ISSN: 0077-880X

STUDIES FROM
SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

CRACKING IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES -

CALCULATION OF CRACK WIDTH AND CRACK SPACING

BY

R I GILBERT

UNICIV REPORT No. R-467 MARCH 2018

UNSW Sydney 2052 Australia
http:/ /www.civeng.unsw.edu.au

ISBN: 978-0-7334-3809-7
 UNSW SYDNEY
SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET ISSN 0077-880X

1. UNICIV Report No. R-467 2. ISBN: 978-0-7334-3809-7 3. DATE: March 2018

4. Title and Subtitle:

CRACKING IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES -
CALCULATION OF CRACK WIDTH AND CRACK SPACING

5. Author: Raymond Ian Gilbert

Affiliation: School of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
UNSW Australia, Sydney, Australia

6. Keywords: cracking; restraint, serviceability; shrinkage; tensile creep; time-dependent

7. Abstract:
Cracks occur in reinforced concrete structures wherever and whenever the tensile stress in the
concrete reaches the tensile strength of the concrete. After concrete sets and hardens, tensile stress
at any location may be caused by factors such as early-age heat of hydration, applied loads,
restrained shrinkage, temperature changes, settlement of the supports and so on. This report deals
with the time-dependent development of stresses and strains before and after cracking in the
tensile regions of reinforced concrete members and contains recommended procedures for the
prediction of the spacing between cracks and the maximum crack width. Cracking caused by
restraint to shrinkage in a variety of situations is considered, in addition to cracking caused by
applied loads. The procedures are taken from Ref.1 which was prepared by the author and others
for the Concrete Institute of Australia.

1. Gilbert, R.I., Papworth, F. and Paull, R. (2017), “Concrete Cracking and Crack Control”, Z7/06 - Concrete Durability Series –
Recommended Practice, Concrete Institute of Australia, 148 p. (ISBN 978-0-9941738-3-6 print ISBN 078-0-909375-00-3
electronic pdf)

8. Number of Pages: 48

1
 Cracking in concrete structures -
calculation of crack width and crack spacing

by

R. I. Gilbert 1

Synopsis: Cracks occur in reinforced concrete structures wherever and whenever the
tensile stress in the concrete reaches the tensile strength of the concrete. After concrete
sets and hardens, tensile stress at any location may be caused by factors such as early-age
heat of hydration, applied loads, restrained shrinkage, temperature changes, settlement of
the supports and so on. This report deals with the time-dependent development of stresses
and strains before and after cracking in the tensile regions of reinforced concrete members
and contains recommended procedures for the prediction of the spacing between cracks
and the maximum crack width. Cracking caused by restraint to shrinkage in a variety of
situations is considered, in addition to cracking caused by applied loads. The procedures
are taken from Ref.1 which was prepared by the author and others for the Concrete
Institute of Australia.

Keywords: cracking; restraint, serviceability; shrinkage; tensile creep; time-dependent.

1 Ian Gilbert is Emeritus Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of New South Wales.
Email: [email protected]

2
1. INTRODUCTION

In many situations, cracking in reinforced concrete structures is inevitable. Cracks occur

wherever and whenever the tensile stress in the concrete reaches the tensile strength of the
concrete. After the concrete sets and hardens, tensile stress at any location may be caused by
many different factors, including early-age heat of hydration, applied loads, restrained
shrinkage, temperature changes, settlement of supports and so on. Cracks caused by restraint
to load-independent deformation, including deformations due early-age cooling, shrinkage or
ambient temperature changes, are termed intrinsic cracks. Cracks caused by applied loads are
often called structural cracks. After cracking, further shrinkage induced deformation causes a
significant increase in the width of cracks with time.

Many variables influence the width and spacing of intrinsic cracks, including the quantity,
orientation and distribution of the reinforcement crossing the crack, the cover to the
reinforcement, the bond characteristics of the reinforcement, the deformational properties of
the concrete (including its creep and shrinkage characteristics), the environment and the size
of the member. Considerable variations exist in the crack width from crack to crack and in the
spacing between adjacent cracks, because of random variations in the properties of the in-situ
concrete.

Control of cracking in concrete structures is often achieved by limiting the stress in the
bonded reinforcement at the cracked section to some appropriately low value and ensuring
that the bonded reinforcement is suitably distributed within the tensile zone. Building codes
usually specify the maximum bar spacing for bonded reinforcement and the maximum
concrete cover. Deterministic procedures for calculating crack widths are often specified, with
the intention to control cracking by limiting the calculated crack width to some appropriately
low value. However, the influence of shrinkage on crack widths is often not adequately
considered and, as a consequence, excessively wide cracks in reinforced concrete structures
are a relatively common problem.

The acceptance or rejection of concrete that has cracked, and the identification of
appropriate repair methodologies, depends on a number of factors, but an adverse impact on
aesthetics or appearance of concrete or its durability are possibly the main reasons. The
assessment of cracking is very subjective and it is difficult to quantify the number and/or size
of cracks that constitute unacceptable performance, as many unrelated factors play a part.
Cracks widths up to 0.3 mm wide are generally acceptable aesthetically, but specification
of maximum crack width should consider the viewing distance and the type and significance of
the structure. These factors have been combined in recommendations made in [Ref. 1] and are
reproduced in Figure 1, where it is assumed that there are no structural or durability concerns
with the cracking and that appearance is the sole concern. The acceptable crack width from a
particular viewing distance reduces as the prestige of the structure increases and, for a given
building, the acceptable crack width increases as the viewing distance increases. Figure 1 is
provided here for a guide only. The selection of the maximum acceptable crack width on any
concrete surface is a matter of engineering judgement.

2
 Figure 1 can be used, together with an indication of the cost of designing for finer cracks, to
help owners determine what design crack width is suitable for each structure when appearance
is the only concern. Where cracks are hidden from view, including cracks at joints, aesthetics is
not a consideration and wider crack widths may be acceptable if durability requirements are
satisfied.
As there is no evidence to show that cracks widths below 0.5 mm increase the risk of
corrosion damage in atmospheric exposures, it is recommended that a safe crack limit below
this be adopted (see Table 1). There is relatively little guidance available on acceptable
maximum crack widths. Eurocode 2 [Ref. 2] suggests limits of 0.3 mm to 0.4 mm under normal
exposure conditions. Table 1 contains some recommended maximum final crack widths [Refs. 1]
Serviceability and/or durability problems may arise if the final crack widths in the structure
exceed these values.
It is important to appreciate that the values given in Table 1 are the total crack widths
caused by early-age deformations, long-term deformations and loading. Where it is apparent
that long-term effects will be additive to early age cracking then the limiting crack width
associated with early deformations should be reduced accordingly. Where load induced tension
and the contraction strains due to shrinkage and early-age cooling are in the same direction,
there is a higher likelihood that the effects on crack spacing and crack width will be additive.
When the load and shrinkage strains are perpendicular, they may be considered to act
independently.

Figure 1: Maximum specified crack width based on aesthetics requirements [Ref. 1]

4
 Table 1: Recommended maximum final design crack width, wmax [Ref. 1]

Maximum final crack

Environment Design requirement
width, wmax (mm)
Sheltered environment: Aesthetic requirement:
- where cracking could adversely affect Owner and designer to determine
(where crack widths will not the appearance of the structure based on guidance in Figure 1
adversely affect durability)
- where cracking will not be visible and Designer to consider impact of
aesthetics is not important crack width on shear strength
Exposed environment : Durability requirement:
(eg. exterior surfaces in
- where wide cracks could lead to Reinforced concrete 0.3
above-ground locations)
corrosion of reinforcement Prestressed concrete 0.22
Aggressive environment: Durability requirement:
(eg. Surfaces of marine - where wide cracks could lead to Reinforced concrete
structures in or near sea corrosion of reinforcement 0.30 (when c1 ≥ 50 mm)
water - spray zones, 0.20 (otherwise),
tidal/spash zones): Prestressed concrete 0.2
Water retaining and water Water tightness (with acceptable crack 0.2 or lower depending on
excluding width depending on the requirements for hydrostatic head
leakage)

1 c is the concrete cover to the nearest steel reinforcement.

2 For prestressed concrete in the interior of buildings where crack widths will not adversely affect durability
throughout the design life, the limits for reinforced concrete apply.

This report contains a summary of recommended procedures for the control of cracking by
the calculation of crack widths and crack spacings in a variety of design situations, including:

(i) shrinkage cracking in members with internal restraint provided by embedded

reinforcement;
(ii) shrinkage cracking in elements with external end restraint;
(iii) shrinkage cracking in elements with external edge restraint
(iv) load induced cracking due to bending and axial tension.

The procedures are taken from Ref. 1 which was prepared by the author and others for the
Concrete Institute of Australia.

5
2. PRINCIPLES OF CRACK FORMATION IN REINFORCED CONCRETE

2.1 Concrete Strain Components

Cracks form at a particular location in concrete when the concrete stress exceeds the tensile
strength at that point. However, the prediction of the onset of cracking is not straightforward. The
instantaneous tensile strength of concrete fct(t0) increases with the age of concrete at first loading
t0 and is a highly variable property of concrete. Under sustained tension, however, micro-cracking
associated with tensile creep reduces the tensile strength and cracking may occur weeks or
months after first loading at stress levels significantly less than fct(t0). The elastic modulus of the
concrete also increases with time, Ec(t). Restraint to shrinkage and cooling produces tensile stress
in the concrete, even as the concrete shortens and, quite frequently, cracking occurs in concrete
when the total concrete strain is compressive.
Under typical in-service conditions, the concrete strain at any point in a structure εc(t) is the
sum of a number of components, including the instantaneous (elastic) strain εce(t), the creep
strain εcc(t) and the shrinkage strain εcs(t) (where εcs(t) is the sum of the autogenous shrinkage
εcsa(t) and drying shrinkage εcsd(t)). If the temperature changes, there will also be a temperature
component εcT(t).

εc(t) = εce(t) + εcc(t) + εcs(t)+ εcT(t) = εce(t)+ εcc(t)+ εfree(t) (1)

The sum of the non-mechanical shrinkage and temperature strains is here referred to as the
unrestrained or free shrinkage strain, εfree(t) = εcT(t)+εcs(t).

The elastic strain and the creep strain are related to stress and are produced by the external
loads and by the restraining forces that develop as the concrete shrinks. The various strain
components and their rates of change with time are illustrated in Figure 2a for a concrete
specimen subjected to a constant sustained compressive stress σc0 first applied at time t0. Figure
2b shows the corresponding strain components for an uncracked specimen subjected to a
sustained tensile stress. In Figure 2, td is the time when the shrinkage commences. If the
sustained tension is high enough in Figure 2b, cracking may occur at some time after first
loading when the total strain is compressive.

2.2 Restrained Shrinkage Cracking

Consider the unloaded, but fully restrained, reinforced concrete member shown in Figure 3a. The
member is prevented from shortening at each end by rigid supports, so until the concrete cracks, the total
concrete and steel strains are zero. Assuming the member remains uncracked, the development of the
various strain components caused by early-age cooling and concrete shrinkage strains is shown in Figure
3b, where tensile strains are plotted below the time axis. The concrete free shrinkage strain εfree(t)
commences at time td and increases in magnitude with time at a decreasing rate. As the concrete shrinks,
the restraining force Ft(t) gradually increases producing tensile stress in the concrete (and tensile elastic
and creep strains). The sum of the elastic and creep strains is the so-called restrained strain and, in a
fully-restrained member, is equal and opposite to the shrinkage strain at any time before cracking.
6
 TotalTotal
Concrete Strain
Concrete εc(t)
Strain εc(t)

(t) − creep
εεcccc(t) - creep (compressive
(compressive)

(t) − -instantaneous
εεcece(t) instantaneous

εεcsfree
(t)(t)− shrinkage
- shrinkage + temperature

00 ttdd tt00 Time,

Time, tt
Compressive
Compressive
Stress σσc0c0
Stress

tt00 Time,t t
Time,
(a) Concrete
(a) Concrete strain components
strain components undercompressive
under sustained sustained compressive
stress [Ref. 5]stress
TotalConcrete
Total Concrete εcsε(t)
free-(t)
shrinkage εεcece(t) - instantaneous
(t) - instantaneous,
Strainεcε(t)
Strain c(t)

εcc(t)(t) -- creep,
εcc creep (tensile)
(tensile)

00 ttdd t0 Time,t t
Time,
Tensile
Tensile t00 Time,t t
Time,
Stress σσc0c0
Stress

(b) Concrete
(b) Concrete strain components
strain components under sustained
under sustained tensile stress
tensile stress.

Figure 2: Concrete strain components under sustained compressive and tensile stresses

Eventually, the first crack will occur on the weakest cross-section when the tensile stress σc(t)
(=Ft(t)/Ac) reaches the tensile strength of the concrete on that cross-section fct(t) (usually within a week
of the commencement of drying in a fully-restrained members). The stress that develops in the concrete
due to restraint to shrinkage is significantly reduced by tensile creep and tensile creep therefore delays
the onset of first cracking. When the concrete cracks, the stress at the crack drops to zero and, therefore,
so too does the tensile elastic strain. The net concrete strain becomes compressive and the magnitude of
the restraining force drops as the crack opens to accommodate the shortening of the concrete.
Figure 3c shows the member immediately after the first crack has occurred and Figures 3d and 3e
show the corresponding concrete and steel stresses in the restrained member. At first cracking, the
restraining force reduces significantly from Ac fct to Ft0, depending on the amount of reinforcement,
and the concrete stress away from the crack is less than the tensile strength of the concrete fct. The
concrete on either side of the crack shortens elastically and the crack opens to a width w(t) that
depends on the area of reinforcement. At the crack, the steel carries the entire force Ft0 and the stress
in the concrete is zero. In the region adjacent to the crack (Region 2 in Figure 3d), the concrete and
steel stresses vary considerably and the bond stress at the steel-concrete interface is high. At some
distance so on each side of the crack, the concrete and steel stresses are no longer influenced directly
by the presence of the crack, as shown in Figures 3d and 3e (Region 1).
7
 As = area of reinforcing steel
As = area of reinforcing steel A = area of concrete cross-section
Ac c= area of concrete cross-section

FtF(t)
t (t) (t) =A
FFtt(t) cσ
= Acσ c(t)
c(t)
L
L

(a) Restrained member before first cracking

(a) Restrained member.
Strain

εεcc(t)(t)
cc

εεcece
(t)(t)= σc(t)/E
= σc(t)/E c(t) c

τd Time
td Time
Totalstrain
Total strain
εc(t) = 0
εc(t) = 0 εεcsfree
(t) (t)

(b) Strain versus time.

(b) Strain versus time before first cracking

FFt0t0 FFt0t0
LL

(a)(e)
Restrained member
Restrained after
member first
after cracking
first cracking
ssoo ssoo
σσc1
c1 σσc1c1

Region 1 Region2 2
Region Region 1 1
Region 1 Region

(b)(d)
Concrete stress
Concrete just
stress after
just afterfirst
firstcracking
cracking
σσs2s2

σσs1s1 ssoo ssoo σ

σs1s1
ww

(c)(c)
Steel stress
Steel justjust
stress after first
after cracking
first cracking

Figure 3: Concrete stress and strain history in an end-restrained member with concrete shrinkage [Ref 3].

The magnitude of Ft0 immediately after first cracking depends on the amount of steel in the
member. If no steel is present, the restraining force drops to zero (Ft0 = 0) and the crack opens widely,
with the initial crack width equal to w = εce(t)L = fct(t)L/Ec(t). The crack will subsequently become
significantly wider as further shrinkage (and creep recovery) occurs in the now unrestrained member,
8
and no additional cracking can occur. However, if the area of steel is relatively large, cracking does
not reduce the restraining force significantly and the crack width remains small. Further shrinkage
will cause a gradual increase in Ft(t) and additional cracks will develop with time. By including
sufficient reinforcement, many cracks will develop in a restrained member, but each crack will be fine
and well-controlled. Insufficient reinforcement may result in the steel yielding at the first crack and a
single, wide and unserviceable crack will result.
As has been demonstrated, the amount and distribution of reinforcement greatly affect the spacing
between cracks and the crack widths. Both crack spacing and crack width decrease as the area of
reinforcement increases.
The member shown in Figure 3 is restrained at each end. Frequently, slabs and walls are restrained
on one or more sides and this edge restraint may result in cracking perpendicular to the restrained
edge. As is the case for end restraint, the width and spacing of edge restraint cracking depends on the
quantity and distribution of reinforcement.

2.3 Load Induced Cracking – Due to Axial Tension

Consider the uniaxially loaded tension member shown in Figure 4a. Before cracking, the concrete
tensile stress increases with increasing load. When the stress in the concrete first reaches the tensile
strength at a particular section, a primary crack occurs at the applied load Pcr (see Figure 4b). The first
crack occurs at the weakest cross-section when the concrete tensile stress reaches the direct tensile
strength of the section at the time of loading, fct(t). The stress in the concrete at the crack drops to zero.
The concrete stress increases with distance from the crack due to the steel-concrete bond, until at some
distance so from the crack, the concrete stress is no longer affected by the crack, as shown in Figure
4c. Slip at the concrete-steel interface in the region of significant bond stress (i.e. over the length so on
either side of the crack) causes the crack to open. The situation is similar to the direct tension cracking
due to restrained shrinkage, except that the applied load P may remain constant after cracking as it
may not be dependent on member stiffness.
A relatively small increase in load will cause a second primary crack to develop at a cross-
section at some distance x ≥ so from the first crack, thereby reducing the concrete stress in the
vicinity of that crack. Eventually, under increasing load, primary cracks form at somewhat regular
intervals along the member and the primary crack pattern is established. Primary cracks increase in
width as the distance from the reinforcement bar increases, but tend to be more parallel sided at
distances greater than 2 bar diameters from the bar. Under increasing load, it is reasonable to
assume that the primary crack pattern will be established when the load P reaches between 1.4Pcr
and 1.8Pcr. The concrete tensile stress at each primary crack is zero, rising to a maximum value σc1
(less than the tensile strength of the concrete) mid-way between adjacent cracks, as shown in Figure
4d. After the primary crack pattern is established, further increases in load may result in cover-
controlled cracks developing between the primary cracks gradual breaking down the bond between
the steel and the concrete and reducing tension stiffening still further (see Figure 4b). Under
sustained load, the average tensile stress in the concrete gradually reduces primarily due to cracking
and bond breakdown caused by drying shrinkage and, to a lesser extent, tensile creep.

9
P
P

PP

(a) Axially
Axially loaded tension membermember
ssoo ssoo
(a) loaded tension σc0
σc

Cover controlled cracking

cover-controlled cracking and
load, P

and bondbondbreakdown
breakdown
(c) Concrete
(c) Concrete stressimmediately
stress immediately afterafter
first cracking
first cracking
primary crack
Primary crack
P, kN

formation
formation
Axial

(c) Concrete stress immediately after first cracking

Axial Load

PPcrcr
Tension stiffening
Tension stiffening strain strain

Average member
Average strain
member strain σσc1c1

(b) Axial
(b) Axial loadload
versus average
versus axial strain
average response
axial strain (d) Concrete stress
(d) Concrete afterafter
stresses crack
crackpattern established
pattern established

Figure 4: Cracking behaviour of an axially loaded tension member

Tension stiffening in a reinforced concrete member arises from the tensile stresses carried by the
concrete between cracks. Tension stiffening contributes significantly to the stiffness of a member and is
an important consideration when designing for deflection and crack control at the serviceability limit
states. Tension stiffening is particularly significant in relatively lightly reinforced members, where the
actual stiffness may be several times larger than the stiffness calculated on the basis of fully-cracked
cross-sections, where tensile concrete is ignored and only the embedded tensile reinforcement is
considered. Tension stiffening decreases when the average tensile stress in the concrete drops due to
increases in either the magnitude or duration of the applied load.

2.4 Load Induced Cracking – Due to Bending

When the tensile strength of the concrete is reached at the extreme tensile fibre of a flexural
member, primary flexural cracks develop at regular spacings on the tensile side of the member,
as shown in Figure 5a. A sudden loss of stiffness occurs at first cracking and the short-term
moment-curvature relationship becomes non-linear. The primary cracks penetrate
spontaneously to a height ho (see Figure 5a) that depends on the quantity of steel and the
magnitude of any axial force or prestress. For reinforced concrete members in pure bending
with no axial force, the height of the primary cracks ho immediately after cracking is usually
relatively high (0.6 to 0.9 times the depth of the member) and remains approximately constant
under increasing bending moments until either the steel reinforcement yields or the concrete
stress-strain relationship in the compressive region becomes non-linear. For prestressed
members and members subjected to bending plus axial compression, ho may be relatively
small initially and gradually increases as the applied moment increases, even when material
behaviour is linear-elastic.

10
 The stress in the tensile reinforcement and the stress in the concrete at the steel level for the
cracked member are illustrated in Figures 5b and 5c, respectively. Immediately after first cracking,
the intact concrete between adjacent primary cracks carries considerable tensile force, mainly in
the direction of the reinforcement, due to the bond between the steel and the concrete. Over a
gauge length containing several cracks, the average concrete tensile stress σc.av at typical in-service
levels of applied moment is a significant percentage of the tensile strength of the concrete. The steel
stress is a maximum at a crack, where the steel carries the entire tensile force, and drops to a
minimum between the cracks, as shown in Figure 5b. The bending stiffness of

Primary cracks
M M
ho

Reinforcement
(a)
(a) Elevation
Elevation
σst.max
s.max

(b) Stress
(b) Stress inintensile
tensilereinforcement
reinforcement

σc.avg
c.av

(c) Tensile
(c) Tensile stress
stressininconcrete
concreteat at
steel level
steel level

Figure 5: Stress distributions at the steel level in a cracked reinforced concrete member [Ref. 4]

the member is considerably greater than that based on a fully-cracked section, where concrete in
tension is assumed to carry zero stress. This tension stiffening effect may be significant in the
service-load performance of beams, and even more so for lightly reinforced slabs.
The Euler-Bernoulli assumption that plane sections remain plane is not strictly true for a
cross-section in the cracked region of a beam. However, if strains are measured over a gauge
length containing several primary cracks, the average strain diagram is linear over the depth of a
cracked cross-section.
As the load increases above the cracking moment Mcr, and after the primary cracks have
developed, secondary cracks (or cover-controlled cracks) form around the reinforcement between
the primary cracks, the average concrete tensile stress drops and the tension stiffening effect
gradually reduces. A typical moment versus average curvature relationship for a reinforced
concrete cross-section in pure bending is shown in Figure 6a as the solid line OAB. A typical
applied in-service moment in the post-cracking range is designated Ms in the figure. Also shown in
the figure as the dashed line OC of slope (EI)cr is the moment-curvature relationship for the fully-
cracked cross-section. As moment increases after first cracking, the flexural rigidity gradually

11
reduces from that of the uncracked section (EI)uncr at first cracking and approaches that of the
fully-cracked section (EI)cr as the moment becomes large, as shown.
If a flexural member, such as that shown in Figure 5a, begins to shrink prior to loading, as is
commonly the case, a shrinkage induced curvature κcs.uncr develops on the uncracked cross
section when the applied moment is still zero (i.e. Ms = 0), shown in Figure 6b as point O′. The
restraint to shrinkage provided by the bonded reinforcement causes the tensile stress σcs to
develop with time in the concrete. The moment required to cause first cracking Mcr.sh0 is less
than Mcr, as indicated in Figure 6b, where the moment curvature relationship is now
represented by curve O′A′B′. The initial curvature due to early shrinkage on a fully-cracked
cross-section (κcs.cr), where the cracked concrete is assumed to carry no tension, is significantly
larger than that of the uncracked member (κcs.uncr). Therefore, early shrinkage before loading
causes the dashed line representing the fully-cracked response to move further to the right,
shown as line O′′C′ in Figure 6b.

stiffening, δκ
Tensionstiffening,
Tension
B C
Moment
Moment
Average M
Average, vsκκ
M vs
(EI)crcr
(EI)

(EI)
(EI)uncr
uncr
Concrete carries
Concrete carriesno
no
tension anywhere
M
Mss tension anywhere

MMcrcr A

Uncracked
Uncracked
cross-section
cross-section

O Curvature,κ κ
Curvature,
(a)
(a)No
No shrinkage priortotoloading
shrinkage prior loading

B′ C′
Moment
Moment Tension
Tensionstiffening, δκ
stiffening,δκ

Average, vs κκ
AverageMMvs
(EI)uncr
uncr
(EI)
(EI)crcr

MM
ss

Concrete carries
Concrete carriesno
no
A′ tension
tensionanywhere
anywhere
MMcr.sh0
cr.sh0

Uncracked
Uncracked
cross-section
cross-section
O′ O′′
O κ Curvature,κκ
Curvature,
cs.uncr κκ
κcs.uncr cs.cr
cs.cr

(b) Shrinkage
(b) strainεεcs,0
Shrinkage strain cs.0prior
priorto to
loading
loading

Figure 6: Moment-average curvature relationship for a reinforced concrete cross-section at first loading, t0

12
 For a prestressed concrete member, or a reinforced concrete member in combined bending
and compression, the effect of tension stiffening is less pronounced because the loss of stiffness
of the cracked section is less abrupt. As the applied moment increases, the depth of the primary
cracks increases gradually (in contrast to the sudden crack propagation in a reinforced member
in pure bending) and the depth of the concrete compressive zone is significantly greater than
would be the case if no axial force was present.
As discussed in the previous section, tension stiffening is the contribution of the intact tensile
concrete between the cracks to the post-cracking stiffness of the member. At each crack, the tensile
concrete carries no stress, but as the distance from the crack increases, the tensile stress in the
concrete increases due to the bond between the concrete and the tensile reinforcement. As the load
increases, the average tensile stress in the concrete reduces as more cracks develop and, when the
crack pattern is fully developed and the number of cracks has stabilized, the actual response
becomes approximately parallel to the no tension response (OC in Figure 6a or O′′C′ in Figure 6b).
For slabs containing small quantities of tensile reinforcement (typically in floor slabs Ast/bd < 0.005),
tension stiffening may be responsible for more than 50% of the stiffness of the cracked member at
service loads and δκ (in Figure 6) remains significant up to and even beyond the point where the
steel yields and the ultimate load is approached.
The keys to predicting the instantaneous deformation of a flexural member at service loads
are firstly to evaluate the load required to cause first cracking or, more precisely, the moment to
cause first cracking at the critical cross-section, and secondly to model tension stiffening
accurately. Both of these tasks are not straight-forward and must include consideration of the
effects of shrinkage.

3. INCLUDING TENSILE CREEP AND SHRINKAGE IN CRACKED SECTION ANALYSIS

3.1 The Age-adjusted Effective Modulus Method (Refs. 4 to 7)

Consider the two concrete stress histories and the corresponding creep-time curves shown in
Figure 7. In stress history (a), σc(t0) is applied at time t0 and subsequently held constant with time.
In stress history (b), the stress σc(t) is gradually applied, beginning at t0 and reaching a magnitude
equal to σc(t0) at time t1. The creep strain at any time t (> t0) produced by the gradually applied
stress σc(t) is significantly smaller than that resulting from the stress σc(t0) abruptly applied at t0,
as shown. This is due to aging. The earlier a concrete specimen is loaded, the greater is the final
creep strain. The creep strain at time t1 due to the constant stress history, εcc.a(t1), is the product of
the elastic strain (σc(t0)/Ec) and ϕcc, where ϕcc is the creep coefficient at time t1 due to a stress first
applied at t0. A reduced creep coefficient χccϕcc can be used to calculate the creep strain at t1
caused by the gradually applied stress history (b), εcc.b(t1), where χcc is called the aging coefficient
(< 1.0) first introduced by Trost (Ref. 5). The magnitude of the aging coefficient χcc generally falls
within the range 0.4 to 1.0 depending on the rate of application of the gradually applied stress in
the period t0 to t1.

13
 Stress Creep εεcr.a (τ(t1,1τ)o)= ϕcc σc(t0)/E c
cc.a
(a) constant stress Strain
εεcr.b(τ(t1,τ)o)= χ ϕ σ (t )/E
σσcc(τ cc.b 1 cc cc c 1 c
(t00))

(b) gradually applied

Stress
τt0
0
τt1
1
tτ00 τt11
Time
Time Time
Time

Figure 7: Creep due to both constant and gradually applied stress histories.

Consider the gradually reducing stress history shown in Figure 8. An initial compressive
stress σc(t0) applied at time t0, is reduced with time due to the application of a gradually
increasing tensile stress increment ∆σc(t). The change of stress may be due to a change of the
external loads, or restraint to creep and shrinkage, or variations of temperature, or combinations
of these, and is usually unknown at the beginning of an analysis.
The total strain at time t may be expressed using the AEMM as the sum of the strains
produced by σc(τ0) (instantaneous and creep), the strains produced by the gradually applied
stress increment ∆σc(t) (instantaneous and creep), and the free shrinkage strain:

ε (t) = [1 + ϕcc] σc(t0)/Ec + [1 + χccϕcc] ∆σc(t)/Ec + εfree(t)

= σc(t0)/Ee + ∆σc(t)/Eae + εfree(t) (2)

where Ee is the effective modulus and Eae is the age-adjusted effective modulus given by:

Ee = Ec/(1+ϕcc) (3)

Eae = Ec/(1+χcc ϕcc) (4)

With the age-adjusted effective modulus method, two analyses need to be carried out: one at
first loading (i.e. at time t0) and one at time t after the period of sustained stress. Eq. (2) is a
stress-strain-time relationship for concrete that can be used to determine the time-dependent
change in stress and deformation in a reinforced concrete member.

Stress σσcc(t)
(t)==σσc(τ 0 )+ ∆σ∆σ
c(t)
c (t 0) + c(t)

σσcc(τ
(t00))
∆σcc(t)
∆σ (t)

σσcc(t)
(t)

τt0 t Time

Figure 8: A gradually reducing stress history.

14
3.2 Restrained strain

Consider the strain at a point in an otherwise unloaded reinforced concrete structure in which a
gradually increasing compressive strain εfree develops in the concrete caused by early age cooling
εcT and concrete shrinkage εcs (εfree = εcT + εcs). If this concrete shortening is restrained either by
the supports or by embedded reinforcement, a restraining force develops and the total concrete
strain at any time can be expressed as:
εc = εce + εcc + εfree = (1 − R) εfree (5)

where the elastic and creep strains, εce and εcc, caused by the gradually increasing restraining force
are both tensile and εfree is of opposite sign. The sum of the elastic and creep strains is referred to
as the restrained strain, εr = εce + εcc. = −R εfree, where R is the restraint factor which may vary
between 0.0 and 1.0 depending on the nature and stiffness of the restraint. If the concrete is fully-
restrained, such as in the end-restrained member of Figure 3, R = 1. If the member is restrained
only by embedded reinforcement, R is less than unity depending on the area, location and
orientation of the reinforcement. Determination of the restraint factor R is discussed
subsequently.
If early-age cracking is being considered immediately after the heat of hydration cycle, εfree is
equal to the sum of the strain caused by cooling εcT and the autogenous shrinkage εcse at 3 days. If
restraint cracking is being investigated at a later time t, εfree =εcT + εcs, where εcs is the sum of the
autogenous shrinkage εcse and drying shrinkage +εcsd strain components at that time.
Provided cracking has not occurred, the restrained strain can be expressed in terms of the
gradually increasing tensile stress (∆σr) at the time under consideration. That is:

εr = εce + εcc =(∆σr/Ec) + χccϕcc(∆σr/Ec) = ∆σr/Eae (6)

where ϕcc is the tensile creep coefficient associated with the time period after the
commencement of drying and χcc is the corresponding aging coefficient introduced to account
for the fact that ∆σr is gradually applied to the concrete. Before cracking, therefore, the
concrete stress caused by restraint σr is:

∆σr = εr Eae = −R εfree Eae (7)

If cracking occurs, part of the average restrained strain (measured over a gauge length greater
than the crack spacing) is relieved by the crack formation. This portion of the restrained strain is
termed the crack-induced strain εr.cr and is important for the calculation of crack widths. The
restrained stress at the crack is zero and the average tensile stress between the cracks is now:

∆σr.av = (εr − εr.cr) Eae (8)

To avoid cracking resulting from early-age cooling and shrinkage, the tensile stress induced
by restraint ∆σr (Eq. 7) must be less than the mean tensile strength of the concrete at the
time t under consideration, fctm(t). Even if restraint cracking does not occur, the stress ∆σr
15
should not be ignored. Additional stresses caused by applied loads or by restraint to subsequent
shrinkage and/or temperature strains may increase the tensile restraining stress to the tensile
strength of the concrete and cause cracking. The design process for the control of cracking is the
same, whether the tensile stress that results in cracking is caused by restraint or by applied
loads and the control of such cracking requires an adequate quantity and distribution of steel
reinforcement.

3.3 Restraint Factor due to early-age temperature differentials (internal restraint)

During hydration soon after setting, the temperature rises to its peak value at the centre of a
member, dropping to its minimum value at the surfaces of the member. As cooling takes place,
after the peak temperature has been reached, the interior of the member cools and contracts
more than the surface and tension develops at the interior of the member, as shown in Figure 9.
The concrete tensile stress caused by this strain differential is often sufficiently high to cause
interior cracks to develop, as shown. The maximum tensile stress that develops at the interior
of the member before cracking is

∆σr = − αcT ∆T R Eae (9)

where αcT is the coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete, ∆T is the maximum temperature
drop, as shown in Figure 9. The restrained strain is calculated ignoring any simultaneous
autogenous shrinkage which is uniform through the member thickness and does not
contribute to the strain differential. In Eq. 9, ∆T is negative, as it represents a drop in
temperature. After cracking, the restrained stress drops, the crack-induced strain εr.cr
increases and the cracks will open with time due to restrained drying and autogenous
shrinkage. Shrinkage may cause the interior cracks that have developed during the heat of
hydration cycle to extend to the surface and lead to full depth cracking.

changeinintotal
Change totalstrain
strain
compressive
σ∆σr r
Restrained
Restrained (α(cTα∆T
strain
strain T ∆TR)
R)
(elastic plus creep strain)
(elastic plus creep strain)
Thickness ∆T
∆T
h tensile
h
unrestrainedstrain
Unrestrained straindue
due
to
to temperature
temperaturedrop
drop ,
α
αcT∆T∆T
T
compressive
εT
Concreteelement
Concrete element Temperaturedrop
Temperature drop Strain
Strain Stress
Stress
andpossible
and possible interior
interior cracks
cracks during
duringcooling
cooling

Figure 9: Development of strain, stress and possible cracking due to early-age cooling.

16
 At the interior of the member, where both the temperature drop and the restrained
tensile stress are greatest, the restraint factor R is readily determined by simple mechanics
and depends on the temperature profile, which in turn depends on the mix characteristics,
the member thickness and the environmental conditions. For a parabolic temperature
profile, R = 0.33. For a triangular profile, R = 0.5. Bamforth [Ref. 8] recommended that R is
taken as 0.42.

3.4 Restraint Factor due to embedded reinforcement (internal restraint)

In this section, restraint factors are determined for various design situations in which the uncracked
concrete and the bonded reinforcement undergo an initial cooling after the concrete sets (εcT and εsT,
respectively) and the concrete also undergoes autogenous (or chemical) shrinkage (εcsa) and drying
shrinkage (εcsd). Provided the steel reinforcement has not yielded and the concrete is uncracked, the
constitutive relationships for the concrete and the steel may be expressed as:
εc = (σc/Eae ) + εcs + εcT = (σc/Eae ) + εfree (10)
εs = (σs/Es ) + εsT (11)

where εcs = εcsa + εcsd; Es is the elastic modulus of the steel; Eae is the age-adjusted effective
modulus of concrete (Eq. 4); and εfree = εcs + εcT.

3.4.1 Symmetrically reinforced cross-sections:

Consider the unreinforced and unrestrained concrete member of length L shown in Figure 10a
and the symmetrically reinforced concrete member shown in Figure 10b. Except for the
inclusion of longitudinal steel reinforcement of area As symmetrically placed about the centroid
of the cross-section in the second member, the two members are identical. A gradual
compressive strain in the concrete caused by free shrinkage εfree would cause the unreinforced
member to shorten by an amount εfree L , as shown in Figure 10a.

∆F∆F εcsEE
= −(1−R)free
t =t −(1−R)ε sAs sAs

εεfree
cs L
L εfree
εcsLL RRεεcsfree
LL
L

LL LL

(a) Unreinforced member (b) Symmetrically reinforced member

Figure 10: Restraint provided by symmetrically located reinforcement

17
 The shortening deformation of the concrete in the reinforced member (Figure 10b), causes a
gradual build-up of compression in the bonded reinforcement and this is opposed by an equal
and opposite tensile force ∆Ft applied to the concrete. The gradually increasing tensile force
results in tensile elastic strain and tensile creep strain, and the overall shortening of the member
is reduced to (1 − R)εfree L (as shown in Figure 10b), where R is the restraint factor (0 ≤ R ≤ 1.0),
that depends on the amount of reinforcement. The compressive stress and force in the steel are

σs = (1 − R) εfree Es (12)

Fs = (1 − R) εfree Es As (13)

The reinforced concrete member is shortening, but the concrete is subjected to tensile force that
could possibly result in, or contribute to, cracking.
Using the age-adjusted effective modulus method for the time-dependent analysis of the
member in Figure 10b, and assuming compatibility of steel and concrete strains, it can be
readily shown [Ref. 4] that the compressive concrete strain εc (=εs) at time t caused by the
shrinkage strain εcs, the restraint factor R and the concrete tensile stress σc at time t are
given by:
(εεfree − εsT) αaeρ
εcε=c =(1(1−−R)
R)εεfree
free =
free
+ εfree (14)
(1 + n(1+
e p)
αaeρ)
(εfree − εsT)
R=1− (15)
εfree (1+αaeρ)

−−ε(free
εfree
Es −p εsT) Es ρ
σccs = (16)
(1+ n(1+e p ) ae
α ρ)

where αae is the age adjusted modular ratio ( = Es/Eae ); ρ is the reinforcement ratio (= As/Ac).
The creep coefficient ϕcc for use when determining the age-adjusted effective modulus of the
concrete Eae (Eq. 4) is the tensile creep coefficient at time t due to a stress first applied when
contraction commenced. When considering the possibility of cracking after say 1 month, χϕ
should not be taken greater than about 1.8.
When considering only restraint to shrinkage (i.e. when εcT = εsT = 0), Eqs. 14 to 16
simplify to:

εεfree
cs
ε c = (1 − R)εεfree
cs = (17)
(1 + αnaee pρ)
(1+

αnae
ep ρ
R= (18)
(1+ αnaee pρ)
(1+

−−εεcsfreeEE
sρ
sp
σccs = (19)
(1+αnaee ρp)
(1+
18
 Consider a reinforced cross-section with Es = 200,000 MPa, Ec = 20,000 MPa, χ ccϕcc = 1.625, ∆T
= −20°C and εcs = − 600×10-6 (typical concrete properties for 30 MPa concrete when considering
the possibility of restrained cracking at age 1 month). Taking the coefficients of thermal expansion
for the concrete and steel as αcT = 10×10-6/°C and αsT = 12×10-6/°C, respectively, the early age
cooling strain in the concrete and the steel are εcT = αcT∆T = −200×10-6 and εsT = αsT∆T = −240×10-6,
respectively. The free shrinkage strain in the concrete is therefore εfree = εcs + εcT = − 800×10-6.
The restraint factors R determined using Eq. 15 are given in Table 2a for a wide range of
reinforcement ratios. Also shown in Table 2a is the concrete tensile stress σcs induced by cooling
and shrinkage (from Eq. 16).
The restraint factors R determined using Eq. 18 are given in Table 2b for the case when ∆T = 0
and εfree = εcs = − 600×10-6. Also shown in Table 2a is the concrete tensile stress σcs induced by
shrinkage only (from Eq. 19).
Even when these concrete stresses may not initiate cracking, such as when ρ is less than about
3.0%, they will substantially reduce the applied load required to cause cracking.
Of course, this analysis assumes that the concrete is uncracked and that the tensile stress σcs
can develop in the concrete. If any early-age cracking occurs at the end of the initial cooling period,
the concrete in the vicinity of that crack cannot carry tension and the crack will open due to the
subsequent shrinkage.

Table 2: Restraint factors and tensile stresses for symmetrically reinforced sections

(a) ∆T = −20°C (with εcs = − 600×10-6; εcT = −200×10-6; εsT = −240×10-6)

ρ =As/Ac 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
R 0.33 0.38 0.45 0.50 0.54 0.58 0.61 0.64 0.66
σcs (MPa) 0.21 0.50 0.89 1.21 1.47 1.69 1.88 2.04 2.19

(b) ∆T = 0 (withεcs = − 600×10-6 and εcT = εsT = 0)

ρ =As/Ac 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
R 0.05 0.12 0.21 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.44 0.48 0.51
σcs (MPa) 0.23 0.53 0.95 1.29 1.57 1.81 2.01 2.19 2.34

3.4.2 Unsymmetrically reinforced cross-sections:

If the reinforcement is not symmetrically placed on a cross-section, restraint to cooling and

shrinkage contraction will induced a curvature on the section and a concrete tensile stress that
may initiate cracking. Consider the singly-reinforced member shown in Figure 11a and the small
segment of length, Δz. The shrinkage-induced stresses and strains on an uncracked and on a
previously cracked cross-section are shown in Figures 11b and 11c, respectively.

19
 ∆z
∆z

(a) Beam elevation

Beam elevation

b ∆z εεfree
cs
εεcsfree
∆z∆z

−
d κκcscs
h Due to
εεss∆z ∆F
∆Ftt
+ σσcsc
∆Ft= −εs Es As
∆F t = −εsEsAs
−(1−R)εεcsfree
== (−(1−R) Es−AεssT)EsAs
Section
Section Elevation
Elevation Strain
Strain Concrete
ConcreteStress
stress
(b) An uncracked segment
uncracked segment

b ∆z
∆z εεfree
cs
εfree
cs∆z ∆z
κκcscs
−
d Due
Dueto to σσccs
∆F
∆ Ft t
εs ∆z
∆z
∆F
∆Ft t
== −(1−R)
(−(1−R) εfree
εcs−EεsA
sTs)EsAs

Section
Section Elevation
Elevation Strain
Strain Concrete
ConcreteStress
stress
(c)
(c)AAfully-cracked
fully-cracked segment
segment

Figure 11: Shrinkage-induced deformation and stresses in a singly-reinforced beam

As the concrete shrinks, the steel reinforcement is compressed and, in turn, the steel imposes an
equal and opposite tensile force ΔFt on the concrete at the level of the steel. This gradually
increasing tensile force, acting at some eccentricity to the centroid of the concrete cross-section
produces elastic and creep strains and a resulting curvature on the section. The shrinkage-
induced curvature often leads to significant load independent deflection of the member. The
magnitude of ΔFt (and hence the shrinkage induced curvature) depends on the quantity and
position of the reinforcement.
The curvature caused by ΔFt obviously depends on the size of the (uncracked) concrete part
of the cross-section, and hence on the extent of cracking, and this, in turn, depends on the
magnitude of the applied moment and the quantity of reinforcement. For an uncracked singly-
reinforced section, the restraint factor R, the restraining force ΔFt and the extreme fibre concrete
tensile stress σc, caused by a uniform non-mechanical concrete strain of magnitude εfree = εcs +εcT
may be approximated by [Ref. 4]:

(εfree − εsT) αaeρ (1 + λ1)

R=− εfree [1 + αaeρ (1 + λ1)] (20)

20
 (εfree − εsT) Es As
ΔFt = − 1 + αaeρ (1 + λ1) (21)

(εfree − εsT) Es ρ (1 + λ1λ2)

σc = − (22)
1 + αaeρ (1 + λ1)
where the coefficients λ1 and λ2 depend on the geometry of the cross-section and are given by:

λ1 = 12[(d/h) − 0.5]2 (23)

λ2 = 0.5h/(d − 0.5 h] (24)

Consider an uncracked singly reinforced rectangular cross-section with d/h = 0.9, Es = 200,000
MPa, Ec = 20,000 MPa, χ ccϕcc = 1.625, ∆T = −20°, εcs = − 600×10-6, εcT = −200×10-6 and εsT =
−240×10-6. The free shrinkage strain in the concrete is therefore εfree = εcs + εcT = − 800×10-6. The
restraint factors R for the uncracked cross-section and the extreme fibre concrete tensile
stresses σc have been determined using Eqs. 20 and 22 and are given in Table 3 for a wide
range of reinforcement ratios ρ (=As/bh).

Table 3: Restraint factors R for an uncracked singly-reinforced cross-section (d/h = 0.9)

Es = 200,000 MPa, Ec = 20,000 MPa, χ ccϕcc = 1.625, εcs = − 600×10-6, εcT = −200×10-6 and εsT = −240×10-6.

ρ =As/bh 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016

R 0.09 0.16 0.22 0.27 0.30 0.34 0.36 0.39
σc (MPa) 0.66 1.17 1.57 1.89 2.16 2.38 2.57 2.74

For a cracked singly reinforced cross-section, the restraint factor is close to 1.0, as can be
seen in Figure 11c. . Table 4 shows the restraint factors R for the cracked singly-reinforced
cross-section determined using the age-adjusted effective modulus method for a wide range of
reinforcement ratios ρ (=Ast/bh), assuming in this case Es = 200,000 MPa, Ec = 20,000 MPa, χ ccϕcc
= 1.625, εfree = εcs = − 600×10-6, and εcT = εsT = 0. Also shown in Table 4 is the extreme fibre
concrete tensile stress σc at the bottom of the uncracked part of the concrete in the compressive
zone induced by the uniform shrinkage strain.
Although shrinkage strain is independent of stress, it appears that shrinkage curvature is not
independent of external load. The shrinkage induced curvature on a previously cracked cross-
section is considerably greater than on an uncracked cross-section, as can be seen in Figure 11.

Table 4: Restraint factor R for a cracked singly-reinforced cross-section (d/h = 0.9)

Es = 200,000 MPa, Ec = 20,000 MPa, χ ccϕcc = 1.625, εfree = εcs = − 600×10-6, and εcT = εsT = 0.

ρ =Ast/bh 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016

R 0.987 0.966 0.942 0.916 0.891 0.865 0.841 0.817
σcs (MPa) 0.485 0.676 0.808 0.908 0.986 1.047 1.096 1.135
21
3.5 Restraint Factor due to end restraint (external restraint)

In many situations, the movement of a reinforced concrete member is restrained at each end
by the supports or by adjacent parts of the structure (such as the member shown in Figure 3).
Such a member is said to be subject to end restraint. The member shown in Figure 12 is subjected
to partial end-restraint. The supports suffer a relative displacement in the direction of the member
axis |∆u| < |εfree L|, as shown, and the member shortens. The restraint factor is:

R = 1 − [∆u/|εfree L|] (25)

The magnitude of the restraint factor R depends on the amount of movement that can occur
at each end of the member. If the supports are immovable, the member is fully-restrained and
the restraint factor R is equal to 1.0. However, most supports will suffer some relative
displacement (∆u) and R will be less than 1.0. In some situations, when adjacent parts of the
structure are shrinking, the supports may move further apart (∆u > 0) and the restraint factor
will be greater than 1.0.
Due to concrete shrinkage εcs (without considering early age cooling, i.e. εfree = εcs), an axial
tensile restraining force Ft develops in the member with time in the direction of the member axis:

Ft = Fct + Fst = − R εcs Eae Ac + (1 − R)εcs Es As (26)

where Fct and Fst are the forces carried by the concrete and the steel. If the member is fully-
restrained(i.e. R = 1.0), the steel undergoes no strain and Fst = 0. If the member does shorten, Fct
is tensile and Fst is compressive.
If early-age cooling (εcT and εsT) is considered together with shrinkage, the restraining force
becomes:

Ft = Fct + Fst = − R εfree Eae Ac + [(1 − R)εfree − εsT] Es As (27)

where εfree = εcs + εcT.

When the concrete stress caused by Ft first reaches the tensile strength of the concrete fct at
a particular section, cracking occurs. The magnitude of Ft after cracking and the crack width
depend primarily on the amount of bonded reinforcement crossing the crack. If the member
contains no longitudinal steel, cracking causes the restraining force Ft to drop to zero and a wide,

L εfree L

∆Ft ∆Ft

R εfree L ∆u = (1-R) εfree L

Figure 12: Full depth cracking in a member partially restrained at the ends.

22
unsightly crack results. If the member contains only small quantities of reinforcement (for ρ =
As /bh less than about 0.002 for fyk = 500 MPa), the steel at the crack yields, the crack opens
widely and the restraining force drops to a relatively small fraction of its value prior to
cracking. If the member contains relatively large quantities of reinforcement (p > 0.008 for fyk
= 500 MPa), the steel at each crack does not yield, the crack width remains small and, because
the loss of member stiffness at cracking is not great, the restraining force remains high.
Members containing large quantities of steel are therefore likely to suffer many cracks, but
each will be fine and well controlled. For intermediate steel quantities (0.002 < p < 0.008 for
fsk = 500 MPa), cracking causes a loss of stiffness, an immediate reduction of Ft and a crack
width that may or may not be acceptable.

3.6 Restraint Factor due to edge restraint (external restraint)

Frequently, walls and slabs are subjected to edge restraint, where shortening due to early-age
shrinkage is restrained on one or more sides of the element. Examples of edge restraint are
shown again in Figure 13. In Figure 13a, contraction in the secondary direction of the one-way
slab is restrained by the more massive supporting beams (contracting at a slower rate than the
slab). The restraining forces applied to the slab along each supported edge cause a direct tension
in the secondary direction of the slab that may cause the cracking shown in the isometric view.
The spacing and width of these cracks depend on the amount and distribution of reinforcement
in the secondary direction of the slab.
Compression in beam at slab edge

Direction of
shrinkage

Tension in slab, Ft

Isometric view showing restrained

shrinkage cracks.
Plan view

(a) Contraction in the secondary direction of a one-way slab.

wall
restrained
on two
Wall restrained adjacent
at base by Contraction Buttress edges
footing providing
Contraction
vertical
restraint
Tension in wall, Ft
Footing
Footing
Restraint providing
Isometric view showing horizontal Restraint
restraint
restrained shrinkage cracks Elevation

(b) Contraction in a wall restrained on one edge. (c) Contraction of wall with two adjacent edges
restrained and potental cracking.

Figure 13: Typical edge restraint to contraction in walls and slabs [Ref. 1]
23
 Figure 13b shows a wall where contraction εfree is restrained on one edge by the more
massive footing. The restraint to contraction may result in cracking that is initiated at the base
of the wall, where the resultant of the tensile restraint force is acting, and may extend the full
height of the wall, as shown in the isometric view. A wall restrained on two adjacent edges is
shown in Figure 13c, together with crack pattern initiated by restrained shrinkage in the two
orthogonal directions.
The cracks resulting from restrained shrinkage are direct tension cracks caused by the
tensile restraining force(s), Ft. They generally extend completely through the restrained slab or
wall. If uncontrolled, these cracks can become unserviceable and lead to waterproofing and
corrosion problems and may even compromise the integrity of the member.
Consider the wall and footing of Figure 13b and shown in cross-section in Figure 14a.
Using the notation specified in the figure, the area, section modulus and second moment of
area about the centroid of the wall are A1 = b1h1 , Z1 = b1h12/6 and I1 = b1h13/12 and for the
footing A2 = b2h2 , Z2 = b2h22/6 and I2 = b2h23/12. Let us assume that the wall is cast at some
time after the base, and so the wall will be cooling and shrinking faster than the base.
Restrained cracking in the wall is to be checked at some time t after casting. Let the free
shrinkage strain in the wall be εfree.1, while the contraction of the base during the same
period is εfree.2 (where εfree.2 < εfree.1). The elastic modulus, creep coefficient, aging coefficient
for the wall and base are Ec.1, ϕcc.1, χcc.1 and Ec.2, ϕcc.2, χcc.2, respectively. The corresponding
age-adjusted effective moduli Eae.1 and Eae.2 are determined using Eq. 4. The self-
equilibrating restraining forces that develop with time, Ft (tensile) on the wall and − Ft
(compressive) on the base, act at a distance yt below the interface between the wall and the
base, as shown in the elevation in Figure 14b. The longitudinal strains and stresses are
shown in Figures 14c and 14d, respectively.
It can be readily shown that distance yt depends on the age-adjusted flexural rigidities of the
wall and the base, RaI.1 = Eae.1I1 and RaI.2 = Eae.2I2, respectively, and is given by:

b1 ∆L εεfree.1
cs.1

-
−
h1 strain, ε c

yt restrained
strain, εr +

h2 −F t F t - σcsc
b2 εfree.2
cs.2

(a) Section (b) Elevation and restraining (c) Strain (d) Stress

Figure 14: Restraint actions and strains and stresses in an edge-restrained wall.

24
 aI.1 −
hh22RRI.1 − hh11 R
RaI.2
I.2
yt = (28)
22( (R aI.1 + RRaI.2
R I.1 I.2) )

The restraining force Ft depends on the age-adjusted axial and first moment rigidities and the
difference in free contraction of the wall and base, ∆εfree = εfree.1 − εfree.2 and may be obtained by
enforcing strain compatibility at the wall-footing interface giving

−∆
−∆εfree
ε cs (29)
Ft =
 1 1 e e 
 + + 1 + 2 
 RaA.1
A.1 RaA.2
A.2 RRaB.1
B.1 RaB.2
B.2 

where the terms e1 and e2 are the distances from the line of action of Ft to the centroids of the
wall and the base, respectively, i.e. e1 = (0.5h1 + yt); e2 = (0.5h2 − yt); RaA.1 = Eae.1A1; RaA.2 = Eae.2A2 ;
RaB.1 = Eae.1Z1; and RaB.2 = Eae.2Z2 .

The tensile stress at the bottom of the wall caused by the restraining force Ft is:

Ft Ft ( y t + 0.5h1 )
σσcsc = + (30)
A1 Z1

and the restrained strain εr at this point and the corresponding restraint factor R are:

εr = σc / Eae.1 (31)

R = εr /∆εfree = σc /(Eae.1∆εfree) (32)

Example 1:

Determine the stress and strain distribution due to the restraint to

early-age contraction and shrinkage of the wall shown in Figure 15.
200
For the wall:
4000
Ec.1 = 20000 MPa; ε free.1 = −0.0006; χcc.1ϕcc.1 = 1.625;
and from Eq. 3: Eae.1 = 7619 MPa.
For the footing: 600

Ec.2 = 35000 MPa; ε free.2 = −0.0002; χcc.2ϕcc.2 = 0.975; 1000

and from Eq. 3: Eae.2 = 17,722 MPa. Figure 15

With b1= 200 mm and h1 = 4000 mm and D2 = 1000 mm and h2 = 600 mm, the age-adjusted
rigidities of the wall and the base are:

25
 RaA.1 = Eae.1A1 = 6.095 × 109 N; RaA.2 = Eae.2A2 = 1.06 × 1010 N;
RaB.1 = Eae.1Z1 = 4.063 × 1012 Nmm; RaB.2 = Eae.2Z2 = 1.063 × 1012 Nmm;
RaI.1 = Eae.1I1 = 8.127 × 1015 Nmm2; RaI.2 = Eae.1I2 = 3.190 × 1014 N mm2.

With ∆εcs = −0.0004, e1 = 2213.1 mm and e2 = 86.9, Eqs. 28 and 29 give:

aI.1 −
hh22RRI.1 − hh11 R
RaI.2
I.2
yt = = 213.1 mm
22( (R aI.1 + RRaI.2
R I.1 )
I.2 )
and
−∆−ε∆free
ε cs = 452.3 kN
Ft =
 1 1 e e 
 + + 1 + 2 
 RRaA.1
A.1 RaA.2
A.2 RRaB.1 RaB.2
B.1 R B.2 

From Eqs. 30, 31 and 32, respectively:

Ft Ft ( y t + 0.5h1 )
σ ccs = + = 2.44 MPa
A1 Z1

εr = σc / Eae.1 = +321 × 10-6

R = εr /∆εfree = 0.801

The longitudinal stress and strain distributions due to restrained contraction are shown in
Figure 16.

-772 -1.31
−
200
−
4000

+
-279 -1.41 +2.44
600
-206 +0.10
1000
Strain, ε (× 10-6) Stress, σ

Figure 16: Strain and stress distributions caused by contraction (Example 1)

26
4. CRACKS CAUSED BY RESTRAINT

4.1 End-restraint cracking in a beam, slab or wall due to shrinkage

Consider the fully-restrained member shown in Figure 17a. As the concrete shrinks, the
restraining force Ft gradually increases until the first crack occurs when Ft.max = Ac fct (usually
within a week of the commencement of drying and often even earlier during the cooling period
soon after casting). At first cracking, the restraining force reduces to Ft.0, and the concrete stress
away from the crack is less than the tensile strength of the concrete fct. The concrete on either side
of the crack shortens elastically and the crack opens to a width w0 that depends on the area of
reinforcement (see Figure 17b). At the crack, the steel carries the entire force Ft.0 and the stress in
the concrete is zero. In the region adjacent to the crack, the concrete and steel stresses vary
considerably and the bond stress at the steel-concrete interface is high. At some distance so on
each side of the crack, the concrete and steel stresses are no longer influenced directly by the
presence of the crack, as shown in Figures 17c and 17d.

As = area of reinforcing steel

Ac = area of concrete

Ft.max Ft.max
L (=Acfct)

(a) Just prior to first cracking

w0
Ft 0 Ft 0

(b) Just after first cracking

so w0 so
σc1.0 σc1.0
+ +

Region 1 Region 2 Region 1

(c) Concrete stress just after first cracking

σs2.0

+
- -
σs1.0 σs1.0
so so
w0

(d) Steel stress just after first cracking

Figure 17: First cracking in a restrained direct tension member [Ref. 3].

27
 If the restraint is caused only by shrinkage of the concrete, numerical values of Ft.0, σc1.0, σs1.0,
and σs2.0 can be obtained from Eqs. 33 to 36 [Ref.3]:
αnepρ f ctct Ac
Ft.0 = (33)
C1 ++ α
npe ρ(1(1+C ) 1)
+1C
σ c1.0 = Ft.0 (1 + C1 ) / Ac (34)

σ s1.0 = −C1σ s2.0 (35)

σ s2.0 = Ft. 0 / As (36)

where αe is the modular ratio (Es /Ec), ρ is the reinforcement ratio (As /Ac), fct is the direct tensile
strength of the concrete at first cracking and
2 som
2s o
C1 = (37)
3 L −−2s
3L 2 osm
o

In Eq. 37, m is the number of cracks that have formed in the length L and, of course, at first
cracking m = 1.
If the restraint is caused by early age cooling of the steel and concrete, in addition to shrinkage
of the concrete, numerical values of Ft.0, σc1.0, σs1.0, and σs2.0 can be obtained from Eqs. 38 to 41:

αne pρ fctct AAcc Es As C2 αe ρ (1 + αe ρ)

Ft.0 = −− (38)
C11 ++ αnp
C e ρ(1(1 + +C 1C)1) C1 + αe ρ (1 + C1)

F (1 + C )
t.0 1
σ c1.0 = Ft.0 (1 + C1 ) / Ac + C2 Es ρ (39)
Ac
σσs1.0 −1σCs2.0
s1.0==−C
−
1 σs2.0 − C2 Es
(40)

σ s2.0 = Ft. 0 / As (41)

where
32εsT
so L
C12 = (42)
L −−22 som
33L

The distance so over which stresses vary on either side of a crack depends on the bond stress
at the steel-concrete interface, and this is influenced by the reinforcement quantity, the bar
diameter φ and the surface characteristics of the bar. In Ref. 4, so was taken to be:
so = 0.1 φ/ρ (43)
This expression was used earlier by Favre et al. [Ref. 9] and others for a member containing
deformed bars or welded wire mesh. More recent experimental results [Ref. 10] suggest that
shrinkage causes a deterioration in bond at the steel-concrete interface and a gradual increase in
so with time. For calculations at first cracking using (Eqs. 33 to 43), so may be taken from Eq. 43,
28
and for final or long-term calculations, the final value of so (s*o) should be multiplied by 1.33 [Ref.
11]. That is:

s*o = 1.33 so (44)

The final number of cracks and the final average crack width depend on the length of the
member, the quantity and distribution of reinforcement, the quality of bond between the
concrete and steel, the amount of shrinkage and the concrete properties. In Figure 18a, a portion
of a restrained direct tension member is shown after all shrinkage has taken place and the final
crack pattern is established. The average concrete and steel stresses caused by shrinkage are
illustrated in Figures 18b and 18c.
By enforcing the requirements of compatibility and equilibrium, expressions for the average
crack spacing (s) and crack width (w) in a restrained member due to concrete shrinkage have
been derived by Nejadi and Gilbert [Ref. 11].
Providing the reinforcing steel has not yielded, equating the overall shortening of the steel
reinforcement to ∆u for a member containing m cracks gives:
σ s1 σ s 2 − σ s1  2 
L+m *
 so + w  + ε sT L = ∆u (45)
Es Es  3 
and, as w is much less than so, rearranging gives:

w w w
s s

(a) Portion of a restrained member after all cracking

w w w
* * * * *
s o s o s o s o s o s*o
σc1 σc1

Region 2 Region 1 Region 2 Region 1 Region 2

(b) Concrete stress after all cracking due to restrained cooling and shrinkage

σs2 σs2 σs2

σs1 σs1
(c) Steel stress after all cracking due to restrained cooling and shrinkage

Figure 18: Final concrete and steel stresses after direct tension cracking [Ref. 3].

29
 σs1 = −σs2 C1 −Es C2 + Es C3 (46)
where C1 and C2 are given by Eqs.37 and 42, respectively, and
3∆u
2 so
C31 =
C (47)
3 L −−2s
3L 2 som
o

At each crack:
σ s2 = Ft / As (48)
In Region 1 in Figure 18, where the distance away from each crack exceeds s*o (with s*o
estimated using Eq. 44 (and Eq. 43), the concrete stress history is shown diagrammatically in
Figure 19. The concrete tensile stress increases gradually with time as shrinkage progresses and
approaches the direct tensile strength of the concrete fct. When cracking first occurs, the tensile
stress in the uncracked regions drops suddenly as shown. Although the concrete stress history is
continually changing, the average concrete stress at any time after first cracking, σc.av, is between
σc1.0 and fct, as shown in Figure 19, and may be taken as the average of σc1.0 and fct [Ref. 3]. The
final creep strain in Region 1 may be approximated by:

εcc1 = ϕcc (σc.av /Ec) (49)

where ϕcc is the tensile creep coefficient (at the time under consideration) for concrete first
loaded at the age when the contraction first commenced.
The concrete strain in Region 1 is the sum of the elastic, creep, shrinkage and temperature
components and may be approximated as:

εc1 = εe1 + εcc1 +εcs +εcT =εe1 + εcc1 +εfree

=(σc1/Ec) + ϕcc(σc.av/Ec) + εfree (50)

The magnitude of the tensile creep coefficient ϕcc after all the contraction due shrinkage and
cooling is completed for concrete first loaded at the commencement of drying/cooling, is usually
between 3 and 4, depending on the quality of the concrete.
In Region 1, at any distance from a crack greater than so*, equilibrium requires that the sum of
the force in the concrete and the force in the steel is equal to the restraining force Ft. That is:

σc1 Ac + σs1 As = Ft or σc1 = (Ft −σs1 As)/Ac= (Ft/Ac) −σs1 ρ (51)

Concrete stress
fct
σc.av σ c1
σc1.0

Time
1st crack 2nd crack 3rd crack
Figure 19: Concrete stress history in uncracked Region 1 [Ref. 4].
30
 The compatibility requirement in Region 1 is that the final concrete and steel strains are
identical (i.e. εs1 = εc1). That is:

(σs1/ Es) + εsT = (σc1/Ec) + εcc1 + εfree (52)

Substituting Eqs. 46 and 48 into Eq. 52 and rearranging gives:

(C3 − C2) Es As (1 + αe ρ) (εcc1 + εfree− εsT) Es As
Ft = − (53)
1+ αe ρ (1 + C1) 1+ αe ρ (1 + C1)
where αe is the effective modular ratio (Es/Ec) and εcc1 is the final creep strain in region (Eq. 49).
With the restraining force Ft and the steel stress in Region 1 obtained from Eqs. 53 and 46,
respectively, the final concrete stress in Region 1 is calculated from Eq. 51.
The number of cracks m is the lowest integer value of m for which σc1 ≤ fct. The direct tensile
strength fct should be taken as the mean 28 day value. The final average crack spacing is s = L/m.
The overall shortening of the concrete is an estimate of the sum of the crack widths. The final
concrete strain at any point in Region 1 of Figure 18 is given by Eq. 50, and in Region 2, the final
concrete strain is

εc2 = (fnσc1/ Ee) + εfree (54)

where Ee is the effective modulus of concrete given by Eq. 3 and fn varies between zero at a
crack and unity at s o* from a crack. If a parabolic variation of stress is assumed in Region 2, the
following expression for the average crack width w is obtained by integrating the concrete strain
over the length of the member:

w = − [(s − 0.667so*)(σc1/Ee) + εfree s] (55)

The preceding analysis is valid provided the assumption of linear-elastic behaviour in the
steel is valid, i.e. provided the steel has not yielded.

Example 2:
Consider the 140 mm thick slab of length 4 m shown in Figure 20. The slab is rigidly held in
position at each end support and, except for restraint to shrinkage, is unloaded. The slab is
symmetrically reinforced with 12mm diameter longitudinal bars at 250 mm centres near both
the top and bottom surfaces. Hence, As = 900 mm2/m and ρ = As/Ac = 0.00643. The average
spacing between the restrained shrinkage cracks and the average final crack width are to be
determined.
The material properties are:
fct = 2.5 MPa; Ec = 25,000 MPa; αe = Es/Ec = 8.0; ϕcc = 2.5; Ee = Ec /(1+ϕcc) = 7,143 MPa; αee = Es/Ee
= 28; εcs= −0.0006; εcT = −0.0002; εsT = −0.00024; ∆u = 0; Es = 200,000 MPa and fyk = 500 MPa.

31
 h = 140 mm

L=4m

Figure 20: Slab of Example 2

From Eqs. 43 and 44: so = 0.1×12/0.00643 = 187 mm and so* = 1.33×187 = 248 mm

From Eqs. 37 and 42:

2 × 187 3 × 2(−0.00024)
× 187 × 4000
C1 = = 0 .0321 and CC
1 2== = 0 .0321 = −0.000248
3 × 4000 − 2 × 187 3 × 4000 − 2 × 187
3 × 4000 − 2×187

From Eqs. 38 and 39:

n8×0.00643×2.5×1000×140
p f ct Ac 2×105×900×2.5×0.248-3×(1+8×0.00643)
Ft.0 = −
C 1 + np (+
0.0321 + C1 )
1 8×0.00643×(1+0.0321) 0.0321 + 8×0.00643×(1+0.0321)
= 239.6 kN

σ c1.0 = F239.6×103(1 + 0.0321)

t.0 (1 + C1 ) / Ac + C2 Es ρ = 1.45 MPa (39)
1000×140
and therefore: σc.av = (σc1.0 + fct)/2 = 1.97 MPa

The tabulation below shows the final restraining force and concrete and steel stresses for
different numbers of cracks:

Number of cracks, m Ft σs1 σs2 σc1

from Eq. 53 from Eq. 46 from Eq. 48 from Eq. 51
(kN) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
5
376 −48.5 418 3.00
6 315 −51.8 350 2.59
7 269 −54.4 299 2.27
8 233 −56.3 259 1.02

After the 7th crack forms, the final concrete stress is less than the tensile strength of concrete
and the final average crack spacing is therefore about s = L/m = 571.4 mm. The final crack width
is estimated from Eq. 42:

w = − [(571.4 − 0.667×248)(2.27/7143) − 0.0008×571.4] = 0.33 mm.

32
Example 3:
The calculated design average crack width w and average crack spacing s for 6m long members
with full end-restraint containing different quantities of 12 mm diameter reinforcing bars and
subjected to different levels of shrinkage strain are shown in Table 5. The following material
properties were used in the calculations: fct = 2.5 MPa; Ec = 25,000 MPa; ϕcc =2.5 ; Es = 200000
MPa and fyk = 500 MPa. In each case, it is assumed that the early-age cooling strains in the concrete
and the reinforcement after the initial heat of hydration were εcT = −0.0002 and εsT = −0.00024.

Table 5: Effect of shrinkage (εcs) on the maximum average calculated crack width w (mm) and average crack
spacing s (mm) for an end-restrained member (L = 6000 mm, db = 12 mm, εfree = εcs + (-0.0002))

εcs Reinforcement ratio, ρ

(×10-6) 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009
w s w s w s w s w s w s
-300 0.62 2000 0.48 2000 0.36 1500 0.28 1200 0.22 1000 0.19 857
-400 0.71 2000 0.50 1500 0.37 1200 0.29 857 0.23 667 0.19 600
-500 0.79 1500 0.52 1200 0.38 857 0.29 667 0.24 545 0.19 428
-600 0.79 1500 0.54 1000 0.38 667 0.30 545 0.24 429 0.20 375

The average crack spacing decreases as the magnitude of the shrinkage strain increases,
but the crack width is less affected.
Table 6 shows the effect of bar diameter on the design average crack width and the
average bar spacing for different reinforcement ratios for the following values of the
relevant input parameters: fct = 2.5 MPa; Ec = 25,000 MPa; ϕcc =2.5 ; εcs = −0.0005 ; εcT =
−0.0002; εsT = −0.00024; Es = 200,000 MPa , fyk = 500 MPa; and L = 6000 mm.

Table 6: Effect of bar diameter on the maximum average calculated crack width w (mm) and average
crack spacing s (mm) for an end-restrained member (L = 6000 mm, εfree = -0.0007).

∅ Reinforcement ratio, ρ
(mm) 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009
w s w s w s w s w s w s
8 0.52 1200 0.34 857 0.26 600 0.20 462 0.16 375 0.13 300
10 0.64 1500 0.44 1000 0.32 750 0.24 545 0.20 462 0.16 353
12 0.71 1500 0.52 1200 0.38 857 0.29 667 0.24 545 0.19 428
16 0.93 2000 0.67 1500 0.51 1200 0.38 857 0.31 667 0.25 545
20 1.03 2000 0.85 2000 0.58 1200 0.46 1000 0.38 857 0.31 667

For a particular reinforcement ratio, both the average crack spacing and the crack width
reduce with the bar diameter.
33
4.2 Edge-restraint cracking in slab or wall

Before an edge-restrained wall or slab cracks, the restrained strain is given by Eq. 31 and the
deformation resulting from the restraining force Ft over a gauge length Lo is εr Lo = (σc/Eae.1) Lo.
When the maximum concrete stress in the slab or wall σc exceeds the tensile strength fct,
cracking occurs. The crack opens and the concrete stress at the crack drops to zero. Either side
of the crack, the concrete stress gradually increases due to bond until at some distance so from
the crack the concrete stress is unaffected by the crack (as previously illustrated in Figure 17).
Cracks form at spacings of between so and 2so. If the gauge length Lo is long enough to contain m
cracks, the deformation caused by restraint εr Lo may now be expressed as:

εr Lo = (εr.cr − εr1) Lo (56)

where the residual restrained strain εr1 is the sum of the elastic and creep strains caused by the
average tensile concrete stress between the cracks and εr.cr is the crack-induced strain (introduced in
Eq. 8). The length εr.cr Lo is the sum of the widths of the m cracks within the length Lo. That is:

εr1 = εr − εr.cr = σc.av/Eae (57)

and
m
ε r.crLo = ∑ wi (58)
i =1

In a member subjected to edge restraint (or one with restraint provided by eccentric
reinforcement), the average spacing between cracks depends on the concrete cover, the bond
characteristics between the reinforcement and the concrete, the bar diameter, the ratio of
reinforcement area to the effective area of the tensile concrete. The maximum crack spacing
sr.max recommended by Eurocode 2 [Ref. 2] is:

sr.max = 3.4c + (0.425 k1 k2 φ)/ρp.eff (59)

where c is the concrete cover to the reinforcement; φ is the diameter of the reinforcing bars;
ρp.eff is the ratio of the tensile reinforcement area to the effective area of the tensile concrete (=
As/Ac.eff); As is the area of the tensile steel reinforcement crossing the crack and Ac.eff is the
effective area of the tensile concrete around the reinforcement. For slabs and walls subjected
to edge restraint, Ac.eff may be taken as the gross area of the cross-section. For a member in
bending, Ac.eff is the product of the width of the section at the tensile steel level and the depth
hc.ef, where hc.ef is the smaller of 2.5(c + φ /2), 0.5h and (h-x)/3, where h is the overall depth of
the member and x is the depth to the neutral axis. The term k1 in Eq. 59 depends on the bond
characteristics of the reinforcement. A value of 0.8 is recommended by Eurocode 2 for high
bond bars, but when good bond cannot be guaranteed k1 should be increased to 1.14. This
should be applied when considering early-age cracking within the first few days after casting.
The coefficient k2 accounts for the distribution of strain. For through thickness cracks caused
by edge restraint to shrinkage, k2 = 1.0. For flexural cracking, k2 = 0.5.

34
 The crack width w is determine from:

w = sr.maxεr.cr = sr.max (εr −εr1) (60)

The residual strain εr1 given by Eq. 57 and is conservatively approximated by fct/Ec [Ref. 8] and
therefore the crack-induced strain εr.cr may be taken as:

εr.cr = εr − εr1 = εr − fct/Ec (61)

Example 4:

For the 200 mm thick wall analysed in Example 1 and shown in Figure 15, the crack spacing
and crack width at the base of the wall are to be determined. Each face of the wall is reinforced
with 12mm deformed bars running horizontally at 250 mm centres. The cover to the
reinforcement is 30 mm and the bond conditions are assumed to be good. Assume that
cracking occurs when fct = 2.0 MPa
For this example, φ = 12 mm, c = 30 mm and As = 452 mm2/m on each face of the wall. The
reinforcement ratio is ρp.eff = (2×452)/(200×1000) = 0.00452 and the maximum crack spacing
is determined using Eq. 59:

sr.max = 3.4 × 30 + (0.425 × 0.8 × 1.0 × 12)/0.00452

= 1005 mm

Due to the restrained contraction calculated in Example 1, at the base of the wall, εr = 321 ×
10-6 and,
after cracking, Eq. 61 gives:

2 .0
ε r.cr = 321 × 10 − 6 − = 221 × 10 − 6
20000

and the crack width is calculated using Eq. 60:

w =sr.maxεr.cr = 1005 × 221×10-6 = 0.222 mm.

35
5. CRACKS CAUSED BY APPLIED LOADS

5.1 Introduction
The control of load-induced cracking in concrete structures may be achieved by limiting the
stress in the bonded reinforcement that crosses a crack to some appropriately low value and
ensuring that the bonded reinforcement is suitably distributed within the tensile zone. The
limit on the tensile steel stress imposed in design should depend on the maximum acceptable
crack width. Typical values for maximum acceptable crack widths were given in Figure 1 and
Table 1. If the maximum acceptable crack width is increased, the maximum permissible tensile
steel stress also increases. The difficulty, of course, is developing a procedure whereby the
calculated steel stress provides a reliable indicator of the actual severity of cracking. Building
codes usually also specify maximum bar spacing for the bonded reinforcement and maximum
concrete cover requirements.
An alternative way to control load-induced cracking is to calculate the maximum crack
width and to ensure that the calculated crack width is less than the maximum acceptable crack
width. Various deterministic procedures for calculating crack widths are available in the
literature. Unfortunately, some of the calculation procedures are overly simplistic and fail to
adequately account for the gradual increase in crack widths with time due to shrinkage. In a
restrained flexural member, for example, early-age cooling and shrinkage-induced tension in the
concrete causes cracking at significantly lower applied loads than are calculated when
temperature and shrinkage are not taken into consideration. Shrinkage also causes a gradual
widening of flexural cracks and a gradual build-up of tension in the uncracked regions that may
lead to additional cracking with time. This has significant implications on the estimates of
stiffness in both short-term and long-term deflection calculations. The influence of shrinkage is
often not properly considered in some of the widely-used methods for estimating crack widths.
As a consequence, excessively wide cracks are a relatively common problem for many reinforced
concrete structures.

5.2 Tension Chord Model for Load-induced Cracking in Reinforced Concrete

A model for predicting the final crack width (w*) in reinforced concrete members based on the
Tension Chord Model of Marti et al. [Ref. 12] was proposed by Gilbert [Ref. 13]. A modified
version of that model is presented here and is shown to provide good agreement with the
measured final spacing and width of cracks in reinforced concrete beams and slabs under
sustained loads. The notation associated with the model for a cross-section in bending is shown
in Figure 21.
Consider a segment of a singly reinforced beam of rectangular section subjected to an in-
service bending moment, Ms, greater than the cracking moment, Mcr. After the crack pattern has
stabilized, the spacing between the primary cracks is s, as shown in Figure 21a. A typical cross-
section between the cracks is shown in Figure 21b and a cross-section at a primary crack is
shown in Figure 21c. The cracked beam is idealized as a compression chord of depth x = kd and

36
width b and a cracked tension chord consisting of the tensile reinforcement of area Ast
surrounded by an area of tensile concrete (Act) as shown in Figure 21d. The centroids of Ast and
Act are assumed to coincide at a depth d below the top fibre of the section.

For the sections containing a primary crack (Figure 21c), Act = 0 and the depth of the
compressive zone x = kd and the second moment of area about the centroidal axis (Icr) may be
determined from a cracked section analysis using modular ratio theory. For the singly
reinforced cross-section shown in Figure 21c:

k = npeρ))22 ++22αnp
(α eρ − αeρ
− np (62)
and
I cr = 0.5bd 3 k 2 (1 − k / 3) (63)

where αe is the modular ratio (= Es/Ec) and ρ is the reinforcement ratio (= As/bd).

Away from the crack, the area of the concrete in the tension chord of Figure 21d (Act) is
assumed to carry a uniform tensile stress (σct) that develops due to the bond stress (τb) that
exists between the tensile steel and the surrounding concrete.

b b

x=kd
Ms Ms h d
(1−k)d
As As

s primary crack

(a) Beam elevation (b) Uncracked (c) Cracked

section section

b x=kd

C C
d
cracked tension chord
T As
T =Ts+Tc
s Act dct

(d) Idealised compression and tension chord model

Figure 21: Cracked reinforced concrete beam and idealized tension chord model [Ref. 13]

37
 For a member in direct tension, the area of the uncracked concrete in the tension chord may
be taken as the area of the cross-section. For a member in bending, the area of concrete in the
tension chord between the cracks, Act, may be taken as

Act = d ct b * (64)

where b* is the width of the section at the level of the centroid of the tensile steel (i.e. at the
depth d), but not greater than the number of bars in the tension zone nbars multiplied by 12 bar
diameters (i.e. 12 nbars φ); and dct = 0.5(h − x), but should not be taken less than the depth of the
area of tensile concrete with a centroid coinciding with the centroid of the tensile steel.
At each crack, the concrete carries no tension and the tensile steel stress is σs1 = T/As,
where:

αnM 1 −−kk)d
e Mss ((1 )d
T = Ast (65)
I cr

As the distance z from the crack in the direction of the tension chord increases, the stress in
the steel reduces due to the bond shear stress τb between the steel and the surrounding tensile
concrete. For reinforced concrete under service loads, where σs1 is less than the yield stress fyk,
Marti et al. [Ref. 12] assumed a rigid-plastic bond shear stress-slip relationship, with τb = 2.0 fct
at all values of slip, where fct is the direct tensile strength of the concrete. To account for the
reduction in bond stress with time due to tensile creep and shrinkage, Gilbert [Ref. 13] took
the bond stress to be τb = 2.0 fct for short-term calculations and τb = 1.0 fct when the final long-
term crack width was to be determined. Experimental observations [Ref. 14 and 15] indicate
that τb reduces as the stress in the reinforcement increases and, consequently, the tensile
stresses in the concrete between the cracks reduces (i.e. tension stiffening reduces with
increasing steel stress). In reality, the magnitude of τb is affected by many factors, including
steel stress, concrete cover, bar spacing, transverse reinforcement (stirrups), lateral pressure,
compaction of the concrete, size of bar deformations, tensile creep and shrinkage. It is
recommended here that in situations where the concrete cover and the clear spacing between
the bars are greater than the bar diameter, the bond stress τb may be taken as:

τb = λ1 λ2 λ3 fct (66)

where λ1 accounts for the load duration with λ1 = 1.0 for short-term calculations and λ1 = 0.7 for
long-term calculations; λ2 is a factor that accounts for the reduction in bond stress as the steel
stress σs1 (in MPa) increases and may be taken as [Ref. 4]:

λ2 = 1.667 – 0.00333σs1 (67)

and λ3 is a factor that accounts for the effects on bond stress that have been observed in
laboratory tests of the bar diameter φ and Eq. 68 has been calibrated from observed crack
spacings in a wide range of test specimens [Ref. 14]:
38
 λ3 = (4.2 – 0.1φ)(1 − 20 ρtc) ≥ 1.5 (68)

The term ρtc is the reinforcement ratio of the tension chord (= As /Act) and φ is the reinforcing
bar diameter in mm.
An elevation of the tension chord is shown in Figure 22a and the stress variations in the
concrete and steel in the tension chord are illustrated in Figures 22b and 22c, respectively.
Following the approach of Marti et al. [Ref. 12], the concrete and steel tensile stresses in
Figures 22b and 22c, where 0 < z ≤ s/2, may be expressed as:

T 4τ z
σσsz
stz = − b (69)
AAsts dφb
4ττ bb pρtctc zz
σ cz = (70)
dφb

Mid-way between the cracks, at z = s/2, the stresses are:

T 2τ b s
σσst2
s2 = − (71)
Ass dφb

τb
T T

crack s/2 s/2 crack

(a) Elevation of tension chord between cracks

z σc2

(b) Tensile concrete stress

σs1 σs1
σs2

(c) Tensile steel stress

Figure 22: Tension chord - actions and stresses [Ref. 13]

39
 22τ τb bpρtctc sz
σσc2
c2 = (72)
dφb

The maximum crack spacing immediately after loading, s = smax, occurs when σc2 = fct and λ1
= 1.0 in the determination of τb in Eq. 66. From Eq. 72:

f ct dφb
s max = ≤ 2 .0 d (73)
2 τ bb ρptctc

If the spacing between two adjacent cracks just exceeds smax, the concrete stress mid-way
between the cracks will exceed fct and another crack will form between the two existing cracks.
It follows that the minimum crack spacing is half the maximum value, i.e. smin = smax/2.

Instantaneous crack width: The instantaneous crack width w0 in the fictitious tension chord is
the difference between the elongation of the tensile steel over the length s and the elongation of
the concrete between the cracks and is given by:

s  T τ bs 
w0 =  − (1 +αnp
(1+ e ρtc)
)
tc 
(74)
Es  Asts dφb 

Maximum final crack width: Under sustained load, additional cracks occur between widely
spaced cracks (usually where 0.67smax < s ≤ smax). The additional cracks are due to the combined
effect of tensile creep rupture and shrinkage-induced tension. As a consequence, the number
of cracks increases and the maximum crack spacing reduces with time. The final maximum
crack spacing s* is only about ⅔ of that given by Eq. 73, but the final minimum crack spacing
remains about ½ of the value given by Eq. 73.
Although creep and shrinkage will cause a small increase with time in the resultant tensile
force T in the real beam and a slight reduction in the internal lever arm, this effect is relatively
small and is ignored in the tension chord model presented here. The final crack width is the
elongation of the steel over the distance between the cracks minus the extension of the concrete
caused by σcz plus the shortening of the concrete between the cracks due to shrinkage εcs.
For a final maximum crack spacing of s*, the final maximum crack width w* at the member
soffit is:
s*  T τ b s* 
w* =  − (1 + αneee pρttcc ) − ε free
(1+ Ess
free E (75)
Es  Ast φd b 

where s* is the maximum crack spacing after all time-dependent cracking has taken place; εfree
is the sum of the shrinkage εcs and any thermal strain in the concrete εcT (and εfree is a negative
value); αee = Es /Ee = the effective modular ratio; Ee = Ec/(1+ϕcc) = the effective modulus of
concrete; Ec and Es are the elastic moduli of the concrete and steel, respectively; τb is
determined from Eq. 66 with λ1 = 0.7 and ϕcc is the creep coefficient of the concrete.

40
 A good estimate of the final maximum crack width is given by Eq. 75, when s* is taken as ⅔
the initial value of smax given by Eq. 73 (with λ1 = 1.0 in the determination of τb). That is

f ct dφb
* =
ssmax ≤ 2 .0 d (76)
32 τ bb ρptctc

By rearranging Eq. 75, the steel stress on a cracked section corresponding to a particular
maximum final crack width (w*) is given by:

w* Es τ b s *
f st = + (1 +αneee ρptctc))++εεfree
(1+ E
free Ess (77)
s* φd b

By substituting τb (from Eqs. 66) and s* (from Eq. 76) into Eq. 77 and by selecting a
maximum desired crack width in a particular structure w*, the maximum permissible tensile
steel stress can be determined.

Example 5:
A 150 mm thick simply-supported one-way slab located inside a building is to be considered. With
appropriate regard for durability, the concrete strength is selected to be f ’c = 32 MPa and the
cover to the tensile reinforcement is 20 mm. The final shrinkage strain is taken to be εfree = εcs =
−0.0006 (with εcT = 0) . Other relevant material properties are Ec = 28,600 MPa; αe = Es/Ec =
7.0; ϕcc = 2.5; fct = 3.0 MPa and Es = 200,000 MPa. The effective modulus is therefore Ee = Ec
/(1+ϕcc) = 8,170 MPa and the effective modular ratio αee = Es/Ee = 24.5. The tensile face of the
slab is to be exposed and the maximum final crack width is to be limited to w* = 0.3 mm.
After completing the design for strength and deflection control, the required minimum
area of tensile steel is 650 mm2/m. Under the full service loads, the maximum in-service
sustained moment at mid-span is 20.0 kNm/m. The bar diameter and bar spacing must be
determined so that the requirements for crack control are also satisfied.
Case 1 - Try 10 mm bars at 120 mm centres:
The area of tensile steel is As = 655 mm2/m at d = 125 mm and, referring to Figure 21, an
elastic analysis of the cracked section gives x = kd = 29.6 mm and Icr = 50.3×106 mm4 (from
Eqs. 62 and 63). The maximum in-service tensile steel stress on the fully-cracked section at
mid-span is calculated using Eq. 65 as: σs1 = T /As = 265 MPa.
The area of concrete in the tension chord is Act = 60,200 mm2 (Eq. 64) and the
reinforcement ratio of the tension chord is ρtc = As/Act = 0.0109. From Eqs. 67 and 68, λ2 =
0.783 and λ3 = 2.50 and, from Eq. 66, τb = 5.88 MPa for short-term calculations (λ1 = 1.0) and τb
= 4.11 MPa for long-term calculations (λ1 = 0.7). The maximum final crack spacing s* is
obtained from Eq. 76:
3.0 × 10
s* = = 156 mm ( ≤ 2.0d )
32 × 5.88 × 0.0109
41
 The maximum permissible steel stress required for crack control is obtained from Eq. 77:
0.3 × 200000 4.11× 156
f st = + (1 + 24.5 × 0.0109 ) + ( −0.0006 × 200000 ) = 346 MPa.
156 10
The actual stress at the crack σs1 = 265 MPa is much less than fst = 346 MPa and, therefore,
cracking is easily controlled.

Case 2 - Use 12 mm bars at 170 mm centres:

The area of tensile steel is Ast = 665 mm2/m at d = 124 mm. For this section, x = kd = 29.6 mm
and Icr = 50.1×106 mm4. The maximum in-service tensile steel stress on the fully-cracked
section at mid-span is σs1 = T/As = 264 MPa.
The area of concrete in the tension chord is Act = 50,980 mm2 (Eq. 64) and ρtc = As/Act =
0.0130. Now λ2 = 0.787 and λ3 = 2.22 and τb = 5.24 MPa for short-term calculations (with λ1 =
1.0) and τb = 3.67 MPa for long-term calculations (with λ1 = 0.7). The maximum final crack
spacing is s* = 176 mm. From Eq. 77, the maximum permissible steel stress required for crack
control is fst = 292 MPa and this is also significantly greater than the actual maximum stress at
the crack σst1 = 264 MPa.
Therefore, the final maximum crack width will be less than the maximum permissible value
of 0.3 mm.
Case 3 - Use 16 mm bars at 300 mm centres:
The area of tensile steel is As = 670 mm2/m at d = 122 mm. For this section, x = kd = 29.4 mm
and Icr = 48.6×106 mm4. The maximum in-service tensile steel stress on the fully-cracked
section at mid-span is σs1 = T/As = 266 MPa. The area of concrete in the tension chord is Act =
38,580 mm2 and ρtc = As/Act = 0.0174. Now λ2 = 0.780 and λ3 = 1.70 and τb = 3.97 MPa for short-
term calculations (with λ1 = 1.0) and τb = 2.78 MPa for long-term calculations (with λ1 = 0.7). The
maximum final crack spacing is s* = 232 mm. The maximum permissible steel stress required for
crack control is fst = 196 MPa (from Eq. 77), which is significantly less than the actual steel stress
due to the sustained moment (σs1 = 266 MPa). Therefore, crack control is not adequate and
the maximum final crack width will exceed 0.3 mm.

5.3 Comparison with test data

The maximum final crack widths determined using Eq. 75 are compared with the measured
maximum final crack widths for twelve prismatic, one-way, singly reinforced concrete
specimens (6 beams and 6 slabs) that were tested under sustained service loads for periods in
excess of 400 days by Gilbert and Nejadi [Ref. 14]. The specimens were simply-supported over
a span of 3.5 m with cross-sections shown in Figure 23. All specimens were cast from the same
batch of concrete and moist cured prior to first loading at age 14 days. Details of each test
specimen are given in Table 7.

42
 250 mm

400
mm
300
sb
cb cb sb 130 mm
As As
cs cs
(a) Beams (b) Slabs

Figure 23: Cross-sections of test specimens [Ref. 14]

Table 7: Details of the test specimens [Ref. 14]

Beam No. of φ As cb cs sb Slab No. of φ As cb cs sb

bars mm mm2 mm mm mm bars mm mm2 mm mm mm
B1-a 2 16 400 40 40 154 S1-a 2 12 226 25 40 308
B1-b 2 16 400 40 40 154 S1-b 2 12 226 25 40 308
B2-a 2 16 400 25 25 184 S2-a 3 12 339 25 40 154
B2-b 2 16 400 25 25 184 S2-b 3 12 339 25 40 154
B3-a 3 16 600 25 25 92 S3-a 4 12 452 25 40 103
B3-b 3 16 600 25 25 92 S3-b 4 12 452 25 40 103

The time-dependent variations of crack spacing and crack width, as well as the crack
locations and heights, were measured in each specimen throughout the test. The measured
elastic modulus and compressive strength of the concrete at the age of first loading were
Ec = 22,820 MPa and fc = 18.3 MPa, whilst the measured creep coefficient and shrinkage strain
associated with the 400 day period of sustained loading were ϕcc = 1.71 (measured on 300 mm
cylinders) and εcs = −0.000825 (measured on standard 75 mm prisms).
Two identical specimens “a” and “b” were constructed for each combination of parameters
as indicated in Table 7 and 8, with the “a” specimens loaded more heavily than the “b”
specimens. The “a” specimens were subjected to a constant sustained load sufficient to cause a
maximum moment at mid-span of between 40 and 50% of the calculated ultimate moment and
the “b” specimens were subjected to a constant sustained mid-span moment of between 25
and 40% of the calculated ultimate moment.
The loads on all specimens were sufficient to cause primary cracks to develop in the
region of maximum moment at first loading. In Table 8, the sustained in-service moment at
mid-span, Msus, is presented, together with the stress in the tensile steel at mid-span, σs1, due
to Msus (calculated on the basis of a fully cracked section); the calculated ultimate flexural
strength, Mu (assuming a characteristic yield stress of the reinforcing steel of 500 MPa); the
ratio Msus/Mu ; and the cracking moment, Mcr, (calculated assuming a tensile strength of
concrete of 0.6 f c (t ) , where fc(t) is the measured compressive strength at the time of loading
in MPa).

43
 Table 8: Moments and steel stresses in the test specimens [Ref. 14]

Beam Mcr Msus σs1 Mu Msus/Mu Mcr Msus σs1 Mu Msus/Mu

kNm kNm MPa kNm (%) Slab kNm kNm MPa kNm (%)
B1-a 14.0 24.9 227 56.2 44.3 S1-a 4.65 6.81 252 13.9 49.0
B1-b 14.0 17.0 155 56.2 30.2 S1-b 4.65 5.28 195 13.9 38.0
B2-a 13.1 24.8 226 56.2 44.1 S2-a 4.75 9.87 247 20.3 48.6
B2-b 13.1 16.8 153 56.2 29.8 S2-b 4.75 6.81 171 20.3 33.6
B3-a 13.7 34.6 214 81.5 42.4 S3-a 4.86 11.4 216 26.4 43.0
B3-b 13.7 20.8 129 81.5 25.5 S3-b 4.86 8.34 159 26.4 31.6

At first loading, a regular pattern of primary cracks developed in each test specimen. With
time, the cracks gradually increased in width and additional cracks developed between some
of the primary cracks. Thus, the average crack spacing reduced with time. The ratio of final to
initial crack spacing ranged from 0.57 to 0.85, with an average value of 0.70. Crack widths
increased rapidly in the first few weeks after loading, but the rate of increase slowed
significantly after about 2 months. For all specimens, there was little change in the maximum
crack width after about 200 days under load. Typical calculations for the maximum crack
width are provided here for Beam B1-a

Beam B1-a:
Relevant dimensions and properties are: b = 250 mm, h = 348 mm, d = 300 mm, db = 16 mm, As =
400 mm2, Ec = 22,820 MPa and αe = Es/ Ec = 8.76. A cracked section analysis gives kd = 78.8 mm
and Icr = 212 × 106 mm4. The applied moment at mid-span is Msus = 24.9 kNm and the stress in the
tensile steel on the cracked section is

αnM (d −−kd)
Msus(d kd ) 8.76 × 24.9 × 106 × (300 − 78.8)
σs1st1== e sus = 6
= 227.4 MPa
I cr 212 × 10

The measured final creep coefficient was ϕcc = 1.71 and, therefore Ee = 8,420 MPa and αee =
23.8. The final shrinkage strain measured on a slab specimen 160 mm deep and 400 mm wide
(with hypothetical thickness th = 114.3 mm) was −0.000825. For this beam specimen, with th
= 145.5 mm, the estimated shrinkage strain is εfree = −0.000746.
With dct = 0.5(D − kd) = 0.5 × (348 − 78.8) = 134.6 mm, the area of concrete in the tension
chord is given by Eq. 64 as Act = 134.6 × 250 = 33,650 mm2 and the reinforcement ratio of the
tension chord ρtc = As/Act = 0.0119.
To determine the maximum crack spacing for short term calculations immediately after
cracking, λ1 = 1.0 and, from Eqs. 67 and 68:
λ2 = 1.667 − 0.00333×227.4 = 0.909 and λ3 = (4.2 – 0.1×16)(1 - 20×0.0119) = 1.982
and with fct = 0.6 f c (t ) = 2.57 MPa, the instantaneous bond stress is obtained from Eq. 66 as:
τb = 1.0 × 0.909 × 1.982 × 2.57 = 4.622 MPa
44
and the maximum crack spacing immediately after loading is given by Eq. 73:
2.57 × 16
s max = = 373 .7 mm
2 × 4.622 × 0.0119

For the calculation of the maximum final crack width, the maximum crack spacing s* is
taken as ⅔ of the instantaneous value and therefore s* = ⅔ × 373.7 = 249.2 mm (Eq. 76).
From Eq. 66, for long-term calculations, τb = 0.7 × 0.909 × 1.982 × 2.57 = 3.235 MPa. The
maximum final (long-term) crack width at the soffit of the beam specimen B1-a is obtained
from Eq. 62:

249.2  3.235 × 249.2 

w* =  227.4 − (1 + 23.8 × 0.0119) − ( −0.000746) × 200000
200000  16 
= 0.389 mm

The measured maximum final crack width on Beam B1-a after 400 days under load was
0.38 mm which is in good agreement. The measured and calculated maximum final crack widths
for all twelve test specimens are compared in Table 9. The mean of the ratios of predicted to
measured crack widths for the six beam specimens is 1.155, with a coefficient of variation of
11.75%, whilst for the six slab specimens the mean is 1.070, with a coefficient of variation of
12.31%. The agreement between the calculated and measured maximum final crack widths for
this set of test data is good.

Table 9: Comparison of measured and predicted maximum final crack widths (mm)

Specimen B1-a B1-b B2-a B2-b B3-a B3-b S1-a S1-b S2-a S2-b S3-a S3-b
Measured, wmax 0.38 0.18 0.36 0.18 0.28 0.13 0.25 0.20 0.23 0.18 0.20 0.15
Predicted, w* 0.389 0.236 0.377 0.228 0.288 0.163 0.307 0.212 0.283 0.170 0.205 0.140
w*/ wmax 1.023 1.313 1.046 1.269 1.029 1.251 1.228 1.062 1.229 0.944 1.024 0.935

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Rational procedures have been proposed for determining the degree of restraint and the control
of cracking caused by early-age thermal contraction and shrinkage of concrete and by applied
loads. Restraining forces and concrete tensile stresses caused by restraint to shrinkage strains in
a variety of situations have been considered, including concrete members subjected to
temperature differentials, reinforced concrete members containing embedded reinforcement,
reinforced concrete beams, slabs and walls subjected to end restraint and reinforced walls and
slabs subjected to edge-restraint and reinforced concrete members subjected to axial tension
and bending. Calculation methods of the width and spacing of cracks caused by any one or any
combination of these actions are outlined and illustrated by several worked examples.

45
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The work reported herein has been undertaken with the financial support of the Australian
Research Council through Discovery Project DP130102966. This support is gratefully
acknowledged.

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46
15. Wu, H.Q. and Gilbert, R.I. (2009), “Modelling Short-Term Tension Stiffening in Reinforced Concrete
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47