω).

• The inductive reactance is directly

proportional to the inductance and to the
frequency of the current.
• since the average of sin (2ωt) over a
Phasor Diagram
complete cycle is zero.
• We have the source voltage
• Thus, the average power supplied to an
inductor over one complete cycle is zero.

• The current
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AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR

• Where XC – capacitive reactance

Capacitive Reactance

• It is the resistance offered by the

capacitor to an ac current through it.
• The dimension of capacitive reactance is
• A capacitor in a dc circuit will limit or
the same as that of resistance and its SI
oppose the current as it charges.
unit is ohm (Ω).
• When the capacitor is connected to an ac
source, it limits or regulates the current, Phasor Diagram
but does not completely prevent the flow
• The applied voltage is
of charge.
• Let the applied voltage be
• The current is

• The instantaneous voltage v across the

capacitor is

• Thus the current leads voltage by π/2.

• Where q is the charge on the capacitor.
• Using the Kirchhoff’s loop rule

• Therefore

• Using the relation

Instantaneous power

• The instantaneous power supplied to the

capacitor is

• Where

Average power

• The average power is given by

• Or
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• Thus the average power over a cycle

when an ac passed through a capacitor is
zero.

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

• The length of these phasors VR, VC

and VL are:

• Let the voltage of the source to be

v = vm sin ωt
• Also
• From Kirchhoff’s loop rule:

• Since VC and VL are always along the

• Where , q - the charge on the capacitor same line and in opposite directions,
i – current they can be combined into a single
• Using, i=dq/dt phasor (VC + VL) which has a
magnitude |vCm – vLm|
• Since V is represented as the
hypotenuse of a right-traingle whose
Phasor-diagram solution sides are VR and (VC + VL), the
pythagorean theorem gives:
• Since the current through resistor,
inductor and capacitor is the same as
they are in series.
• If φ is the phase difference between the
voltage across the source and the current • Thus
in the circuit,

• Let I be the phasor representing the

current in the circuit and VL, VR, VC, and
V represent the voltage across the
• Therefore
inductor, resistor, capacitor and the
source, respectively.
• The phasor diagram is
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• Or • If XC > XL , φ is positive and the circuit is

predominantly capacitive.

• If XC < XL , φ is negative and the circuit is

predominantly inductive.

• Z is called impedance .

Impedance

• It is the effective resistance offered by the

inductor, capacitor and resistor in an LCR
circuit.
• Impedance is given by
L C R RESONANCE

• For an LCR circuit the impedance

Impedance Triangle

• If XC= XL , then Z = R, the impedance is

minimum and the current in the circuit is
maximum – LCR Resonance
• A series LCR circuit, which admits
• Since phasor I is always parallel to phasor maximum current corresponding to a
VR, the phase angle φ is the angle particular angular frequency of the ac
between VR and V. source is called a series resonant circuit.
• Resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a
• Thus circuit only if both L and C are present in
the circuit.

Resonant frequency

• The angular frequency at which the

• Or
current is maximum in an LCR circuit is
called resonant frequency (ω0).
• That is

• Thus
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• At resonant frequency, the maximum • We choose a value of ω for which the

current is given by current amplitude is 1/ √2 ?mes its
maximum value.

Graph showing variation of im with ω

Applications of resonance

• In the tuning mechanism of a radio or a TV • At this value, the power dissipated by

set
the circuit becomes half.
• In metal detectors. • Thus

Tuning of radio or TV

• In tuning, the capacitance of a capacitor in

the tuning circuit is varied such that the
• The difference ω1 – ω2 = 2Δω is
resonant frequency of the circuit becomes
called the bandwidth of the circuit.
nearly equal to the frequency of the radio
• The quantity (ω0 / 2Δω) is regarded
signal received.
as a measure of the sharpness of
• At this frequency , the amplitude of the
resonance.
current with the frequency of the signal of
• The smaller the Δω, the sharper or
the particular radio station in the circuit is
narrower is the resonance.
maximum.

Sharpness of resonance

• The amplitude of the current in the

series LCR circuit is given by

• The maximum value is

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• So, larger the value of Q, the smaller is the

value of 2Δω or the bandwidth and
sharper is the resonance.
• Also

• If the resonance is less sharp, not only is

the maximum current less, the circuit is
close to resonance for a larger range Δω
of frequencies and the tuning of the
circuit will not be good.
• So, less sharp the resonance, less is the
selectivity of the circuit or vice versa.

POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: THE POWER FACTOR

• Using
• We have

• Where

• Therefore, the instantaneous power p

supplied by the source is

• Therefore

• The quantity cosφ is called the power

factor.

Special cases
• Thus
Resistive circuit:

• If the circuit contains only pure R, it is

called
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resistive. In that case φ= 0, cosφ = 1. • This equation has the formfor a simple
There is maximum power dissipation. harmonic oscillator

Purely inductive or capacitive circuit:

• If the circuit contains only an inductor or

capacitor, the phase difference between
voltage and current is π/2. • The charge, therefore, oscillates with a
• Therefore, cos φ= 0, and no power is natural frequency
dissipated even though a current is
flowing in the circuit. This current is
sometimes referred to as wattless
current. • The charge varies sinusoidally with time
LCR series circuit: as
• In an LCR series circuit the power is
dissipated only in the resistor.
Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit: • Where qm is the maximum value of q and
• At resonance Xc – XL= 0, and φ = 0. φ is a phase constant.
Therefore, cos φ = 1 and P = I 2Z = I 2 R. • When φ = 0
• That is, maximum power is dissipated in a
circuit (through R) at resonance.
LC OSCILLATIONS
• The current is
• When a capacitor (initially charged) is
connected to an inductor, the charge on
the capacitor and the current in the circuit
exhibit the phenomenon of electrical
• The LC oscillation is similar to the
oscillations similar to oscillations in
mechanical oscillation of a block attached
mechanical systems.
to a spring.

Comparison between an electrical system and a

mechanical system

• According to Kirchhoff’s loop rule,

• But
• Therefore
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