Source: Energy Efficiency and Management for Engineers, 1st Edition

ISBN: 9781260459098
Authors: Mehmet Kanoğlu, Yunus A. Çengel

1. Introduction to Energy Efficiency

1-1. ENERGY EFFICIENCY AS AN ENERGY RESOURCE

To meet its energy needs, the world community currently depends heavily on fossil fuels that are nonrenewable and unfriendly
to the environment. In 2017, fossil fuels accounted for 82.7 percent (27.1% coal + 33.4% oil + 22.2% natural gas) of the total
energy supply in the world (Fig. 1-1). Renewable energy (including hydroelectric power), which is environment-friendly, was
responsible for 12.7 percent of the total energy supply globally. Nuclear power supplied the remaining 4.6 percent of the total
energy used (EIA, 2018).

Figure 1-1 Percentages of total world primary energy supply by fuel in 2017. (EIA, 2018.)

Total global energy supply in 2017 was 589 Quad (quadrillion Btu, 1 Quad = 1015 Btu), which is equivalent to 5.6 × 1017 kJ. More
than half of global energy is used by the industrial sector (54.6 percent), followed by the transportation sector with 25.6
percent, the residential sector with 12.7 percent, and the commercial sector with 7.1 percent (EIA, 2018).

A total of 24,255 TWh (or 24.255 × 1012 kWh since 1 terawatt hour = 1 billion kWh = 109 kWh) of electricity was generated in the
world in 2015. Fossil fuels accounted for 66.3 percent of total electricity generation in the world with 39.3 percent for coal, 22.9
percent for natural gas, and 4.1 percent for oil. Renewable energy (including hydroelectric power) and nuclear power were
responsible for 23.1 percent and 10.6 percent of global electricity generation, respectively (Fig. 1-2). A total of 5603 TWh (or
5.603 × 10 12 kWh) of renewable electricity was generated that year. The total global electricity generation rose from 6.1 trillion
kWh in 1973 to 24.3 trillion kWh in 2015 (IEA, 2017).

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 Figure 1-2 Percentages of global electricity generation by fuel type and source. Total electricity
generation = 24,255 TWh. (EIA, 2017.)

The problem of the depletion of fossil fuels and pollutants and greenhouse emissions associated with their combustion can be
tackled by essentially two methods:

Using renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal

Implementing energy efficiency practices in all aspects of energy production, distribution, and consumption

Energy efficiency refers to getting the same output with lower energy use. That is, quality and comfort are not sacrificed in
order to reduce energy consumption. Energy conservation measures can be applied to three major areas of energy use:
industrial facilities, buildings, and transportation.

We are familiar with fossil fuels as primary energy resources, but it is now time to consider energy efficiency as an important
energy resource. Energy efficiency is already being touted as the "sixth fuel" after coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear energy, and
renewable energy (Fig. 1-3). Energy efficiency is also the cheapest resource. The cost of electricity obtained from energy
efficiency is usually between 1 and 3 cents (U.S.) per kilowatt hour. Further, energy efficiency is both local and labor intensive
with significant benefits to the environment by minimizing pollution (Çengel, 2011).

Figure 1-3 Energy efficiency is being touted as the "sixth fuel."

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When energy sources are discussed, the first things that come to mind are coal, oil, natural gas, uranium that powers nuclear
plants, and renewable energy sources such as the sun, wind, geothermal, and biomass. However, the largest energy resource
that we can readily tap is a virtual energy source that was discovered in 1973 after the oil embargo. This resource is
everywhere, including in our homes, and many economic giants like the U.S. are meeting half of their new energy demand to
power economic growth from this resource. The amount of energy extracted from this resource is comparable to the energy
obtained from coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear, and renewable energy. What is more, this resource does not occupy any space, it
does not face depletion, and it benefits the environment instead of harming it. The name of this resource is energy efficiency.

It is unfortunate that many countries are investing in new power plants and extracting or importing more oil and natural gas to
meet their growing energy demand rather than making energy efficiency their first priority. It is important to raise awareness
that investing in energy efficiency provides the highest and fastest returns on investment, and that energy efficiency is not
something that can be done only if there is some funding available. Also, it is not something that can be left to individuals and
companies. Strong commitment and leadership by government is essential in raising public awareness and initiating change
toward energy efficient technologies and practices.

The 1973 oil embargo made life miserable in the Western world, but looking back, Western countries view the oil embargo as a
blessing since it dispelled the illusion that low-cost energy would be available forever. Therefore, the wake-up call in 1973 was a
turning point for the way energy was perceived, and it marked the beginning of serious all-out energy conservation efforts. As a
result, the Western world devised some mechanisms to achieve the highest level of thermal comfort with the lowest level of
energy expenditure. This was done by incorporating energy efficiency measures in all aspects of life.

1-2. CONSEQUENCES OF FOSSIL FUEL COMBUSTION

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1-2. CONSEQUENCES OF FOSSIL FUEL COMBUSTION
Fossil fuels have been powering the industrial development and the amenities of modern life since the 1700s, but this has not
been without undesirable side effects. The conversion of fossil fuels to thermal energy via combustion affects the environment
and the air we breathe in many ways; thus, an analysis of energy systems is not complete without considering their impact on
the environment and our health. Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are responsible for smog, acid rain,
and numerous other adverse effects on the environment. Environmental pollution has reached such high levels that it has
become a serious threat to vegetation, wildlife, and human health. Air pollution has been the cause of numerous health
problems, including asthma and cancer. Therefore, the switch to nonfossil energy sources is inevitable, and salvaging the
energy that is currently being wasted stands as the greatest resource that can be tapped to meet the growing energy demands
of the world.

Carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. Global climate change is widely believed to
be caused by the excessive use of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products, and natural gas in electric power generation,
transportation, buildings, and manufacturing, and it has been a concern in recent decades. The concentration of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere as of 2019 is 410 ppm (or 0.41 percent). This is 20 percent higher than the level a century ago. Various
scientific reports indicate that the earth has already warmed about 0.5°C during the last century, and it is estimated that the
earth's temperature will rise another 2°C by the year 2100. A rise of this magnitude is feared to cause severe changes in
weather patterns resulting in storms, heavy rains, and flooding in some areas and drought in others. It could also cause major
floods due to the melting of ice at the poles, loss of wetlands and coastal areas due to rising sea levels, variations in water
supply, and changes in ecosystems due to the inability of some animal and plant species to adjust to the changes. Increases in
epidemic diseases due to warmer temperatures and adverse side effects on human health and socioeconomic conditions in
some areas are also predicted.

The combustion of fossil fuels produce the following undesirable emissions (Fig. 1-4):

Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), primary greenhouse gas, contributes to global warming.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and hydrocarbons (HC) cause smog.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is toxic.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) causes acid rain.

Particulate matter (PM) causes adverse health effects.

Figure 1-4 Effects of undesirable emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels.

Notice that CO2 is different from the other emissions in that CO2 is a greenhouse gas and a natural product of fossil fuel
combustion, while the other emissions listed are harmful air pollutants.

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1-3. ENERGY INTENSITY
Earning money is no doubt important for comfortable living, but spending the earned money wisely and avoiding waste is no
less important. Likewise, extracting energy from a resource is important, but using this energy in the most efficient way and
avoiding waste is just as important.

Energy efficiency is reducing energy use to the minimum level, but doing so without reducing standard of living, production
quality, or profitability. Energy efficiency is the most effective use of energy resources, and it results in energy conservation.
There is a close connection between efficiency and conservation, and these two terms are often used interchangeably. Energy
conservation is usually associated with the measures taken to reduce energy use at the point of consumption, like the use of
electricity in a house for lighting. Energy efficiency, on the other hand, is associated with the most efficient and thus least
wasteful use of energy at all stages from production to end use. Therefore, energy efficiency is a broader term that includes
energy conservation. The second law of thermodynamics is closely associated with energy efficiency. A second-law efficiency
of 100 percent corresponds to zero waste and thus the upper limit for energy efficiency (Çengel et al., 2019).

The concepts of energy conservation and renewable energy appear to be independent of each other, but they are closely
associated. If the energy of wind is not captured by a wind turbine or if the solar energy is not collected by solar collectors or PV
cells and converted into a usable form of energy right away, it will go to waste and contribute to global warming. Burning
natural gas for energy that can be obtained from the wind or the sun is a waste of natural gas. Therefore, the increased
utilization of renewable energy is one of the most effective measures of energy conservation.

A common measure of energy efficiency for an economy is energy intensity, which is the amount of energy used to produce a
dollar's worth of gross domestic product (GDP). The high value of energy intensity raises concerns, but it also points to the
great opportunities that exist in energy efficiency. A country with a relatively high value of energy intensity can reduce its
energy consumption without reducing its standard of living by simply incorporating measures of energy efficiency in all aspects
of life. This allows the country to meet its growing energy needs by implementing energy efficiency measures alone without
tapping any additional energy resources. That is, the only kind of power plant a country in this situation needs to power its
economic growth is the "conservation plant" that has no chimneys and emits no pollutants instead of the usual coal, oil, or
natural gas power plants that pollute the air, cause global climate change, and jeopardize energy security.

The most effective way to combat rising energy costs, greenhouse gas emissions, and dependence on imported energy is to
increase energy efficiency and thus to reduce energy intensity. In nations with a high level of energy awareness, such as the
U.S., energy intensity continues to decline and energy efficiency continues to rise. The energy-efficient technologies developed
since the early 1970s and the conservation measures that are put to use played a major role in this increase in energy
efficiency.

The energy use per dollar of GDP in the U.S. has dropped by 40 percent from 1980 to 2005. The energy intensity of the U.S.
manufacturing sector has been decreasing over the years. Figure 1-5 gives the data between 1998 and 2014 for gross output,
fuel consumption, and energy intensity. From 2010 to 2014, gross output increased by 9.6 percent, while fuel consumption
increased at a much lower rate of 4.7 percent. This resulted in a 4.4 percent decrease in energy intensity (EIA, 2017).

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 Figure 1-5 The decline in the energy intensity of the U.S. manufacturing sector. (EIA, 2017.)

Energy efficiency covers a wide range of applications from insulation to energy-efficient lighting and from energy-efficient
appliances to high-efficiency electric motors. The energy-efficient compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), for example, consume
one-third to one-fifth of the electricity that incandescent lamps consume for the same light output. So it is no surprise that the
use of incandescent lamps is being banned or restricted in Australia, the European Union, and the U.S., and the tariffs applied to
energy-efficient lamps are being lifted. Further, the energy consumption of fluorescent tube fixtures commonly used in public,
commercial, and industrial buildings can be reduced by up to 30 percent by simply replacing the magnetic ballasts with their
electronic counterparts. This replacement has the added benefit of eliminating the irritating buzzing sound, the flickering of
light, and the reactive power loss by raising the power factor from 0.60 to 0.99. Electronic ballasts operate at lower and thus
safer temperatures with a longer life because of their higher efficiency and thus lower rate of heat production. They fit into
existing fixtures, are economical, and easy to install. Additional savings can be realized by replacing the old-type fluorescent
tubes by the newer more energy-efficient ones that provide the same amount of lighting.

Energy efficiency efforts also had a major impact in the transportation sector. Today's automobiles use roughly 60 percent of
the gasoline they did in 1972 per mile (or km) driven, due in part to new technologies, such as better engine design and
controls, improved transmission, weight reduction, improved aerodynamics, the use of variable compression ratios in a multilink
system, hybrid engines that recover power lost during braking, and individually controlled intake and exhaust valves.
Considering that transportation accounts for 27 percent of total U.S. energy consumption and cars and light trucks comprise
over 75 percent of that consumption, even a small increase in energy efficiency of vehicles can have a major impact on human
health and the environment. Therefore, governments continue to offer generous incentives toward the purchase of fuel-efficient
vehicles and use legislation to discourage the production of fuel-inefficient vehicles.

1-4. THE POWER OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY

The best way to minimize the use of a natural resource is not to use it at all—that is, to conserve it. But this should be done
without lowering the quality of life. This was the approach taken in the U.S. in 1970s after the oil embargo, when conservation
measures were given a high priority. The results of these efforts were impressive. Between 1975 and 1985, the total energy use
remained constant while economic growth continued, as shown in Fig. 1-6. That is, the energy needed to power the economic
growth was supplied by conservation. Between 1973 and 2000, the U.S. economy grew 126 percent, but the increase in total
energy usage remained at 30 percent—about one-fifth of the rate of economic growth. Also, between 1990 and 2000, the
industrial output increased 41 percent, while the use of electric energy in industrial facilities increased only by 11 percent
(NEPDG, 2001).

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 Figure 1-6 Total energy usage in the U.S. if energy intensity (Energy consumed/GDP) stayed
constant at the 1972 level versus actual energy use. (NEPDG, 2001.)

If the U.S. had not turned to conservation and had continued its energy use at the energy intensity level of 1972, its energy
consumption would have been 80 percent or 79 Quad more in 2000, and the U.S. would be paying about $1 billion more every
day for energy. Today the U.S. is paying several hundred billion dollars less for energy every year, and it owes this to the
conservation measures it started zealously in the 1970s. Therefore, the past investments in energy efficiency have paid a very
high return while providing economic stimulus and environmental and thus health benefits. The U.S. example reaffirms that the
biggest energy resource is energy efficiency, and this is a domestic, environment-friendly, and inexhaustible resource.

Two examples from the U.S. clearly demonstrate the power of energy efficiency. The first deals with household refrigerators
and the second with nuclear power plants.

1-4-1. The Case of Energy-Efficient Refrigerators

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1-4-1. The Case of Energy-Efficient Refrigerators
The energy efficiency of refrigerators and freezers has increased greatly over the last 40 years, and the trend for higher-energy
efficiency in all appliances continues. In 1974, a typical refrigerator in the U.S. consumed 1800 kWh of electricity per year. But
owing to the efficiency enhancements in motor and compressor systems, more effective insulation, and improved control
systems, the average annual electricity consumption has declined by 75 percent to 450 kWh. That is, an average refrigerator in
the U.S. today consumes only one-fourth of the electricity it consumed in 1974; thus, it saves 1350 kWh of electricity each year.
The total number of refrigerators in the U.S. is about 140 million, and the national average price of electricity is 12 cents. It then
follows that the energy efficiency in refrigerators alone saves the U.S. 190 billion kWh of electricity per year, and nearly $20
billion stays in the pockets of U.S. consumers rather than going toward paying electric bills.

Considering that an average of 0.713 kg of CO2 is emitted per kWh of electricity generated in the U.S., the 190 billion kWh of
electricity saved offsets the emission of 135 million tons of CO2 (the actual amount will be larger since a greater amount of
electricity needs to be generated to make up for transmission losses). Therefore, the conserved energy also makes a
significant contribution to the effort to avoid global warming.

If the refrigerators in the U.S. were to continue to consume electric power at 1974 levels, the U.S. would need about 30,000 MW
of additional installed power to meet this extra demand. This means 30 nuclear reactors with an average rated power of 1000
MW or 60 coal plants with an average rated power of 500 MW. Assuming an average construction cost of $2 million/MW for
coal plants, the construction cost of these power plants to meet the additional demand due to refrigerator inefficiency would be
$60 billion. At $0.065/kWh for fuel and other operational expenses, it would cost $12 billion a year to operate these additional
power plants. Therefore, the implementation cost of energy efficiency measures should be compared to all these costs that are
offset.

1-4-2. The Case of Cancelled Nuclear Power Projects in the U.S.

Another area where conservation measures have had striking effects is the cancelled nuclear power plant projects in the U.S.
As of the end of 2018, the U.S. had 61 nuclear power plants with 99 reactors supplying 19 percent of the electricity it consumed
(IAEA, 2018). Before discovering conservation, the U.S. was planning to power economic growth mostly with nuclear energy and
had started the construction of dozens of nuclear power plants in the 1970s. But something unexpected happened: the
conservation measures turned out to be sufficient to meet the power needs of the growing economy. Consequently, a total of
97 nuclear power plants at different stages of construction with a total capacity of 107,000 MW were cancelled, and the billions
of dollars invested were wasted (EIA, 1991). About 90 percent of these cancellations occurred between 1974 and 1984 (the rest
were cancelled between 1985 and 1995). One nuclear reactor entered service in 2016, and there were only two nuclear reactors
currently under construction as of 2018. This shows the effectiveness of conservation measures and teaches the important
lesson that energy efficiency should be given the highest priority in energy planning.

1-5. IMPACT OF BASIC ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES

The impact of energy efficiency measures is discussed by considering three areas of energy efficiency: thermal insulation,
energy-efficient lighting, and energy efficiency in electric motors.

1-5-1. Insulation: The First Step in Energy Efficiency

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1-5-1. Insulation: The First Step in Energy Efficiency
When the topic is energy conservation, the first thing that comes to mind is usually insulation. For decades, insulation has been
one of the cornerstones of energy conservation projects, and it plays an important role in a sustainable economy. The
cumulative insulation products installed in U.S. buildings save consumers about 12 Quads a year, or about 42 percent of the
energy that would have been consumed with no insulation in place. Insulation also benefits the environment and human health.
Insulation installed in U.S. buildings prevents the emission of over 780 million tons of carbon dioxide annually. In the U.S. alone,
$5.9 billion could be saved annually in healthcare and economic costs linked to air pollution simply by improving insulation, with
the additional benefit of the improved quality of life (Levy et al., 2003).

In a report, the conservation provided by the current level of insulation in residential, commercial, and industrial building is
stated to be 23.5 Quad of energy (1 Quad of energy is equivalent to 4 billion barrels of oil), $177 billion, and the elimination of
366 million tons of carbon (or 1340 million tons of carbon dioxide) emission (Alliance to Save Energy, 2001). Also, energy use in
U.S. government buildings per unit floor area was reduced by 20 percent between 1985 and 2000.

Insulation projects often pay for themselves within a few months with the cost of the energy they save. During an energy audit
of a manufacturing facility, for example, it was observed that the outer surface temperature of a furnace was 90°C, and
calculations showed that the cost of heat loss was $7400 per year. The recommendation was to insulate the outer surfaces
with 5-cm-thick insulation at a total cost of $1400, which dropped the cost of heat loss to $1700 per year. That is, a one-time
investment of $1400 resulted in $5700 of energy conservation per year, and the insulation paid for itself within three months. If
we view energy efficiency as a resource, it would be like a manufacturer taps into this resource by paying a one-time fee of
$1400 and gains annual benefits of $5700, while another manufacturer taps into the natural gas line and continues to pay
$7400 every year. This gives the first manufacturer a competitive edge and increases its profitability. Such energy efficiency
practices also benefit the environment.

1-5-2. Energy-Efficient Lighting

In the U.S., 22 percent of the electricity is used for lighting. Although there are large variations with wattage and manufacturer,
incandescent light bulbs produce less than 18 lumens per W (lm/W) and less than 6 percent of the electric energy they
consume is converted to light. They also have a short operational life of about 1000 hours. In halogen lamps, these upper limits
can be doubled. Incandescent lamps are also being phased out or banned in many countries.

Fluorescent lamps (compact and tubes) produce up to 105 lm/W and have electric-to-light conversion efficiencies of up to 35
percent, with an operation life of about 10,000 hours. High-intensity discharge lights have comparable performance to
fluorescent lamps. Low-pressure sodium lights produce up to 200 lm/W, but their use is limited because of their characteristic
yellow tones and thus poor color rendering index. Improvements in the solid-state technology resulted in the development of
LED lamps. LED lighting devices have a potential to produce 400 lm/W of white light. The 2025 goal of the U.S. is to achieve an
efficacy of 200 lm/W, which corresponds to an electric-to-light conversion efficiency of 50 percent, and a reduction in the
energy consumption for lighting by half. This level of saving is equivalent to shutting down 52 of the 99 nuclear reactors in the
U.S. or to avoiding the construction of that many new nuclear reactors or fossil fuel power plants. This would also result in an
11 percent reduction in the greenhouse gas emissions associated with electric power production and an annual savings of $30
billion by consumers.

At times of energy crises, replacing inefficient incandescent light bulbs with energy-efficient fluorescent ones is the first
measure that comes to mind, since it produces quick results at low cost. In 2001, for example, California distributed 8 million
compact fluorescent lamps to low-income families to lessen the effect of the electricity crises. Brazil also used the same
approach in 2001.

1-5-3. Energy Efficiency in Electric Motors

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About half of all electricity produced and two-thirds of the electricity used in industry is consumed by electric motors. This
shows the importance of using high-efficiency motors in industry to reduce energy cost. The cost of a typical-new motor is less
than 2 percent of the total cost of that motor. The life-long energy cost of a motor can constitute 98 percent of the total cost.
That is, a typical motor will cost over 50 times its purchasing price in the energy it consumes during its average life of 20 years.
In other words, the cost of energy a typical electric motor consumes in a few months may equal the purchase price of that
motor. On average, a motor consumes its purchase-price worth of energy within 2 months. The total energy cost of a motor with
a price tag of $5000 can exceed $1 million during its lifetime.

Many production managers are not aware of the seriousness of the matter. They often prefer the standard-efficiency motor
over the high-efficiency one because of the price differential (usually between 10 percent and 25 percent), but later they pay
several times this difference in energy costs. They also rewind the burned-out motors repeatedly to avoid the cost of new
motors. But rewinding causes the motor efficiency to drop even further, and the money saved by repairing an old motor quickly
disappears because of the increased energy costs. A new high-efficiency motor purchased to replace the old one, on the other
hand, will pay its cost differential in a short time from the energy it saves and will continue to conserve energy and money
during the rest of its operation life.

For example, the efficiency of a 20-hp standard motor is about 88 percent. But the efficiency of a high-efficiency motor with the
same rated power output is 91 percent, and it even rises to 93 percent in the case of premium-efficiency motors. Purchasing a
93.0 percent-efficient premium-efficiency 20-hp motor that operates 6000 hours a year with an average load factor of 75.0
percent instead of an 88.3 percent-efficient standard motor will result in annual energy savings of 4102 kWh. Assuming a CO2
emission of 0.75 kg per kWh, the premium-efficiency motor will prevent the release of nearly 3 tons of greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere. As an added benefit, high-efficiency motors reduce operation costs because of their higher reliability (and thus
fewer breakdowns resulting in less production loss) and lower maintenance costs.

By switching to high-efficiency motors, a savings of about 4 percent in energy consumption is possible. But when the load is
variable as in the case of fans, pumps, compressors, and conveyors, it is possible to reduce energy consumption by 50 percent,
and in some cases by 70 percent, by equipping the motors with variable speed drives (VSD). This way, the competitiveness and
profitability of industrial facilities can be improved by reducing the cost of energy significantly. Municipal pumping stations, well
water pumping systems in farms, and even residences with private wells can benefit from the savings provided by VSDs. The
cost of a VSD may be several times that of the motor it is mounted on. But in many cases, the VSDs pay for themselves during
the first year from the cost of the energy they save.

For example, equipping a 90-kW motor in a pumping station in Istanbul with a VSD has resulted in a drop in average daily
electric consumption from 1370 kWh to 690 kWh—a drop of 49.6 percent. This corresponds to annual energy and cost savings
of 248,000 kWh and $30,000, respectively. The simple payback period for this VSD system was less than one year. This VSD
application has also benefited the environment by avoiding the emission of about 16 tons of CO2 gas into the atmosphere.

Example

EXAMPLE 1-1 Ton of Oil Equivalent (Toe) Unit

The "ton of oil" equivalent (toe) is an amount of energy unit commonly used to express large amounts of energy. It
represents the amount of energy released by burning one ton (1000 kg) of crude oil. One toe is equal to 41.868 GJ,
sometimes rounded to 42 GJ. Power plants in the U.S. generated 4.05 × 109 MWh of electricity in a year. Also, 74.5 Quad of
electricity were produced globally in the same year. Express these values in toe units. Also, determine the percentage of
global electricity generation that occurred in the U.S.

SOLUTION Noting that 1 MWh = 1000 kWh, 1 kWh = 3600 kJ, 1 GJ = 1 × 106 kJ, and 1 toe = 41.868 GJ, we express
electricity generation in the U.S. in toes as follows:

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 1000 kWh 3600 kJ 1 GJ 1 toe
Electricity generation (U.S.) = (4.05 × 109 MWh) ( )( )( ) (
1 MWh 1 kWh 1 × 106 kJ 41.868 GJ
= 3.48 × 108 toe

Noting that 1 Quad = 1 × 1015 Btu and 1 toe = 41.868 GJ, we express global electricity generation in toes as follows:

1 × 1015 Btu 1.055 kJ 1 GJ 1 toe

Electricity generation (world) = (74.5 Quad) ( )( )( )(
1 Quad 1 Btu 6
1 × 10 kJ 41.868 GJ
= 1.88 × 109 toe

The percentage of global electricity generation that occurred in the U.S. is determined to be

Electricity generation (U.S.) 3.48 × 108 toe

Percent generation in U.S. = = = 0.185 = 18.5 percent
Electricity generation (world) 1.88 × 109 toe

That is, 348 million toe of electricity is generated in the U.S. and 1.88 billion toe of electricity is generated in the world. U.S.
electricity generation represents 18.5 percent of global generation. Note that the toe unit is not normally used to express
the amount of electricity. Instead some multiples of kWh, such as MWh, GWh, and TWh, are used.

Example

EXAMPLE 1-2 Reduction in CO 2 Emission by a Household

Consider a household that uses 8000 kWh of electricity per year and 1200 gallons of fuel oil during a heating season. The
average amount of CO2 produced is 26.4 lbm/gallon of fuel oil and 1.54 lbm/kWh of electricity. If this household reduces its
oil and electricity usage by 20 percent as a result of implementing some energy conservation measures, determine the
reduction in the amount of CO2 emissions by that household per year.

SOLUTION Noting that this household consumes 8000 kWh of electricity and 1200 gallons of fuel oil per year, the amount
of CO 2 production this household is responsible for is

Amount of CO2 produced = (Amount of electricity consumed)(Amount of CO2 per kWh)

+ (Amount of fuel oil consumed)(Amount of CO2 per gallon)
= (8000 kWh/yr)(1.54 lbm CO2/kWh) + (1200 gal/yr)(26.4 lbm CO2/gal)
= 44,000 lbm CO2/yr

Reducing the electricity and fuel oil usage by 20 percent will reduce the annual amount of CO2 production by this household
by

Reduction in CO 2 produced = (0.20)(Current amount of CO2 production)

= (0.20)(44,000 lbm CO2/yr)
= 8800 lbm CO2/yr

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 Therefore, any measure that saves energy also reduces the amount of pollution emitted to the environment.

1-6. FOSSIL FUELS AND NUCLEAR ENERGY

The main energy sources include coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear energy, and renewable energy (Fig. 1-7). Among these, coal, oil,
and natural gas are fossil fuels. Fossil fuels were responsible for more than 90 percent of global combustion-related carbon
dioxide emissions with 37 Gigatons (37,000 million tons) in 2017. The contributions of fossil fuels to global CO2 emissions are
45 percent for coal, 35 percent for oil, and 20 percent for natural gas (IEA, 2017). A short review of fossil fuels is presented
next.

Figure 1-7 Main energy sources.

1-6-1. Coal
Coal is made of mostly carbon, and it also contains hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and ash (noncombustibles). The heating
value of carbon is 32,800 kJ/kg. The percentages of carbon and other components vary depending on the production site.
Energy content per unit mass (i.e., heating value) and sulfur content are among the important characteristics of coal. High
energy content allows extraction of more heat from coal, making the fuel more valuable. Low sulfur content is crucial to meet
emission limits of sulfur compounds. Coal is used mostly for electricity production in steam power plants. It is also used for
space heating, water heating, and steam generation.

There are four common types of coal with the following general characteristics:

Bituminuous coal: It is also known as soft coal. It has high energy content but unfortunately also high sulfur content. A
representative composition (referred to in the industry as an "assay") of this coal by mass is 67 percent carbon, 5 percent
hydrogen, 8.7 percent oxygen, 1.5 percent nitrogen, 1.5 percent sulfur, 9.8 percent ash, and 6.7 percent moisture. The higher
heating value for this particular composition of coal is 28,400 kJ/kg. Bituminuous coal is primarily used for electricity
generation in power plants.

Subbituminuous coal: It has lower energy content due to lower fractions of carbon and hydrogen, but it also has lower sulfur
content compared to bituminuous coal. A representative composition of this coal by mass is 48.2 percent carbon, 3.3
percent hydrogen, 11.9 percent oxygen, 0.7 percent nitrogen, 0.4 percent sulfur, 5.3 percent ash, and 30.2 percent moisture.
The higher heating value for this particular composition of coal is 19,400 kJ/kg. Subbituminuous coal is primarily used for
electricity generation and heating applications.

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 Anthracite coal: It is also known as hard coal. It is far less common compared to bituminuous and subbituminuous coals. It
is used mainly for residential and industrial heating applications. Few coal-fired plants burn it. It contains 80 to 95 percent
carbon with low sulfur and nitrogen content. The ash content is between 10 and 20 percent, and the moisture content is 5 to
15 percent. Its heating value is typically higher than 26,000 kJ/kg.

Lignite: It is also known as brown coal. It is the lowest quality coal with low energy content and a high sulfur and moisture
fraction. The carbon content is only 25 to 35 percent with a low heating value of less than 15,000 kJ/kg. The moisture and
ash content can be as high as 75 percent and 20 percent, respectively. It is used mainly for electricity generation.

In the combustion of coal, hydrogen and sulfur burn first and carbon burns last. As a result, nearly all of the sulfur burns into
SO 2 , and nearly all of the hydrogen burns into H2 O by the following reactions:

S + O2 → SO2
H2 + 1/2 O2 → H2O

Carbon burns according to the following reactions

C + 1/2 O2 → CO
CO + 1/2 O2 → CO2

If some carbon monoxide (CO) cannot find sufficient oxygen to burn by the time combustion is completed, some CO is found in
the combustion products. This represents a very undesirable emission, as well as the waste of fuel, because CO has energy
content (the heating value of CO is 10,100 kJ/kg). This can happen even in the presence of stoichiometric or excess oxygen
due to incomplete mixing and a short time for the combustion process.

Combustion of coal also causes emissions of unburned carbon particles, carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbon (HC),
sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), ash, and nitrogen oxide (NOx). The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emission depends on the percentage
of carbon in the coal and the degree of completion of the combustion of carbon. Coal is considered the most polluting fossil
fuel compared to liquid and gaseous fuels, as well as being the largest contributor to global carbon dioxide emissions with
about 40 percent.

Example

EXAMPLE 1-3 Heating Value of Coal

The assay of coal from Illinois is as follows by mass: 67.40 percent carbon (C), 5.31 percent hydrogen (H2 ), 15.11 percent
oxygen (O2 ), 1.44 percent nitrogen (N2 ), 2.36 percent sulfur (S), and 8.38 percent ash (noncombustibles). What are the
higher and lower heating values of this coal? The heating value of sulfur is 9160 kJ/kg.

SOLUTION The combustible constituents in the coal are carbon (C), hydrogen (H2 ), and sulfur (S). The heating value of
sulfur is 9160 kJ/kg. The higher and lower heating values of hydrogen are 141,800 kJ/kg and 120,000 kJ/kg, respectively,
and the heating value of carbon is 32,800 kJ/kg (Table A-17, Appendix). Note that if the combustion of a fuel does not yield
any water in the combustion gases, the higher and lower heating values are equivalent for that fuel.

Using their mass fractions (mf), the higher heating value of this particular coal is

HHV = mfC × HHVC + mfH2 × HHVH2 + mfS × HHVS

= (0.674)(32,800 kJ/kg) + (0.0531)(141,800 kJ/kg) + (0.0236)(9160 kJ/kg)
= 29,850 kJ/kg

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 Similarly, the lower heating value of the coal is

LHV = mfC × LHVC + mfH2 × LHVH2 + mfS × LHVS

= (0.674)(32,800 kJ/kg) + (0.0531)(120,000 kJ/kg) + (0.0236)(9160 kJ/kg)
= 28,695 kJ/kg

The difference between the higher and lower heating values is about 4 percent.

1-6-2. Oil
Oil or petroleum is a mixture of a large number of hydrocarbons (HC) with different compositions. Crude oil has 83 to 87
percent carbon and 11 to 14 percent hydrogen with small amounts of other components, such as sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, ash,
and moisture. End products, such as gasoline, light diesel fuel, jet fuel, LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), natural gas, and heavy
diesel fuel (fuel oil), are obtained by distillation and cracking in oil refinery plants (Fig. 1-8). Nonpetroleum liquid fuels may
include ethanol, biodiesel, coal-to-liquids, natural gas liquids, and liquid hydrogen.

Figure 1-8 Main petroleum fuel products.

Gasoline and light diesel fuel are used in automobiles and can be approximated by C8 H15 and C12H22, respectively. Diesel fuel
also includes some sulfur, but the latest regulations in the U.S. and European Union already reduced the sulfur limit from about
300 ppm to 50 ppm (parts per million). The next target is only 10 ppm. The higher heating values of gasoline and light diesel
fuel are 47,300 kJ/kg and 46,100 kJ/kg, respectively.

Oil is less commonly used for electricity generation compared to coal and natural gas. There are two groups of oil used in
power plants and industrial heating applications:

Distillate oils: These are higher quality oils that are highly refined. They contain much less sulfur compared to residual oils.
A typical composition of distillate oils is 87.2 percent carbon, 12.5 percent hydrogen, and 0.3 percent sulfur. The higher
heating value for this composition is 45,200 kJ/kg.

Residual oils: These oils undergo less refining. They are thicker with higher molecular masses, higher levels of impurities,
and higher sulfur contents. A typical composition is 85.6 percent carbon, 9.7 percent hydrogen, 2.3 percent sulfur, 1.2
percent nitrogen, 0.8 percent oxygen, 0.1 percent ash, and 0.3 percent moisture. The higher heating value for this
composition is 42,500 kJ/kg.

1-6-3. Natural Gas

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1-6-3. Natural Gas
Natural gas is mostly methane (CH4 ). Its percentage of methane varies between 60 percent and 98 percent. It also contains
small amounts of ethane, propane, butane, nitrogen, oxygen, helium, carbon dioxide, and other gases. It exists as a gas under
atmospheric conditions and is stored as a gas under high pressure (15 to 25 MPa). It is mostly transported in gas phase by
pipelines in and between cities and countries. When pipeline transportation is not feasible, it is first liquefied to about −160°C
using advanced refrigeration technologies before being carried in large insulated tanks in marine ships. Natural gas is used in
boilers for space heating, hot water and steam generation, industrial furnaces, power plants for electricity production, and
internal combustion engines.

The higher and lower heating values of methane are 55,530 and 50,050 kJ/kg, respectively. The heating value of natural gas
depends mainly on the fraction of methane. The higher the methane fraction, the higher the heating value. Natural gas is
commonly approximated as methane without much sacrifice in accuracy. The heating value of natural gas is usually expressed
in kJ/m3 units, and the higher heating value ranges from 33,000 kJ/m3 to 42,000 kJ/m3 , depending on the resource. The lower
heating value of natural gas is about 90 percent of its higher heating value. A comparison of higher heating values for various
fuels is shown in Fig. 1-9.

Figure 1-9 Higher heating values of various fuels, in MJ/kg. Coal is roughly approximated as
carbon and natural gas as methane.

Compared to coal and oil, natural gas is a cleaner fuel because it emits less pollutants. Air quality in certain cities has improved
dramatically when natural gas pipelines reached these cities and heating systems running on coal were replaced by their
natural gas counterparts. Using natural gas in public transportation (buses and taxis) is a way to improve air quality in cities.

About 40 percent of natural gas is used by the industrial sector, while 33 percent is used for electricity generation in power
plants (EIA, 2018). Residential and commercial applications account for the remaining use of natural gas. The supply of natural
gas has recently risen substantially in the U.S., Canada, and China. This is mostly due to exploitation of shale gas made
possible by horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing technologies.

Example

EXAMPLE 1-4 Higher Heating Value of Methane in Different Units

The lower heating value of methane (CH4 ) is 50,050 kJ/kg. Determine its higher heating value in kJ/kg, m3 /kg, and
therm/lbm units. The enthalpy of vaporization of water at 25°C is hfg = 2442 kJ/kg. Assume natural gas is at 1 atm and
25°C.

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 SOLUTION The molar masses of CH4 and H2 O are 16 and 18 kg/kmol, respectively. When 1 kmol of methane (CH4 ) is
burned with theoretical air, 2 kmol of water (H2 O) is formed. Then the mass of water formed when 1 kg of methane is
burned is determined from

NH2O M H2O (2 kmol)(18 kg/kmol)

mH2O = = = 2.25 kg H2O/kg CH4
NCH4M CH4 (1 kmol)(16 kg/kmol)

The amount of heat released as 2.25 kg water is condensed is

Qlatent = mH2O hfg = (2.25 kg H2O/kg CH4)(2442 kJ/kg H2O) = 5495 kJ/kg CH4

Then the higher heating value of methane becomes

HHV = LHV + Qlatent = 50,050 kJ/kg + 5495 kJ/kg = 55,545 kJ/kg

The gas constant of methane is R = 0.5182 kPa⋅m3 /kg⋅K (Table A-1) and 1 atm = 101 kPa. The density of methane is
determined from the ideal gas relation as

P 101 kPa
ρ= = = 0.6540 kg/m3
RT (0.5182 kPa ⋅ m3/kg ⋅ K)(25 + 273 K)

The higher heating value of methane in kg/m3 unit is

HHV = (55,545 kJ/kg)(0.6540 kg/m3) = 36,330 kJ/m3

Noting that 1 therm = 100,000 Btu = 105,500 kJ and 1 lbm = 0.4536 kg, the higher heating value of methane in therm/lbm
unit is

1 therm 0.4536 kg
HHV = (55,550 kJ/kg) ( )( ) = 0.2388 therm/lbm
105,500 kJ 1 lbm

1-6-4. Nuclear Energy

The tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom is callednuclear energy.
The most widely known fission reaction involves splitting the uranium atom (the U-235 isotope) into other elements and is
commonly used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants; to power nuclear submarines, aircraft carriers, and even
spacecraft; and as a component of nuclear bombs.

The first nuclear chain reaction was achieved by Enrico Fermi in 1942, and the first large-scale nuclear reactors were built in
1944 for the purpose of producing material for nuclear weapons. When a uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron and splits
during a fission process, it produces an acesium-140 atom, a rubidium-93 atom, 3 neutrons, and 3.2 × 10−11 J of energy. In
practical terms, the complete fission of 1 kg of uranium-235 releases 6.73 × 1010 kJ of heat, which is more than the heat
released when 3000 tons of coal are burned. Therefore, for the same amount of fuel, a nuclear fission reaction releases several
million times more energy than a chemical reaction. The safe disposal of used nuclear fuel, however, remains a concern.

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There are over 450 nuclear reactors operating worldwide with a total capacity of about 400,000 MW. Dozens of new reactors
are under construction in 15 countries. The U.S. has 61 nuclear power plants with 99 reactors. The percentage of electricity
produced by nuclear power is 76 percent in France, 19 percent in Russia and the U.K., 14 percent in Germany, and 20 percent in
the U.S. (IAEA, 2018).

Nuclear energy by fusion is released when two small nuclei combine into a larger one. The huge amount of energy radiated by
the sun and other stars originates from such a fusion process that involves the combination of two hydrogen atoms into a
helium atom. When two heavy hydrogen (deuterium) nuclei combine during a fusion process, they produce a helium-3 atom, a
free neutron, and 5.1 × 10−13 J of energy (Fig. 1-10).

Figure 1-10 The fission of uranium and the fusion of hydrogen during nuclear reactions and the
release of nuclear energy.

Fusion reactions are much more difficult to achieve in practice because of the strong repulsion between the positively charged
nuclei, called Coulomb repulsion. To overcome this repulsive force and to enable the two nuclei to fuse together, the energy level
of the nuclei must be raised by heating them to about 100 million °C. But such high temperatures are found only in stars or in
exploding atomic bombs (A-bombs). In fact, the uncontrolled fusion reaction in a hydrogen bomb (H-bomb) is initiated by a
small atomic bomb. The first uncontrolled fusion reaction was achieved in the early 1950s, but all the efforts since then to
achieve controlled fusion by massive lasers, powerful magnetic fields, and electric currents to generate power have failed.

1-6-5. Electricity
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1-6-5. Electricity
Electricity is the most valuable form of energy. Fuels cannot directly replace it because the vast majority of devices, equipment,
and appliances operate on electricity. Electricity is produced in power plants burning coal, oil, and natural gas and in nuclear
power stations. Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, geothermal and hydro, are also used to produce electricity.

The contribution of renewable electricity is expected to increase in the coming years, but the incorporation of wind power and
solar power into the grid involves some irregularities and uncertainties due to changing wind and solar conditions on an hourly,
daily, and seasonal basis. This requires a more flexible electrical grid system than the existing conventional system in order to
accommodate the inconsistent supply of renewable electricity. This new grid system is called a smart grid, which is an
important area of research and development for electrical engineers.

Energy storage systems also help to deal with the irregularities of wind and solar electricity generation. Several techniques for
storing energy have been suggested, but the two most common types are batteries and pumped storage. The former is well
known since we all use rechargeable batteries in our cars, portable computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices. The
latter involves pumping water "uphill" from a lower reservoir to a higher one when excess power is available, and then reversing
the process ("turbining") when electricity demand is high. As more renewable energy sources go online, the need for such
energy storage systems is also expected to grow significantly.

1-7. RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

The main renewable energy sources include solar, wind, hydro, biomass, and geothermal (Fig. 1-11). Energy sources from the
ocean, including ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), wave, and tidal, are also renewable sources, but they are currently
not economical, and the technologies are still in the experimental and developmental stage. Detailed coverage of renewable
energy systems is available in Kanoğlu et al. (2020).

Figure 1-11 The switch from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is inevitable.

An energy source is called renewable if it can be renewed and sustained without any depletion of and any significant effect on
the environment. It is also called an alternative, sustainable, or green energy source (Fig. 1-12). Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and
natural gas, on the other hand, are not renewable, and they are depleted by use. They also emit harmful pollutants and
greenhouse gases.

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 Figure 1-12 Renewable energies such as solar water collectors are calledgreen energy since they
emit no pollutants or greenhouse gases. (Photo by Kerem Kanoğlu.)

The best-known renewable source is solar energy. Although solar energy is sufficient to meet the entire energy needs of the
world, currently it is not used as extensively as fossil fuels because of the low concentration of solar energy on earth and the
relatively high capital cost of harnessing it. The conversion of the kinetic energy of wind into electricity via wind turbines
represents wind energy, and it is one of the fastest growing renewables because wind turbines are being installed all over the
world. The collection of river water into large dams at some elevation and then directing the collected water into a hydraulic
turbine is the common method of converting water energy into electricity. Hydro or water energy represents the greatest
amount of renewable electricity production, and it supplies most of the electricity needs of some countries.

Geothermal energy refers to the heat of the earth. High-temperature underground geothermal fluid found in some locations is
extracted, and the energy of the geothermal fluid is converted to electricity or heat. Geothermal energy conversion is one of the
most mature renewable energy technologies. Geothermal energy is mostly used for electricity generation and district heating.
Organic renewable energy is referred to as biomass, and a variety of sources (agriculture, forest, residues, crops, etc.) can be
used to produce biomass energy. Biomass is becoming more popular with the help of the variety of available sources.

Wave energy and tidal energy are renewable energy sources, and they are usually considered as part of ocean energy since
they are available mostly in oceans. Thermal energy of oceans due to absorption of solar energy by ocean surfaces is also
considered part of ocean energy, and this energy can be utilized using the ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) system.
Wave and tidal energies are mechanical forms of ocean energy, since they represent potential and kinetic energies of ocean
water.

Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be used to store renewable electricity. It is still a developing technology, and many
research activities are underway to make it viable. Fuel cells convert the chemical energy of fuels (e.g., hydrogen) into
electricity directly without a highly irreversible combustion process, and this is more efficient than combustion-based
conversion to electricity.

All renewable energy sources can be used to produce useful energy in the form of electricity, and some renewables can also
produce thermal energy for heating and cooling applications. Wind and water energies are converted to electricity only, while
solar, biomass, and geothermal can be converted to both electricity and thermal energy (i.e., heat).

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Electric cars (and other electricity-driven equipment) are often touted as "zero emission" vehicles, and their widespread use is
seen by some as the ultimate solution to the air pollution problem. It should be remembered, however, that the electricity used
by the electric cars is generated somewhere else, mostly by burning fossil fuels. Therefore, each time an electric car consumes
1 kWh of electricity, it bears the responsibility for the pollutants emitted as 1 kWh of electricity (plus the conversion and
transmission losses generated elsewhere). Electric cars will be zero emission vehicles only when the electricity they consume is
generated by emission-free renewable resources such as hydroelectric, solar, wind, and geothermal energy. Therefore, the use
of renewable energy should be encouraged worldwide, with incentives, as necessary, to make the earth a better place to live.

We should point out that what we call renewable energy is usually nothing more than the manifestation of solar energy in
different forms. Such energy sources include wind energy, hydroelectric power, ocean thermal energy, ocean wave energy, and
wood. For example, no hydroelectric power plant can generate electricity year after year unless the water evaporates by
absorbing solar energy and comes back as rainfall to replenish the water source (Fig. 1-13).

Figure 1-13 The cycle that water undergoes in a hydroelectric power plant (HPP).

1-8. REFERENCES
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1-8. REFERENCES
Alliance to Save Energy, Green and Clean: The Economic, Energy and Environmental Benefits of Insulation, p. vii, April 2001.

Çengel YA, Energy Efficiency as an Inexhaustible Energy Resource with Perspectives from the U.S. and Turkey,International
Journal of Energy Research, 35(2), 153–161, 2011.

Çengel YA, Boles MA, and Kanoğlu M, Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2019.

EIA, Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook, U.S. Department of Energy,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/graphic_data.html, 2007.

EIA, Energy Information Administration, Commercial Nuclear Power, DOE/EIA-0438 (9.1), Appendix E, page 105. Also,
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1991.

IEA. 2017. International Energy Agency, Key World Energy Statistics.

EIA. 2017. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Based on Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey and U.S.
Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis Gross Domestic Product by Industry.
https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=33392 (Access date: Mar. 14, 2019)

IEAE. 2018. International Atomic Energy Agency.

EIA. 2018. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook.

Kanoğlu M, Çengel YA, and Cimbala JM, Fundamentals and Applications of Renewable Energy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2020.

Levy JI, Nishioka Y, and Spengler JD, The Public Health Benefits of Insulation Retrofits in Existing Housing in the United
States, Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source, pp. 1–16, April 2003.

NEPDG, National Energy Policy Development Group, National Energy Policy, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC, ISBN 0-16-050814-2, May 2001.

1-9. PROBLEMS
ENERGY EFFICIENCY

1-1 What are the main problems associated with using fossil fuels?

1-2 Explain two methods for tackling the problems associated with the use of fossil fuels.

1-3 What are the three major areas of energy use?

1-4 Define energy efficiency.

1-5 What is the difference between energy efficiency and energy conservation?

1-6 The concepts of energy conservation and renewable energy appear to be independent of each other, but they are
closely associated. Explain this with examples.

1-7 Define energy intensity.

1-8 Consider two countries—one with a high value of energy intensity and one with a low value of energy intensity. Which
country has more potential for energy efficiency opportunities? Explain.

1-9 What is the relationship between energy intensity and energy efficiency?

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 1-10 The energy use per dollar of gross domestic product in the U.S. has dropped significantly since the early 1970s.
What are the main factors for this drop in energy intensity?

1-11 The fuel consumption in cars has decreased by 40 percent or more since the early 1970s. What measures have been
taken on cars to accomplish this?

1-12 What measures in household refrigerators have caused significant reduction in electricity consumption since 1974?

1-13 During an energy crisis, what energy efficiency measure is the first one to be implemented? Why?

1-14 Which undesirable emissions are produced by the combustion of fossil fuels? What adverse effects are produced by
these emissions?

1-15 Is carbon dioxide (CO2 ) an air pollutant? How does it differ from other emissions resulting from the combustion of
fossil fuels?

1-16 Total world oil consumption by end-use sectors in 2017 was 188.8 Quad, while the renewable consumption was 19.4
Quad. Express these consumptions in Btu, GJ, and kWh.

1-17 Ton of oil equivalent (toe) is an amount of energy unit commonly used to express large amounts of energy. It
represents the amount of energy released by burning one ton (1000 kg) of crude oil. One toe is equal to 41.868 GJ,
sometimes rounded to 42 GJ. Total world energy consumption in 2010 by fuel was 523.9 Quad, while that consumed by the
end-use sector was 382.0 Quad. Express these values in toe units.

1-18 In 2013, 21.7 percent of global electricity was generated from natural gas-burning power plants. Total electricity
generation in that year was 23,332 TWh, and it was estimated that 45 Quad natural gas was consumed to generate
electricity. Determine the overall thermal efficiency of natural gas-burning power plants in 2013.

1-19 According to a 2007 report, 19,028 terawatt-hours (TWh) electricity was produced in the world in 2006, and 55.3
percent of this production took place in OECD countries. The report also indicated that the average efficiency of thermal
power plants in OECD countries in 2006 was 38 percent. Determine the amount of energy consumed in OECD countries in
TWh, Quad, and toe.

1-20 The average annual electricity consumption by a household refrigerator has decreased from 1800 kWh in 1974 to
450 kWh today. Consider a country with 10 million households with a market penetration of 100 percent for modern
refrigerators. If the refrigerators in this country were to continue to consume electric power at the 1974 levels, how much
additional installed power would be needed to meet this extra demand? Assume that the load factor (average fraction of
installed power load that is actually produced) of the power plants is 0.8 and the power plants operate 90 percent of the
time on an annual basis.

1-21 Which one cannot be considered as an energy source?

a. Oil

b. Natural gas

c. Energy efficiency

d. Coal

e. Hydrogen

1-22 Which one is touted as the "sixth fuel"?

a. Oil

b. Natural gas

c. Energy efficiency

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 d. Nuclear

e. Hydrogen

1-23 The amount of energy used to produce a dollar's worth of gross domestic product is called

a. Specific energy

b. Unit energy

c. Energy intensity

d. Energy ratio

e. Energy fuel ratio

1-24 Cars in the U.S. today use roughly _________ of the gasoline they did in 1972 per mile driven due to energy-efficient
technologies.

a. 15 percent

b. 30 percent

c. 60 percent

d. 80 percent

e. 90 percent

1-25 The average annual electricity consumption by a household refrigerator has declined by _________ since 1974.

a. 15 percent

b. 25 percent

c. 35 percent

d. 55 percent

e. 75 percent

1-26 The average annual electricity consumption by a household refrigerator in 1974 and today are, respectively (in kWh).

a. 500, 250

b. 900, 300

c. 1400, 600

d. 1800, 450

e. 2300, 750

1-27 If refrigerators in the U.S. were to continue to consume electric power at the 1974 levels, the U.S. would need about
_________ of additional installed power to meet this extra demand.

a. 300 MW

b. 3000 MW

c. 30,000 MW

d. 1000 MW

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 e. 10,000 MW

1-28 Which one may be considered the cornerstone of energy conservation projects?

a. High-efficiency lighting

b. Insulation

c. Heat recovery

d. Cogeneration

e. High-efficiency electric motors

1-29 Approximately what percent of electricity is used for lighting in the U.S.?

a. 5 percent

b. 11 percent

c. 22 percent

d. 28 percent

e. 35 percent

1-30 The cost of a typical new electric motor is less than _________ of the total cost of that motor.

a. 2 percent

b. 6 percent

c. 10 percent

d. 20 percent

e. 30 percent

1-31 The emissions from fossil fuel combustion that is not an air pollutant is

a. CO

b. CO2

c. NOx

d. SO 2

e. PM

1-32 Which emission causes acid rain?

a. CO

b. CO2

c. NOx

d. SO 2

e. PM

FOSSIL FUELS

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 1-33 What are the main energy sources? What are the main fossil fuels?

1-34 What are the common coal types?

1-35 What causes carbon monoxide emission in a combustion process? Will there be any CO emission when fuel is
burned with stoichiometric or excess air? Explain.

1-36 What are the most common uses of coal and petroleum products?

1-37 What are the categories of oil used in power plants and industrial heating applications? Briefly describe their
characteristics.

1-38 How is natural gas transported? Explain.

1-39 What are the common uses of natural gas?

1-40 What is nuclear energy? Briefly describe fission and fusion reactions.

1-41 Why is electricity the most valuable form of energy?

1-42 What is a smart grid? Explain.

1-43 The ultimate analysis of coal from Colorado is as follows by mass: 79.61 percent carbon (C), 4.66 percent hydrogen
(H2 ), 4.76 percent oxygen (O2 ), 1.83 percent nitrogen (N2 ), 0.52 percent sulfur (S), and 8.62 percent ash (noncombustibles).
What is the higher and lower heating value of this coal? The heating value of sulfur is 9160 kJ/kg.

1-44 Gasoline can be approximated by C8 H15. Using this chemical formula, determine the higher and lower heating values
of gasoline.

1-45 Light diesel fuel can be approximated by C12H22. Using this chemical formula, determine the higher and lower heating
values of light diesel fuel.

1-46 The higher heating value of gasoline (approximated as octane C8 H18) is 47,300 kJ/kg. Determine its lower heating
value. The enthalpy of the vaporization of water at 25°C is hfg = 2442 kJ/kg.

1-47 In 2012, the U.S. produced 37.4 percent of its electricity in the amount of 1.51 × 1012 kWh from coal-fired power
plants. If the average thermal efficiency is 34 percent, determine the amount of coal consumed by these power plants. The
heating value of coal is 25,000 kJ/kg.

1-48 Which one cannot be considered a fossil fuel?

a. Coal

b. Natural gas

c. Oil

d. Hydrogen

e. None of these

1-49 Which is not a fuel?

a. Oil

b. Natural gas

c. Coal

d. Carbon monoxide (CO)

e. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 )

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 1-50 Which is not a coal type?

a. Bituminuous coal

b. Subbituminuous coal

c. Anthracite coal

d. Lignite

e. Green coal

1-51 Which coal type is of the lowest quality?

a. Bituminuous coal

b. Subbituminuous coal

c. Anthracite coal

d. Lignite

e. Hard coal

1-52 Electricity is mostly produced from _________ burning power plants in the world.

a. Coal

b. Natural gas

c. Oil

d. Nuclear

e. Solar

1-53 The most common use of petroleum products is

a. Motor vehicles

b. Electricity generation

c. Space heating

d. Steam generation

e. Industrial furnaces

1-54 Which fuel is the most polluting and the largest contributor to global carbon dioxide emissions?

a. Coal

b. Natural gas

c. Oil

d. Nuclear

e. Solar

1-55 Which fuel has the highest heating value?

a. Coal

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 b. Natural gas

c. Oil

d. Hydrogen

e. Sulfur

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

1-56 What are the main renewable energy sources? Why are ocean, wave, and tidal energies not considered as main
renewable sources?

1-57 How do you define a renewable energy source? Why are coal, oil, and natural gas not renewable energy sources?

1-58 Solar energy is the most widely available renewable energy source, and it is sufficient to meet the entire energy
needs of the world. However, it is not used extensively. Why?

1-59 Which renewable sources are growing at the fastest rate? Which renewable source is used to produce the most
electricity?

1-60 Which renewable energy sources are only used for electricity generation? Which renewable sources are converted to
both electricity and thermal energy?

1-61 Some consider electric cars "zero emission" vehicles and an ultimate solution to the air pollution problem. Do you
agree? Explain.

1-62 Under what conditions can electric cars be considered "zero emission" vehicles?

1-63 Which source should not be considered a main renewable energy source?

a. Wind

b. Hydro

c. Tidal

d. Biomass

e. Geothermal

1-64 The fastest growing renewable energy sources in the world are

a. Wind and solar

b. Hydro and biomass

c. Solar and hydro

d. Biomass and hydro

e. Geothermal and biomass

1-65 Which renewable energy source produces the greatest amount of electricity?

a. Wind

b. Hydro

c. Solar

d. Biomass

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 e. Geothermal

1-66 Which renewable energy sources are only used for electricity generation?

a. Wind and solar

b. Hydro and solar

c. Solar and geothermal

d. Wind and hydro

e. Hydro and geothermal

1-67 Which renewable energy source should not be considered the manifestation of solar energy in different forms?

a. Wind

b. Hydro

c. Wave

d. Biomass

e. Geothermal

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