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UNIT-A
Basics of algorithms: Algorithms and characteristics, algorithm design paradigms,
fundamentals of algorithmic problem solving, fundamental data structures.
Analysis of algorithms: The efficient algorithm-average, worst and best case analysis,
asymptotic notations and its properties, amortized analysis, recurrences: substitution
method, recursion tree method and master’s method.
Computational Problem: A computational problem is a task solved by a computer. A
computation problem is solvable by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as
an algorithm.
Algorithm: Algorithm is a step-by-step procedure, which defines a set of instructions to be
executed in a certain order to get the desired output. Algorithms are generally created
independent of underlying languages, i.e. an algorithm can be implemented in more than one
programming language.
Characteristics of an algorithm are:
1. Finiteness: An algorithm must always terminate after a finite number of steps.
2. Definiteness: Each step of an algorithm must be precisely defined; the actions to be
carried out must be rigorously and unambiguously specified for each case.
3, Input: An algorithm has zero or more inputs, i.e, quantities which are given to it initially
before the algorithm begins.
4. Output: An algorithm has one or more outputs ie, quantities which have a specified
relation to the inputs.
5. Effectiveness: An algorithm is also generally expected to be effective. This means that
all of the operations to be performed in the algorithm must be sufficiently basic that
they can in principle be done exactly and in a finite length of time.
Complexity of Algorithm: (Algorithm Efficiency)
The efficiency of an algorithm is mainly defined by two factors i.e. space and time. A good
algorithm is one that is taking less time and less space, but this is not possible all the time,
There is a trade-off between time and space. If you want to reduce the time, then space
might increase. similarly, if you want to reduce the space, then the time may increase. So,
you have to compromise with either space or time,
fe Xis an algorithm and mis the size of input data, the time and space used by the
Suppos ain factors, which decide the efficiency of x.
algorithm X are the two mi
ime Factor ~ Time is measured by counting the number of key operations such as
. in the sorting algorithm,
‘comparison:
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22S eP 22002000 ‘+ Space Factor - Space is measured by counting the maximum memory space required
by the algorithm.
The complexity of an algorithm f{n) gives the running time and/or the storage space required
by the algorithm in terms of n as the size of input data.
‘Space Complexity
Space complexity of an algorithm represents the amount of memory space required by the
algorithm in its life cycle, The space required by an algorithm is equal to the sum of the
following two components ~
+ A fixed part that is a space required to store certain data and variables, that are
independent of the size of the problem. For example, simple variables and constants
used, program size, etc.
+ Avariable partis a space required by variables, whose size depends on the size of the
problem. For example, dynamic memory allocation, recursion stack space, etc.
Space compiexity S(P) of any algorithm P is S{P) = C + SP(I), where Cis the fixed part and S(I)
is the variable part of the algorithm, which depends on instance characteristic |. Following is.
a simple example that tries to explain the concept -
Algorithm: SUM(A, B)
Step 1- START
Step2-CEA+B410
Step 3- Stop
Here we have three variables A, 8, and C and one constant. Hence S(P) = 1 +3, Now, space
depends on data types of given variables and constant types and it will be multiplied
accordingly.
Time Complexity
Time complexity of an algorithm represents the amount of time required by the algorithm
to run to completion. Time requirements can be defined as a numerical function T(n), where
T(n) can be measured as the number of steps, provided each step consumes constant time.
For example, addition of two n-bit integers takes n steps. Consequently, the total
computational time is T(n) = c * n, where cis the time taken for the addition of two bits.
Here, we observe that T(n) grows linearly as the input size increases
We design an algorithm to get a solution of a given problem. A problem can be solved in more
than one ways.
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Hence, many solution algorithms can be derived for a given problem, The next step is to
analyze those proposed solution algorithms and implement the best suitable solution.
Running Time of an Algorithm:
The running time of an algorithm for a specific input depends on the number of operations
executed. The greater the number of operations, the longer the running time of an algorithm.
‘We usually want to know how many operations an algorithm will execute in proportion to the
size of its input, which we will call n
‘We can calculate the running time of an algorithm by using a technique known as algorithm
analysis. We can also estimate the performance of an algorithm by estimating or counting the
number of basic operations required by an algorithm to process an input of specific size.
Basic Operation: The time to complete the basic operation doesn’t depend on the specific
value of its operand, So, it takes a constant amount of time.
Input Size: It is the number of inputs processed by an algorithm. For a given problem we
characterize the input size n appropriately. For example:
Sorting problem: Total number of item to be sorted
Graph Problem: Total number of vertices and edges
Numerical Problem: Total number of bits needed to represent a number
Growth Rate: The growth rate of an algorithm is a rate at which the running time or the cost
of algorithm grows as the size of input grows.
Example:
Let us consider an array having n elements and we have to find out the largest element from
given array. The steps of algorithm are given as:
1. Consider two variables, say “max_element” and “current_element .
2. for Oto n-1
if current_element > max_element
‘max_element = current_element
3. Return max_element.
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>PHOHOSHKRHHKGHSHSSOSOGHOSHOHOCHOHRDFPSOOHOOOC HALO Complexity of algorithm = O(1+n+1) = o(n+2)=O(n)
Analysis of an Algorithm:
It means how much time an algorithm will take to execute, how much memory, it need and
the number of resources, it takes during the execution.
Suppose we have to find the sum of first n natural numbers then, the different algorithm may.
be given as:
Analysis of Algorithm
|
ALGOL ALGO2
Initial time of execution (ta) = time(); Initial time of execution (ti2}= time();
Finishing time (tr) = time();
Algorithm time ta
fae ta;
ALGOL ALGO2
int sum (int N) int sum (int N)
{ {
int s=0; ints =0;
for (i=0; s=NF(N41)/2;
s=stl; return s;
return 5; 2
}
‘The complexity of algo 1 is 0 (N) and its execution is dependent upon the input size N, and in
case of algo , the complexity is O(1) and its execution is independent of the input size n
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Asymptotic notations are used to represent the complexities of algorithms for asymptotic
analysis. These notations are mathematical tools to represent the complexities. There are
three notations that are commonly used.
Big Oh Notation
Big-Oh (0) notation gives an upper bound for a function f{n) to within a constant factor.
We write f{n) = O(g(n)), If there are positive constants no and c such that, to the right of no
the f(n) always lies on or below c*g(n)..
‘Ofg(n)) = { f(n} : There exist positive constant c and no such that 0 ¢ f(n) < ¢ g(n), for all n 2 no
}
Big Omega Notation
Big-Omega (0) notation gives a lower bound for a function f(n) to within a constant factor.
We write f(n) = Q(g(n)), If there are positive constants no and c such that, to the right of no
the f(n) always lies on or above c*g(n).
‘(g(n)) = {F(n) : There exist positive constant c and no such that 0 < ¢ g(n) < f(n), for all n > no
}
Big Theta Notation
Big-Theta(®) notation gives bound for a function f(n) to within a constant factor.
ls
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‘We write f(n) = ©(g(n)), If there are positive constants no and cl and c2 such that, to the right
of no the f(n) always lies between c1*g(n) and c2*g(n) inclusive.
G{g{n)) = {f{n) : There exist positive constant ct, c2 and ng such that 0 < ci g(n) < f{n) < c2
8(n), forall n> no}
Fundamentals of Algorithmic Problem Solving:
Understand the problem
*
Decide on:
computational means,
exact vs. approximate solving,
algorithm design technique
+
Design an algorithm \«
ee
Prove correctness
*.
Analyze the algorithm
*
Code the algorithm
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« Understanding the Problem:
From a practical perspective, the first thing you need to do before designing an algorithm is
to understand completely the problem given. Read the problem’s description carefully and
. ask questions if you have any doubts about the problem, do a few small examples by hand,
think about special cases, and ask questions again if needed.
‘An input to an algorithm specifies an instance of the problem the algorithm solves. It is very
important to specify exactly the set of instances the algorithm needs to handle. If you fail to
. do this, your algorithm may work correctly for a majority of inputs but crash on some
“boundary” value, Remember that a correct algorithm is not one that works most of the time,
.
but one that works correctly for all legitimate inputs,
°
< Ascertaining the Capabilities of the Computational Device:
< It means how the objects can be represented using the different computational devices and
how the operations would be implemented on these objects. We have to assure that the
s capabilities of the computational devices must be good and select between the exact and
3 approximate solutions of the problem, To get these solutions, we have to implement the
F appropriate data structures. According to the problem specification and computational
° means, the appropriate algorithm design technique may be applied. Some examples of the
iS algorithm design techniques are:
eS © Divide and conquer technique
* Greedy approach
e
© Dynamic programming
Back trekking
© Branch and Bound etc.
e
3 Design an Algorithm:
es Based upon selected algorithm design technique, a computational model is developed to
E solve the given problem. There are different methods to design the algorithm, The most
< common method is based on use of pseudocodes.
= Prove Correctness:
* Once an algorithm has been specified, you have to prove its correctness. That is, you have to
e prove that the algorithm yields a required result for every legitimate input in 2 finite amount
of time. There must be correct output for each input in a finite time. For this purpose, we may
. use different mathematical formulae and concepts like mathematical induction for recursion.
e
Analyzing an Algorithm
°
Analysis of an algorithm means how much the algorithm is good?
=. as
We usually want our algorithms to possess several qualities, After correctness, by farthe most
° important is efficiency. In fac, there are two kinds of algorithm efficiency: time efficiency,
e indicating how fast the algorithm runs, and space efficiency, indicating how much extra
.
° memory it use
e
eo |7 =
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precisely defined and investigated with mathematical rigor, simplicity, like beauty, is to a
considerable degree in the eye of the beholder.
Yet another desirable characteristic of an algorithm is generality. There are, in fact, two issues
here: generality of the problem the algorithm solves and the set of inputs it accepts. On the
first issue, note that it is sometimes easier to design an algorithm for a problem posed in more
general terms. Consider, for example, the problem of determining whether two integers are
relatively prime, ie., whether their only common divisor is equal to 1. It is easier to design an
algorithm for a more general problem of computing the greatest common divisor of two
integers and, to solve the former problem, check whether the GCD is 1 or not. There are
situations, however, where designing a more general algorithm is unnecessary or difficult or
even impossible. For example, it is unnecessary to sort a list of m numbers to find its median,
which is its n/2 th smallest element. To give another example, the standard formula for roots
of a quadratic equation cannot be generalized to handle polynomials of arbitrary degrees.
Coding an algorithm:
At last, any algorithm is implemented as a computer program. This step includes that how the
object and operations in the algorithm are represented in the selected programming
language.
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‘The tii
ime efficiencies of a large number of algorithms fall into only a few classes.
fast, 1 constant High time efficiency
logn logarithmic
n linear
nlogn nlogn
v quadratic
w cubic
2 ‘exponential
stow ¥ n! factorial Jow time efficieney
__ Mathematical analysis (Time Efficiency) of Non-recursive Algorithms
General plan for analyzing efficiency of non-recursive algorithms:
J, Decide on parameter n indicating input size
2. Identify algorithm’s basic operation
3 Check whether the number of times the basic operation is executed depends only
on the input size n. Tf it also depends on the type of input, investigate worst,
average, and best case efficiency separately.
4, Setup ‘summation for C(n) reflecting the number of times the algorithm's basic
operation is executed.
5, Simplify summation using standard formulas
Example: Finding the largest element in a given array
ALOGORITHM MaxElement(A(0..n-1)
“perermines the value of largest element in a given array
‘Maput: An array A[0..n-1] of real ruumbers
Output: The value of the largest element in A
currentMax < AO]
for ie 1ton-1 do
if Ali) > currentMax
currentMax — Ali}
return currentMax
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Analysis:
1. Input size: number of elements
2. Basic operation:
a) Comparison
b) Assignment
NO best, worst, average cases.
Let C (n) denotes number of comparisons:
each execution of the loop, which is repeatet
i within the bound between I and n ~ 1
nel
c@= SL’
(size of the array)
Algorithm makes one comparison on
for each value of the loop’s variable
5. Simplify summation using standard formulas
wt :
14st
CM) = SLF_ (oy mumder ot times)
i=1
C@=1) Or) =n}
Cine O(n)
Example: Element uniqueness problem
Algorithm UniqueElements (A[0..n-1])
Checks whether all the elements in a given array are distinct
Minput: An array A[O.n-1]
‘WOurput: Returns true if all she elements in
fori € Oton-2do
forj €i+ 1ton—1 do
iff] == AU)
return false
Aare distinct and false otherwise
return true
Analysis
1. Input size: number of elements =n (size of the array)
Basie operation: Comparison
Best, worst, average cases EXISTS.
Worst case input is an array giving largest comparisons.
‘= Array with no equal elements
2 Array with last two elements are the only pait of equal elements
4, Let C (n) denotes number of comparisons in worst case: Algorithm makes one
comparison for each repetition ofthe innermost loop i-e., for each value of the
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Divide and conquer: Binary search, Strassen’s matrix multiplication, closest-pair and convex-
hull problems.
Sorting Algorithm: Counting sort, radix sort.
Dynamic Programming: Overview, difference between dynamic programming and divide and
conquer, multistage graphs, optimal binary search trees, knapsack problem, fast fourier
transform. ———
Divide and conquer: In divide and conquer approach, the problem in hand, is divided into
smaller sub-problems and then each problem is solved independently. When we keep on
dividing the sub problems into even smaller sub-problems, we may eventually reach a stage
where no more division is possible. Those "atomic" smallest possible sub-problem (fractions)
are solved. The solution of all sub-problems is finally merged in order to obtain the solution
of an original problem.
abe de to hi db Problem
Dvide (2 » © @ oe iE a falinjtr Sub-Problam
conmuer (A) 8 6 BE FG H 1 J Sub-Solution
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Merge a
Broadly, we can understand divide-and-conquer approach in a three-step process:
1. Divide/Break |
This step involves breaking the problem into smaller sub-problems. Sub-
problems should represent a part of the original problem. This step generally takes a
recursive approach to divide the problem until no sub-problem is further divisible. At
this stage, sub-problems become atomic in nature but still represent some part of the
actual problem.
2. Conquer/Solve
This step receives a lot of smaller sub-problems to be solved. Generally, at this
level, the problems are considered ‘solved’ on their own.
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When the smaller sub-problems are solved, this stage recursively combines them
until they formulate a solution of the original problem. This algorithmic approach works
recursively and conquer & merge steps works so close that they appear as one.
Examples
The following computer algorithms are based on divide-and-conquer programming
approach -
© Merge Sort
+ Quick Sort
+ Binary Search
‘+ Strassen's Matrix Multiplication
‘+ Closest pair (points)
Binary Search:
«Binary search is the search technique which works efficiently on the sorted lists .e. it
works only on a sorted set of elements. Hence, in arder to search an element into
some list by using binary search technique, we must ensure that the list is sorted
© Abinary search is an advanced type of search algorithm that finds and fetches data
from a sorted list of items. Its core working principle involves dividing the data in the
list to half until the required value is located and displayed to the user in the search
result. Binary search is commonly known as a half-interval search or a logarithmic
search.
Binary Search Algorithm:
Binary_search ( L, low, high, k)
1. Iflow> high, then
Binary search is unsuccessful, print “element not found”.
2. Else compute: low + high)/2
CASE 1: if k= L{mid], then print, “element found”,
return mid.
CASE 2: if k< L{mid}, then
Binary_search (L, low, mid-1, k)
CASE 3: if k< L{mid], then
Binary_search (L, mid+1, high, k)
3, End
For a binary search to work, it is mandatory for the target array to be sorted/ ordered.
Example:
Consider the following sorted array and let us assume that we need to search the location of
element 21 using binary search.
1, L= 12, 21, 25, 30, 34, 39, 45, 50, 55, 59, 63, 69, 70, 74, 75
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i. Asthe given array is sorted, and k= 21, so we will find the value of mid as:
lows 1 and high= 15 hence mid= (low+ high)/2 = (1+15)/2= 8
L{mid]= L [8] = 50 which is greater than k= 21.
Hence, now we will try to search the element in the left sub list.
ii, L=[12, 21, 25, 30, 34, 39, 45]
low= 1, high= 7 so mid =4
L [mid]= L [4] = 30 which is again greater than k= 21 so we again consider the left sub
list to search element k=21.
ii, L= (42,21, 25)
low= 1, high= 3 and mid= 2
L [2] = 21 which is equal to k=21 i.e. K=L [ mid], hence element found and search is
successful.
2, L=18, 21, 23, 25,29, 35, 39, 45, 47, 48, 50, 61, 66, 69
Use binary search algorithm to find element 66.
1_]2_13_[4 [5 [6 [7 [s [9 [10 [11 faz [13 |14
18/21 [23 [25 [29 |35 [39 [45 [47 [4a |so |e [66 [6s
i. low= 4, high= 14, mid> (lows high)/2= (1+14)/2=7.5 = ceil (7.5) =8
L [8] = 45 which is less then k= 66.
‘As K>L [mid] , so we will search right sub list.
ii, L=[47, 48, 50, 61, 66, 69]
Lowe 1,, high= 6 , mid = ceil (3.5) =4
[4] = 61 which is less then k= 66 so we will search right sub list.
iii, L= [66,69]
low = 1, high= 2, mide floor(1.5)= 1
L [1]= 66 which is equal to k=66, hence element found and search Is successful.
. low+ high)/2= (1+14)/2= 7.5 = cell (7.5) =8
L [8] = 45 which is less then k= 66.
‘As K> L [mid] , so we will search right sub list.
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L [13] = 66 which is equal to K= 66
Hence element found at 13" position and search is successful.
Strassen‘s Matrix Multiplication:
Given two square matrices A and B of size nxn each, find their multiplication matrix.
Naive Method
Following is a simple way to multiply two matrices.
void multiply(int Af](N}, int B[J{W], int C{IN}) t
{
for {int i= 0; i< N; i++)
{
for (int j = 0; j
