Source: Energy Efficiency and Management for Engineers, 1st Edition

ISBN: 9781260459098
Authors: Mehmet Kanoğlu, Yunus A. Çengel

13. Lighting Systems

13-1. INTRODUCTION
Lighting constitutes about 7 percent of the total energy use in residential buildings and 25 percent in commercial buildings. A
study in the United States reveals that about 20 percent of electricity use in residential buildings and 35 percent of electricity
use in commercial buildings is due to lighting (EIA, 2005). Also, 51 percent of the electricity used for lighting is due to the
commercial sector, followed by the residential sector (27 percent), industrial sector (14 percent), and outdoor lighting (8
percent) (NCI, 2002). High-efficiency lighting applications offer substantial energy and cost savings, which in turn reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. One of the quickest and most effective ways of meeting energy reduction targets involves
upgrading to energy-efficient lighting in most applications.

Not counting the candlelight used for emergencies and romantic settings, and the kerosene lamps used for camping, all
modern lighting equipment is powered by electricity. The basic types of electric lighting devices are incandescent, fluorescent,
high-intensity discharge, and solid-state LED lamps.

We are all familiar with the conversion of electrical energy tolight by incandescent light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, and high-
intensity discharge lamps. The efficiency for the conversion of electricity to light can be defined as the ratio of the energy
converted to light to the electrical energy consumed. For example, common incandescent light bulbs convert about 5 percent of
the electrical energy they consume to light; the rest of the energy consumed is dissipated as heat, which adds to the cooling
load of the air conditioner in summer. However, it is more common to express the effectiveness of this conversion process by
lighting efficacy, which is defined as the amount of light output in lumens (lm) per watt (W) of electricity consumed.

Light output Ėlight

Efficacy = = (lm/W)
Electricity consumed Ẇ electric

(13-1)

Lumen (lm) is the unit of luminous flux, and it represents the amount of light emitted by a source. Note that

1 lm = 1 cd ⋅ sr

where cd is the candela and sr is steradians. A full sphere has an sr value of 4π. If a light source emits 1 cd light in all directions,
it will emit (Wyzecki and Stiles, 1982)

1 cd × 4π sr = 12.57 cd ⋅ sr = 12.57 lm

Candela (cd) is the unit of luminous intensity, and it is the power emitted by a light source in a particular direction. A candle
emits light of about one candela. Lux is the unit for amount of lighting per unit area,

1 lux = 1 lm/m2
2

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In the English system, the traditional lighting unit is foot-candle (lm/ft2 ), and

1 foot-candle = 10.764 lux

or

1 lm/ft2 = 10.764 lm/m 2

The efficacy of different lighting systems is given in Table 13-1. Note that a compact fluorescent light bulb produces about four
times as much light as an incandescent light bulb per W, and thus a 15-W fluorescent bulb can replace a 60-W incandescent
light bulb (Fig. 13-1). Also, a compact fluorescent bulb lasts about 10,000 h, which is 10 times as long as an incandescent bulb,
and it plugs directly into the socket of an incandescent lamp. Therefore, despite their higher initial cost, compact fluorescents
reduce the lighting costs considerably through reduced electricity consumption. Sodium-filled high-intensity discharge lamps
provide the most efficient lighting, but their use is limited to outdoor use because of their yellowish light.

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Table 13-1 Comparison of Different Lighting Systems

Type of lighting Efficacy, lumens/W Life, h Comments

Combustion

Candle 0.3 10 Very inefficient, best for emergencies

Kerosene lamp 1–2 Inefficient

Incandescent

Ordinary 6–20 1000 Low initial cost, low efficiency

Halogen 15–35 2000 Better efficiency, excellent color rendition

Fluorescent

Compact 40–87 10,000 Fits into the sockets of incandescent lights

Tube, ordinary 60–120 12,000–20,000 Common in offices and plants, being replaced by high-performance types

Tube, high output 70–90 12,000–20,000 Common in offices and plants

High-intensity discharge

Mercury vapor 40–60 25,000 Both indoor and outdoor use

Metal halide 65–118 5000–20,000 High efficiency, good color rendition

High-pressure sodium 45–140 25,000 Indoor and outdoor use

Low-pressure sodium 70–200 18,000 Distinct yellow light, best for outdoor use

Solid-state

LED 20–120 6000–50,000 Battery operated lighting, color display, traffic lighting, flashlight

OLED 15–60 10,000 Displays, lighting panels

Theoretical limit 300*

*This value depends on the spectral distribution of the assumed ideal light source. For white light sources, the upper limit is about 300 lm/W for
metal halide, 350 lm/W for fluorescents, and 400 lm/W for LEDs. Spectral maximum occurs at a wavelength of 555 nm (green) with a light output
of 683 lm/W.

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 Figure 13-1 A 15-W compact fluorescent lamp provides as much light as a 60-W incandescent
lamp.

The efficacies of lighting systems decrease over time. This decrease is smaller for some lighting systems than for others for
the same operation period. Therefore, various lamps should be compared based on their overall or mean efficacies over their
entire life of usage rather than their initial efficacies.

Office spaces are usually well lit, and the energy consumed by lighting in office buildings is about 20 to 30 W/m2 (2 to 3 W/ft2 )
of floor space. It is no surprise that practically all office buildings use high-efficiency fluorescent lights despite their higher
initial cost. Note that incandescent lights waste energy by (1) consuming more electricity for the same amount of lighting and
(2) making the cooling system work harder and longer to remove the heat given off. A study indicates that if two incandescent
light bulbs are replaced by compact fluorescent lamps in one million households, the installation of a 160-MW power plant is
avoided (Çengel et al., 1998).

Lighting can have a significant impact on the heating and cooling loads of a building. The energy consumed by the lights is
dissipated by convection and radiation. The convection component of the heat constitutes about 40 percent for fluorescent
lamps, and it represents the instantaneous part of the cooling load due to lighting. The remaining part is in the form of radiation
that is absorbed and reradiated by the walls, floors, ceiling, and furniture, which affects the cooling load over time. Therefore,
lighting may still contribute to the cooling load by reradiation even after the lights have been turned off. Sometimes it may be
necessary to consider time lag effects when determining the design cooling load. It should be noted that switching to more
efficient lighting decreases the cooling load in summer but increases heating load in winter. However, the money saved by
switching to more efficient lighting more than offsets any cost increase in heating for all practical applications.

The amount of electricity consumed by a lighting system is calculated from

Electricity consumption = Total wattage × Operating hours (kWh)

(13-2)

The total wattage is expressed in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW), and it includes electricity consumed by ballasts. The effect of
electricity consumed by the ballast can also be accounted for by including a ballast factor term in the equation as

Electricity consumption = Lamp wattage × Ballast factor × Operating hours (kWh)

(13-3)

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Ballast factor is greater than 1. A ballast factor of 1.1 indicates that the wattage of the lamp should be increased by 10 percent
to account for power drawn by the ballast. The cost of lighting is given by

Cost of lighting = Electricity consumption × Unit cost of electricity ($)

(13-4)

Example

EXAMPLE 13-1 Total Cost of an Incandescent and a Compact Fluorescent Lamp

A 12-W fluorescent lamp is providing the same amount of lighting as a 75-W incandescent light bulb. The incandescent light
bulb lasts 1000 h and costs $0.50 to purchase, while the compact florescent lasts 10,000 h with a purchase price of $5.
Taking the unit cost of electricity to be $0.12/kWh, calculate the total cost of these two lighting systems for 10,000 h of
operation.

SOLUTION The costs of using two lighting options are calculated in the following table:

Incandescent light bulb Compact fluorescent

Lifetime (h) 1000 10,000

Purchase price ($) 0.5 5

Number of lamps for 10,000 h of lighting 10 1

Total purchase price ($) 10 × $0.5 = $5 1 × $5 TL = $5

Equivalent wattage (W) 75 12

Electricity consumption for 10,000 h of lighting (kWh) 0.075 kW × 10,000 h = 750 kWh 0.012 kW × 10,000 h = 120 kWh

Lighting cost ($) 750 kWh × $0.12/kWh = $90 120 kWh × $0.12/kWh = $14.4

Total cost ($) 5 + 90 = $95 5 + 14 = $19

For a 10,000-h lighting operation, the total cost of incandescent light bulbs is determined to be $95, whereas the cost is only
$19 for a compact fluorescent lamp. That is, the lighting by incandescent light bulbs costs five times more than lighting
with a compact fluorescent lamp.

13-2. LIGHTING SYSTEMS

In this section, some commonly used lighting systems are described. But first we describe the color properties of lighting
systems.

13-2-1. Color Properties of Lighting Systems

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13-2-1. Color Properties of Lighting Systems
The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) defines light as radiant energy that is capable of exciting the
human retina and creating a visual sensation (IESNA, 2000). What we call light is simply the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that lies between 0.40 and 0.76 μm. Note that 1 μm (micrometer) = 1000 nm (nanometer). Light is
characteristically no different than other electromagnetic radiation, except that it happens to trigger the sensation of seeing in
the human eye. Light, or the visible spectrum, consists of narrow bands of color from violet (0.40--0.44 μm) to red (0.63--0.76
μm), as shown in Table 13-2.

Table 13-2 The Wavelength Ranges of Different Colors

Color Wavelength band, μm

Violet 0.40–0.44

Blue 0.44–0.49

Green 0.49–0.54

Yellow 0.54–0.60

Orange 0.60–0.67

Red 0.63–0.76

A body that emits some radiation in the visible range is called a light source. The sun is obviously our primary light source. The
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun is known as solar radiation, and nearly all of it falls into the wavelength band 0.3--
3 μm. Almost half of solar radiation is light (i.e., it falls into the visible range), with the remaining being ultraviolet and infrared.

The radiation emitted by bodies at room temperature falls into the infrared region of the spectrum, which extends from 0.76 to
100 μm. Bodies start emitting noticeable visible radiation at temperatures above 800 K. The tungsten filament of a light bulb
must be heated to temperatures above 2000 K before it can emit any significant amount of radiation in the visible range.

There are two color properties commonly used to describe a lamp: color temperature and color rendering index. Thecolor
temperature represents the color of the light of a lamp, and it is expressed in kelvin (K). This is the temperature at which a
blackbody would emit light that is closest in color to the light of the lamp. Note that blackbody is an ideal body which emits the
maximum amount of radiation at a given temperature, and the radiation emitted from a blackbody depends only on the
temperature of the body. Incandescent and warm-white fluorescent lamps have a low color temperature (less than 3000 K), and
they appear yellowish or reddish. Cool-white fluorescent lamps have a high color temperature (greater than 3500 K), and they
appear bluish in color.

The color rendering index (CRI) is an indication of the color of a surface when it is illuminated by a lamp in comparison to the
color of the same surface when illuminated by a reference source of the same color temperature. The reference source is
daylight for color temperatures greater than 5000 K and a blackbody radiator for color temperatures less than 5000 K. The CRI
values may vary from 0 to 100. A CRI value of 100 indicates excellent color rendering by the lamp, with no difference between
the color of the surface when illuminated by the lamp and its color when illuminated by the reference source. A CRI value
greater than 70 is desirable, while values less than 20 represent poor color rendering quality. Despite their low efficacy,
incandescent lamps have very high CRI values approaching 100. Despite their high efficacies, low-pressure sodium lights have
very low CRI values, and therefore they are not suitable for indoor use. This indicates that no lighting system is excellent in
every aspect, and different lighting systems are suitable for different applications (Atkinson et al., 2007).

13-2-2. Incandescent Lamps

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13-2-2. Incandescent Lamps
When electricity heats the filament to the point of incandescence, the lamp produces light. Modern incandescent lamps use
tungsten as the filament material. Tungsten is heated above 2000 K for conversion of electricity to light. Only about 10 percent
of the electricity is converted to light, and the rest is converted to heat, resulting in low efficacies. Ordinary incandescent lamps
have a rather short life due to evaporation of the tungsten during heating. This tungsten deposits on the bulb surface and
darkens it. This reduces light output (in lumen) while consuming the same amount of electricity.

Halogen incandescent lamps add halogen gas to the bulb. This prevents the evaporation of tungsten and the resulting
darkening of the bulb surface. As a result, the lifetime is increased by about four times. Also, the overall efficacy for the entire
lifetime of the lamp is greater in a halogen lamp than in an ordinary lamp. However, the surface temperatures of halogen lamps
can become very high, making them unsafe for household uses. Halogen lamps require special fixtures.

Another major class of incandescent lamps is reflector lamps. The interior of the lamp is coated with aluminum that directs the
light to the front of the bulb. Reflector lamps usually have lower efficacies than standard incandescent lamps, but the light is
more effectively directed into the work area where it is needed. As a result, as much as twice as much lighting is provided by
reflector lamps as by ordinary incandescent lamps. Parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lamps have a heavy, strong glass,
and they are suitable for outdoor spot lighting. Ellipsoidal reflector (ER) lamps are suitable for recessed fixtures because less
light is trapped in the fixture. They provide better lighting for directional fixtures than reflector lamps (IESNA, 2000).

13-2-3. High-Intensity Discharge Lamps

These lamps produce light by discharging an electrical arc through a mixture of gases. They use a compact arc tube, and both
temperature and pressure are high in this tube. Mercury vapor, metal halide, high-pressure sodium, and low-pressure sodium
lamps are classified as high-intensity discharge lights because they produce a high power output. They are typically used when
a high level of lighting is required, such as street lighting, sports lighting, and highway parking. Another use of these lamps
involves lighting of industrial facilities and warehouses. High-intensity discharge (HID) lights have poor color rendering
characteristics.

Mercury vapor lamps typically have low efficacies (30 to 70 lm/W) and are not commonly used. They have long life (about
25,000 h) and low cost, but their color rendition is not good. Uncoated mercury vapor lamps have a CRI value of only 15,
while phosphor-coated ones have a CRI value of about 50.

Metal halide lamps have higher efficacies (up to 120 lm/W) than mercury vapor lamps. They produce white lights. Their
color temperatures range between 2900 K and 4200 K, and their CRI values are between 65 and 90. Some of the available
wattages include 50, 70, 100, 300, 500, 1000, and 1500 W. They offer a cost-effective replacement for high-output
incandescent lighting in commercial applications, and they are now more commonly used in shopping malls and retail
stores.

High-pressure sodium lamps have efficacies between 45 lm/W (smaller wattage lamps) and 140 lm/W (higher wattage
lamps). Standard lamps produce yellow-orange light with a CRI value of about 20. There are also high-pressure sodium
lamps with improved color rendering with a CRI value of up to 70. Despite their overall low color rendering characteristics,
these lamps are used for street and roadway lighting because of their high efficacy. Their life can exceed 25,000 h (Atkinson
et al., 2007).

Low-pressure sodium lamps involve low pressures in the arc tube. Low-pressure sodium lamps have high efficacies
ranging between 70 and 200 lm/W. Their CRI value is only about 45, and they have a distinct yellow light. They should not be
used in applications where color rendering is important. They are used for street and tunnel lighting.

13-2-4. Fluorescent Lamps

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13-2-4. Fluorescent Lamps
In these lamps, the lamp tube is phosphor coated, and it contains gaseous mercury atoms. An electric discharge is applied,
returning the mercury atoms to their ground state. This causes the emission of ultraviolet radiation, which excites the phosphor
coating on the tube and causes it to fluoresce, producing visible light. Fluorescent lamps have high efficacies (between 40 and
120 lm/W) compared to incandescent lamps and mercury vapor lamps. The efficacy of a fluorescent lamp depends on the
following factors: the lamp length and diameter, the type of phosphor, the type of ballast used to drive the lamp, the number of
lamps per ballast, and the temperature of the lamp. Different types of fluorescent lamps require different types of ballasts
depending on the wattage, length, and current. Ballasts typically represent 10 to 20 percent of electricity consumption.

Fluorescent lighting predominates in the commercial and industrial sector. Residential use has also been increasing steadily,
especially due to the availability of compact fluorescent lamps. The CRI values of fluorescent lamps are between 50 and 60 for
small-wattage white lamps, while they are between 70 and 80 for rare-earth phosphor lamps. Fluorescent and metal halide
lights are mixed successfully by lamp manufacturers to produce a range of colors. The lifetimes of fluorescent lamps are
typically high (12,000 h to 20,000 h). The efficacy of these lighting systems remains relatively high throughout their lifetimes.
Fluorescent lamps require special dimming ballasts that cost more than dimming controls in incandescent lamps. They also
emit more UV light than incandescent lamps.

The most common fluorescent lamps are tubular, with a length of 4 ft (1.2 m). Another common type has a length of 8 ft (2.4
m). Other tube lengths are also available. Tube diameters of 1.5 in (38 mm), called T12s, 1 in (26 mm), called T8s, and 5/8 in
(16 mm), called T5s, are available, among others. T8 lamps can operate with magnetic or electronic ballasts, but operation with
electronic ballasts increases lamp efficacies by about 10 percent. T5 lamps only operate with electronic ballasts. A common
fluorescent lamp is a T8 lamp with 4-ft length and 40 W electricity rating. A popular replacement for these lamps is high-
performance T8 lamps that consume only 32 W of electricity, while providing the same amount of lighting. This represents a 20
percent increase in efficacy. As a result, T8 lamps using electronic ballasts are commonly used.

Compact fluorescent lamps are smaller, and most models can fit into the sockets of incandescent lamps. This makes the
replacement of incandescent lamps very convenient, especially for residential users. A compact fluorescent lamp consumes
only about 20 to 25 percent of the electricity consumed by an incandescent lamp for the same light output. However, the
efficacies of high-performance T8 lamps are twice those of compact fluorescent lamps. For this reason, compact fluorescent
lighting is used for small-output lighting applications. Also, the life of compact fluorescent lamps is lower than that of tubular
fluorescent lamps. Compact fluorescent lamps also require ballasts, and integral units combining lamp and electronic ballast
are most common.

13-2-5. LED Lamps

Light-emitting diodes (LED) are semiconductor diodes that emit light when current flows through them. A range of colors is
available, including white (by a phosphor coating) and color temperatures ranging from 3200 K to 12,000 K. They have CRI
values between 60 and 90. The wattage per unit is between 3 and 10 W, which is very low compared other lighting systems.
LED lamps are very suitable for battery-operated lighting. Their lifetime can be between 6000 h and 50,000 h. They can be used
in low light conditions for good visibility, such as in bicycle lights and flashlights. The battery lives are greatly increased in
comparison to incandescent and halogen lamps. Other applications include traffic lights, exit signs, dynamic lighting, and color
displays. An advantage of LED lamps is the lack of toxic mercury found in fluorescent lamps.

OLED (organic light-emitting diodes) are made of carbonbased organic materials. OLEDs are used to make beautiful and
efficient displays and large, efficient, and attractive lighting panels. OLEDs can be color-tunable, and they can be used to make
flexible and transparent panels. OLEDs emit soft, diffused light, which is very close to natural light. Current research
concentrates on making OLEDs cost-effective while providing higher wattage. The efficacy expectations for OLEDs are not
higher than LEDs.

13-2-6. Ballasts
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13-2-6. Ballasts
Fluorescent lamps and high-intensity discharge lamps require ballasts in their operation because they have low resistance to
electric flow. A ballast is an electrical device which controls the current provided to the lamp. In most discharge lamps, the
ballast provides the high voltage for starting the lamp. Fluorescent lamps use magnetic or electronic ballasts. Magnetic
ballasts use a 60-Hz frequency input (50-Hz in Europe) and provide the same frequency. Electronic ballasts use a 60-Hz
frequency input but provide a very high frequency (20,000--60,000 Hz). Electronic ballasts are more efficient than magnetic
ballasts and reduce power consumed by the ballast. Electronic ballasts are lighter, operate more quietly, and eliminate flicker. A
magnetic ballast can be replaced by an electronic one because they are the same size. High-efficacy lighting systems use
electronic ballasts. High-intensity discharge lamps mostly use magnetic ballasts because the increase in efficacy with
electronic ballasts is not as attractive as in fluorescent lamps. Other advantages of electronic ballasts apply for high-intensity
discharge lamps, and therefore new, efficient models mostly use electronic ballasts.

13-3. ENERGY SAVINGS WITH LIGHTING SYSTEMS

The consumption of electricity can substantially be reduced by switching to more efficient lighting, using energy-saving devices
such as motion sensors, using daylight, and avoiding overlighting, as discussed next.

13-3-1. Switching to More Efficient Lighting Systems

An obvious way of saving electricity associated with lighting systems involves replacing low-efficacy lamps with high-efficacy
ones. The payback period for most replacement projects is under two years, and that period is only a few months when
incandescent lamps are replaced with high-efficacy fluorescent lamps. Also, the longer the operating hours, the shorter the
payback period. The number of operating hours is typically high for commercial applications, and a replacement between
ordinary and high-efficacy fluorescent lamps may prove cost effective.

Example

EXAMPLE 13-2 Replacing Standard Fluorescent Lamps with High-Efficiency Ones

The lighting requirements of an industrial facility are being met by 950 40-W standard fluorescent lamps. The lamps are
close to completing their service life, and they are to be replaced by their 34-W high-efficiency counterparts that operate on
the existing standard ballasts and provide the same amount of lighting. The standard and high-efficiency fluorescent lamps
can be purchased at quantity at a cost of $1.77 and $2.26 each, respectively. The facility operates 3300 h/yr, and all of the
lamps are kept on during operating hours. Taking the unit cost of electricity to be $0.11/kWh and the ballast factor to be 1.1,
determine how much energy and money will be saved per year as a result of switching to the high-efficiency fluorescent
lamps. Also, determine the simple payback period.

SOLUTION The reduction in the total electric power consumed by the lighting as a result of switching to the high-
efficiency fluorescent is

Wattage reduction = Wattage reduction per lamp × Number of lamps

= [(40 − 34) W/lamp](950 lamps)
= 5700 W

Then using the relations given earlier, the energy and cost savings associated with the replacement of the high-efficiency
fluorescent lamps are determined to be

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 Energy savings = Total wattage reduction × Ballast factor × Operating hours
= (5.7 kW)(1.1)(3300 h/yr)
= 20,690 kWh/yr
Cost savings = Energy savings × Unit electricity cost = (20,690 kWh/yr)($0.11/kWh) = $2276/yr

The implementation cost of this measure is simply the extra cost of the energy-efficient fluorescent bulbs relative to
standard ones, and is determined to be

Implementation cost = Cost difference of lamps × Number of lamps

= [($2.26 − $1.77)/lamp](950 lamps) = $466

This gives a simple payback period of

Implementation cost $466

Simple payback period = = = 0.205 yr (2.5 months)
Annual cost savings $2276/yr

If the existing lamps still had a long operating life, this replacement project would involve an implementation cost of

Implementation cost = Cost of 34-W lamps × Number of lamps = ($2.26/lamp)(950 lamps) = $2147

The corresponding payback period is

Implementation cost $2147

Simple payback period = = = 0.943 yr (11.3 months)
Annual cost savings $2276/yr

Note that if all the lamps were burnt out today and were replaced by high-efficiency lamps instead of the conventional ones,
the savings in electricity costs would pay for the cost differential in about 2.5 months. The payback period increases to 11
months if the replacement is done with the full purchase of the high-efficiency lamps. The electricity saved will also help the
environment by reducing the amount of CO2 , CO, NOx, etc. associated with the generation of electricity in a power plant.

Example

EXAMPLE 13-3 Effect of Lighting on Heating and Cooling Cost

Replacing incandescent lights with energy-efficient fluorescent lights can reduce the lighting energy consumption to one-
fourth of what it was before. The energy consumed by the lamps is eventually converted to heat, and thus switching to
energy-efficient lighting also reduces the cooling load in summer but increases the heating load in winter. Consider a
building that is heated by a natural gas furnace having an efficiency of 85 percent and cooled by an air conditioner with a
COP of 3.0. If the unit cost of electricity is $0.12/kWh and that of natural gas is $1.25/therm, and the annual heating load of
the building is roughly equal to the annual cooling load, determine if the efficient lighting will increase or decrease the total
lighting, heating, and cooling cost of the building.

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 SOLUTION We consider that incandescent lights consume 1 kW of electricity while the fluorescent lights consume one-
fourth of this, 0.5 kW. We also consider 1 h of operation of lighting in summer and 1 h of operation in winter. We note that 1
therm = 29.3 kWh.

Current lighting:

Lighting cost = Wattage × Operating hours × Unit cost = (1 kW)(2 h)($0.12/kWh) = $0.24
Increase in the air conditioning load = 1 kWh
Increase in load 1 kWh
Increase in the air conditioning cost = × Unit cost = ($0.12/kWh) = $0.04
COP 3.0

Increase in load
Decrease in the heating cost = × Unit cost
Efficiency
1 kWh 1 therm
= ( ) ($1.25/therm) = $0.0502
0.85 29.3 kWh

Net cost of 1 h of operation of lighting in summer and 1 h of operation in winter is

Current net cost = Cost of lighting + Cost of air conditioning − Cost of heating
= 0.24 + 0.04 − 0.0502
= $0.230

Energy-efficient lighting (consumes one-fourth of the electricity for the same lighting)

Lighting cost = Wattage × Operating hours × Unit cost = (0.25 kW)(2 h)($0.12/kWh) = $0.06
Increase in the air conditioning load = 0.25 kWh
Increase in load
Increase in the air conditioning cost = × Unit cost
COP
0.25 kWh
= ($0.12/kWh) = $0.01
3.0
Increase in load
Decrease in the heating cost = × Unit cost
Efficiency
0.25 kWh 1 therm
= ( ) ($1.25/therm) = $0.0125
0.85 29.3 kWh

Net cost of 1 h of operation of lighting in summer and 1 h of operation in winter is

Current net cost = Cost of lighting + Cost of air conditioning − Cost of heating
= 0.06 + 0.01 − 0.0125
= $0.058

Therefore, the energy-efficient lighting will reduce total energy usage and costs for this family considerably.

13-3-2. Using Motion Sensors for Unoccupied Spaces

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13-3-2. Using Motion Sensors for Unoccupied Spaces
An easy way of reducing electricity consumption for lighting is to turn lights off when the room is not occupied. People often
neglect to do this, and thus an automated method is needed. Motion sensors accomplish this by turning lights off when no
movement is detected in the space for a specified period of time. These systems are commonly used in stair spaces and
hallways of residential buildings, storage rooms, and warehouses of commercial and industrial facilities. Some other
applications include libraries, classrooms, meeting rooms, and washrooms. When the lights are turned on and off frequently as
in the case of apartment buildings, the lifetime of lamps gets shorter. In these applications, lighting that is less affected by
frequent start-and-stop should be preferred.

Example

EXAMPLE 13-4 Using Motion Sensor in a Storage Room

The lighting needs of a storage room are being met by six fluorescent light fixtures, each fixture containing four lamps rated
at 60 W each (Fig. 13-2). All the lamps are on during operating hours of the facility, which are 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. 365 days a
year. The storage room is actually used for an average of three hours a day. If the price of the electricity is $0.095/kWh,
determine the amount of energy and money that will be saved by installing a motion sensor. Also, determine the simple
payback period if the purchase price of the sensor is $75 and it takes one hour to install it at a cost of $65.

Figure 13-2 Schematic for Example 13-4.

SOLUTION The plant operates 12 h a day, and thus currently the lights are on for the entire 12-h period. The motion
sensors installed will keep the lights on for 3 h, and off for the remaining 9 h every day. This corresponds to a total of 9 ×
365 = 3285 off hours per year. Disregarding the electricity consumed by the ballasts, the annual energy and cost savings
become

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 Energy savings = Number of lamps × Lamp wattage × Reduction of annual operating hours
= (24 lamps)(60 W/lamp)(3285 h/yr)
= 4730 kWh/yr
Cost savings = Energy savings × Unit cost of energy
= (4730 kWh/yr)($0.095/kWh)
= $449/yr

The implementation cost of this measure is the sum of the purchase price of the sensor plus the labor,

Implementation cost = Material + Labor = $75 + $65 = $140

This gives a simple payback period of

Implementation cost $140

Simple payback period = = = 0.312 yr (3.7 months)
Annual cost savings $449/yr

Therefore, the motion sensor will pay for itself in about four months.

13-3-3. Using Daylight

Most people prefer daylight over artificial lighting, but this is becoming less available. This is especially true for workplaces
where most people spend the entire workday in an illuminated room with little or no daylight. When people go back home, it is
already nighttime. Getting more daylight to a room requires a larger window glazing area. Unfortunately, this increases heating
load in winter because the rate of heat loss through the window is typically much greater than that through the walls. Similarly,
this increases the cooling load in summer because the rate of heat gain through the window is greater than that through the
walls. For hot climates with a high cooling load, high-reflectivity window glazing is preferred. This decreases the amount of
solar energy entering, with a proportional decrease in the amount of light entering the room. This increases the lighting
requirement. However, for most applications, the decrease in cooling load more than offsets the increase in the lighting
requirement. The use of spectrally selective low-e glass glazing reduces solar heat gain while allowing relatively high levels of
light in, as discussed in Chap. 10.

The orientation and the design of a building can be prioritized to maximize the input of daylight. For example, a U-shaped
building with all rooms having an exterior window will decrease the lighting requirement while allowing an outside view to all
people in the building.

In some industrial facilities, the daylight or sunlight must be kept out for the sake of product quality. For example, during a visit
to a textile manufacturing facility, we noticed that the windows were tightly covered in a certain location where the direct
contact with sunlight was harmful to the fabric being produced. We recommended changing the placement of windows so that
sunlight could enter without shining directly on the product. This proposal eliminated about 75 percent of the artificial lighting
because the plant location receives sunshine more than 300 days a year.

The reduction in artificial lighting requirements by admitting daylight with dimming controls can be estimated by a formula
proposed by Krarti et al. (2005). The annual percentage saving (APS) is expressed as

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 Ap
APS = b [1 − exp (−aτw )]
Aw
Ap Af

(13-5)

where Aw/Ap = window to perimeter floor area

Aw/Ap = perimeter to total floor area
tw = visible transmissivity of the glazing

a and b are coefficients that depend on the building location and are given in Krarti et al. (2005). These values are given for a
few cities as follows:

New York City: a = 18.73 b = 66.96

Chicago: a = 18.39 b = 71.96
San Francisco: a = 20.58 b = 73.95
Miami: a = 25.13 b = 74.82
Toronto: a = 19.30 b = 70.48
Rome: a = 16.03 b = 72.44
Cairo: a = 26.98 b = 74.23

Example

EXAMPLE 13-5 Daylighting to Reduce Lighting Cost

Consider a building in Chicago with a floor dimension of 40 m by 80 m. The building has five floors with a height of 3 m per
floor. The ratio of window area to wall area is 0.20. The transmissivity of glazing is 0.66. Determine the annual percent
savings if a dimming daylighting control is installed in the building through the perimeter zones (5-m wide).

SOLUTION The coefficients for Chicago are a = 18.39 and b = 71.66. We calculate the areas involved as

Af = 40 m × 80 m = 3200 m2
Ap = 2 × (40 m + 80 m − 10 m) × 5 m = 1100 m2
Aw = 0.25 × 2 × (40 m + 80 m) × 3 m = 180 m2

From Eq. (13-5),

Ap 180 1100
APS = b [1 − exp (−aτw )] = 71.66 [1 − exp (−18.39 × 0.66 )]
Aw
= 21.3%
Ap Af 1100 3200

That is, this system provides an annual percent savings of 21.3 percent in lighting costs. If this system was implemented in
Miami, the annual savings would increase to 24.0 percent.

13-3-4. Avoiding Overlighting

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13-3-4. Avoiding Overlighting
It is a common misconception to think that visibility will improve as the lighting increases in a space. In fact, overlighting may
even hurt visual quality. There are three factors that determine the proper level of light for a given space: age of occupants,
speed and accuracy requirements, and background contrast, depending on the task performed. There are recommended levels
of lighting for various applications. Table 13-3 gives this information for the United States and Canada based on illuminance
standards.

Table 13-3 Recommended Lighting Levels for Various Applications in the U.S. and Canada. The Data Is in Lux Maintained on
Horizontal Surfaces. (Krarti, 2011)

Application Recommended lighting level, lux*

Offices

General 200–500

Reading tasks 200–500

Drafting (detailed) 1000–2000

Classrooms

General 200–500

Chalkboards 500–1000

Retail stores

General 200–500

Tasks/till areas 200–500

Hospitals

Common areas —

Patient rooms 100–200

Manufacturing

Fine knitting 1000–2000

Electronics 1000–2000

*1 lux = 1 lumen/m2

Excessive lighting of spaces is common today. It is most common in commercial applications, especially in retail stores. An
important method of saving electricity involves reducing lighting to reasonable levels. Fluorescent lighting can be improved by
inserting a suitably shaped specular reflector. These reflectors concentrate more light downward where it is needed and less at
higher surfaces. This allows for a reduced amount of lighting for the same room with the same lighting level at lower parts of
the room. The reflector is made of a high-reflectivity material such as aluminum, silver, or a dielectric film.

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13-4. CONTROL SYSTEMS
Lighting control is crucial for the implementation of energy-saving measures. Next, we provide information on some control
systems used for lighting applications (Thumann and Mehta, 2008).

Static control systems: This involves delamping, which reduces the lighting level and provides savings. Impedance
monitors are also used.

Dynamic control systems: Light controllers such as switches and relays are used for on-off switches for large banks of
lamps. Voltage/phase control systems are used for dimming controls where the light output can be varied between 50 and
100 percent. Solid-state dimming ballasts operate with fluorescent lamps, and they can vary lighting levels between 10 and
100 percent.

Sensors: Clock sensors are used to regulate lighting distribution with time. Photocell sensors measure the lighting level in
an area and feed this information for an appropriate action. Motion or personnel sensors detect the motion in a space and
turn the light on and off accordingly. Personnel sensors are commonly used with fluorescent lighting. Three types are
available: ultrasonic, infrared, and audio. Ultrasonic sensors generate sound waves outside human hearing range and
monitor the return signals. Infrared sensors monitor temperature changes caused by occupants. Audio sensors monitor
sound in the space.

Communication: This involves the use of computers and microprocessor to communicate input from sensors to operate the
light controllers. Power-line carrier can be used to transfer information for lighting control.

Lighting compensators: They are primarily used with fluorescent lights. Switched compensators use a wall switch (dimmer
switch) to adjust the level of lighting. They are used with 40-W standard fluorescent lamps, and a dimming ballast is
required. This switch is common in residential applications. Sensored compensators sense the daylight levels and
automatically dim lights to keep the room at the specified lighting level. These systems are called daylight compensators.
Excess light turn-off systems turn off the light when a certain daylight level is sensed. A third sensored compensator type is
a combination of excess light turn-off and daylight compensator, and it keeps a specified level of lighting by reducing or
turning off the system.

13-5. REFERENCES
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13-5. REFERENCES
Atkinson B, Denver A, McMahon JE, and Clear R, Energy-Efficient Lighting Technologies and Their Applications in the
Commercial and Residential Sectors, in Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, ed. F Kreith and DY, Goswami,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2007.

Çengel YA, Cerci Y, and Turner RH, Some Simple and Economical Ways of Saving Energy in Industrial Facilities, ASME
Advanced Energy Systems Division, 1998.

EIA (Energy Information Administration, Department of Energy), Building Energy Databook, Washington, D.C., www.eia.gov,
August 2005.

IESNA (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America), Lighting Handbook: Reference and Applications, 9th ed., New
York, 2000.

Krarti M, Energy Audit of Building Systems: An Engineering Approach, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2011.

Krarti M, Erickson P, and Hillmann T, A Simplified Method to Estimate Energy Savings of Artificial Lighting use from
Daylighting, Building and Environment 40, 747--764, 2005.

NCI (Navigant Consulting Inc. for the U.S. Department of Energy), U.S. Lighting Market Characterization, Volume 1: National
Lighting Inventory and Energy Consumption Estimate, Washington, D.C., 2002.

Thumann A and Mehta DP, Handbook of Energy Engineering, 6th ed., The Fairmont Press, Lilburn, GA, 2008.

Wyzecki G and Stiles WS, Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae, 2nd ed., Wiley-Interscience,
New York, 1982.

13-6. PROBLEMS
INTRODUCTION

13-1 What are the basic types of electric lighting devices?

13-2 How is the efficiency for the conversion of electricity to light defined? How is the lighting efficacy defined?

13-3 How are lumen, candela, steradians, lux, and foot-candle defined?

13-4 How are lumen, lux, and foot-candle related to each other?

13-5 Which lighting device provides the most efficient lighting? Is there any disadvantage to this lighting system?

13-6 Give two reasons why it is usually a good idea to replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs
that may cost 10 times as much to purchase.

13-7 During a lighting retrofitting project, all the incandescent lamps of a building are replaced by high-efficiency
fluorescent lamps. Explain how this retrofit will affect the (a) design cooling load, (b) annual energy consumption for
cooling, and (c) annual energy consumption for heating for the building.

13-8 Which one is not a basic type of electric lighting device?

a. Candela

b. Fluorescent

c. High-intensity discharge1

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 d. Solid-state LED

e. Incandescent

13-9 An incandescent lamp is rated at 60 W. It is estimated that the light output is 600 lumens, while 54 W is dissipated
as heat. What is the efficacy of this lamp?

a. 0.1

b. 0.9

c. 1

d. 10

e. 60

13-10 The unit for amount of lighting per units area in SI units is the

a. Lumen

b. Lux

c. Candela

d. Foot-candle

e. Steradians

13-11 Which lighting device provides the most efficient lighting?

a. Metal halide

b. Mercury vapor

c. LED

d. Compact fluorescent

e. Low-pressure sodium

13-12 During a lighting retrofitting project, all the incandescent lamps of a building are replaced by high-efficiency
fluorescent lamps. Which one will increase as a result of this retrofit?

a. Design cooling load

b. Design heating load

c. Annual energy consumption for cooling

d. Annual energy consumption for heating

13-13 During a lighting retrofitting project, all the incandescent lamps of a building are replaced by high-efficiency
fluorescent lamps. Which of the following will decrease as a result of this retrofit?

I. Design cooling load

II. Design heating load

III. Annual energy consumption for cooling

IV. Annual energy consumption for heating

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 a. I

b. I and II

c. I and III

d. I and IV

e. III and IV

LIGHTING SYSTEMS

13-14 What is light? Provide two definitions.

13-15 What is a light source? What is our primary light source? What is solar radiation? What fraction of solar radiation is
light?

13-16 What is color temperature? What is its unit?

13-17 What is the color rendering index? What reference sources are used for the color rendering index?

13-18 Why do ordinary incandescent lamps have a limited operational life? Why does the inner bulb surface darken? How
does this darkening affect the efficacy of the lamp?

13-19 What are the advantages and disadvantages of halogen incandescent lamps compared to ordinary incandescent
lamps?

13-20 What types of lamps are classified as high-intensity discharge lights? What are the application areas of these
lamps?

13-21 What are the characteristics (efficacy, color, application areas) of metal halide lamps?

13-22 Why are high-pressure and low-pressure sodium lamps used for street, roadway, and tunnel lighting despite their
low color rendering characteristics?

13-23 Describe the operating principle of fluorescent lamps.

13-24 How do you compare the efficacies of fluorescent lamps with incandescent and mercury vapor lamps? What does
the efficacy of a fluorescent lamp depend on?

13-25 List three disadvantages of florescent lamps in comparison to incandescent lamps.

13-26 What are the advantages and disadvantages of compact fluorescent lamps compared to incandescent lamps and
tubular fluorescent lamps?

13-27 What are the application areas of LED lamps?

13-28 Which lamps require ballasts for their operation, and why do they need ballasts? What does a ballast do?

13-29 What are the operating principles of magnetic and electronic ballasts? What are the advantages of electronic
ballasts over magnetic ones?

13-30 Light is simply the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that lies between

a. 0.30 and 3.0 μm

b. 0.40 and 0.76 μm

c. 0.40 and 0.60 μm

d. 0.30 and 0.60 μm

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 e. 4.0 and 40 μm

13-31 The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun is known as

a. Infrared radiation

b. Visible radiation

c. Solar radiation

d. Ultraviolet radiation

e. Blackbody radiation

13-32 Bodies start emitting noticeable visible radiation at temperatures above

a. 500 K

b. 1200 K

c. 3000 K

d. 800 K

e. 2000 K

13-33 Which is not correct regarding the color rendering index (CRI)?

a. The reference source for the CRI is daylight for color temperatures greater than 5000 K.

b. The reference source for the CRI is a blackbody radiator for color temperatures less than 5000 K.

c. The CRI values may change between 0 and 100.

d. A CRI value of 100 indicates an excellent color rendering of the lamp.

e. Incandescent lamps have very low CRI values.

13-34 In ordinary incandescent lamps, about _______ of electricity is converted to light

a. 10%

b. 20%

c. 30%

d. 40%

e. 50%

13-35 Which incandescent lamps have a heavy, strong glass and are suitable for outdoor spot lighting?

a. Halogen incandescent lamps

b. Metal halide lamps

c. Parabolic aluminized reflector lamps

d. Ellipsoidal reflector lamps

e. Ordinary incandescent lamps

13-36 Which is not classified as high-intensity discharge light?

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 a. Metal halide

b. Reflector lamp

c. High-pressure sodium

d. Low-pressure sodium

e. Mercury vapor

13-37 Which lighting system produces white light, has efficacies up to 120 lm/W, and is commonly used in shopping
malls and retail stores?

a. Metal halide

b. Reflector lamp

c. Halogen lamp

d. Low-pressure sodium

e. Mercury vapor

13-38 Which lamps are used for street and roadway lighting because of their high efficacy despite their overall low color
rendering characteristics?

a. Compact fluorescent

b. Reflector lamp

c. Mercury vapor

d. High-pressure sodium

e. Metal halide

13-39 The efficacy of a fluorescent lamp does not depend on

a. Electricity voltage

b. Lamp length

c. Lamp diameter

d. Type of ballast

e. Lamp temperature

13-40 Which lamp operates with magnetic or electronic ballasts and consumes 32 W of electricity?

a. Metal halide

b. Compact fluorescent

c. T12 tubular florescent

d. T8 tubular florescent

e. T5 tubular florescent

13-41 Which is not correct regarding compact fluorescent lamps?

a. They are smaller in size compared to tubular fluorescent lamps.

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 b. They have shorter lifetime compared to tubular fluorescent lamps.

c. Most models can fit into the socket of incandescent lamps.

d. They are used for small-output lighting applications.

e. They do not require ballasts.

13-42 Which is not a proper application of LED lamps?

a. Flashlights

b. Dynamic lighting

c. Sports lighting

d. Traffic lights

e. Color displays

13-43 Which lamp does not require a ballast for its operation?

a. Compact fluorescent

b. Halogen

c. Mercury vapor

d. High-pressure sodium

e. Metal halide

ENERGY SAVINGS WITH LIGHTING SYSTEMS

13-44 Consider two identical replacement options with high-efficiency lighting, except that the lights are on for 2000 h per
year in option 1 and 4000 h per year in option 2. For which option is the payback period likely to be shorter? Why?

13-45 What are the application areas of motion sensors?

13-46 What factors determine the proper level of light for a given space?

13-47 What is a specular reflector? How does it reduce lighting energy consumption?

13-48 Metal halide lamps are commonly used for stadium lighting. They produce bright light with excellent color rendition.
The football stadium in Phoenix has 640 lamps at 1500 W each. Determine the amount and cost of electricity consumption
during a night game that lasts about 6 h including pregame and postgame periods. The ballast factor is 1.08, and the unit
cost of electricity is $0.12/kWh.

13-49 A large space is currently illuminated by 175 halogen incandescent lamps, each with a rating of 60 W. How many
(a) 24-W compact fluorescent lamps or (b) 40-W tubular fluorescent lamps are needed to supply the same level of lighting
to the space? The efficacies of incandescent, compact fluorescent, and tubular fluorescent lamps are 20, 60, and 90 lm/W,
respectively. Neglect the power consumed by ballasts in fluorescent lamps.

13-50 A large space is currently illuminated by 95 halogen incandescent lamps, each with a rating of 60 W.

a. Determine the rate of lighting supplied to the space, in lm.

b. Determine the annual amount of energy and cost savings if 20 percent of the lamps are turned off due to greater use of
daylight in the space.

c. Determine the annual amount of energy and cost savings if the halogen lamps are replaced by 32-W fluorescent lamps.

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 d. The efficacies of incandescent and fluorescent lamps are 30 and 110 lm/W, respectively. The lamps are on 12 h a day, 5
days a week, and 40 weeks a year. The ballast factor for fluorescent lamps is 1.05. The unit cost of electricity is
$0.112/kWh.

13-51 Metal halide lamps (rating = 100 W, efficacy = 105 lm/W) or tubular fluorescent lamps (rating = 34 W, efficacy = 80
lm/W) are considered for a space. The purchase prices of metal halide and fluorescent lamps are $12 and $3, respectively.
Both lamps are estimated to last for 15,000 h. It is determined that 140 fluorescent lamps can supply sufficient lighting to
this space. Taking the unit cost of electricity to be $0.15/kWh, calculate the total cost of these two lighting systems for
15,000 h of operation. Neglect the ballast factor.

13-52 The lighting requirements of an industrial facility are being met by 550 40-W standard fluorescent lamps. The lamps
are close to completing their service life, and they are to be replaced by their 32-W T8 high-efficiency tubular fluorescent
lamps. The standard and high-efficiency fluorescent lamps can be purchased at quantity at a cost of $1.90 and $3.25 each,
respectively. The facility operates 2800 h a year, and all of the lamps are kept on during operating hours. Taking the unit cost
of electricity to be $0.105/kWh and the ballast factor to be 1.1, determine how much energy and money will be saved a year
as a result of switching to the high-efficiency fluorescent lamps. Also, determine the simple payback period.

13-53 Replacing incandescent lights with energy-efficient fluorescent lights can reduce the lighting energy consumption
to one-fourth of what it was before. The energy consumed by the lamps is eventually converted to heat, and thus switching
to energy-efficient lighting also reduces the cooling load in summer but increases the heating load in winter. Consider a
building that is heated by electricity and cooled by an air conditioner with a COP of 2.5. A total of 20,000 W of incandescent
lamps are used in the building. The annual heating and cooling periods are 3200 h and 1800 h, respectively. If the unit cost
of electricity is $0.11/kWh, determine the net total cost of the building due to lighting, heating, and cooling for incandescent
lamps and energy-efficient fluorescent lamps. Take the lighting period as the sum of the heating and cooling periods.

13-54 The lighting needs of a storage room are being met by six fluorescent light fixtures, each fixture containing four
lamps rated at 40 W each. All the lamps are on during operating hours of the facility, which are 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. 365 days a
year. The storage room is actually used for an average of three hours a day. If the price of the electricity is $0.10/kWh,
determine the amount of energy and money that will be saved as a result of installing a motion sensor. Also, determine the
simple payback period if the purchase price of the sensor is $60 and it takes one hour to install it at a cost of $50.

13-55 A university campus has 300 classrooms and 600 faculty offices. The classrooms are equipped with 12 fluorescent
tubes, each consuming 34 W, including the electricity used by the ballasts. The faculty offices, on average, have half as
many tubes. The campus is open 270 days a year. The classrooms and faculty offices are not occupied an average of 6 h a
day, but the lights are kept on. If the unit cost of electricity is $0.105/kWh, determine how much the campus will save a year
if the lights in the classrooms and faculty offices are turned off during unoccupied periods.

13-56 Consider a classroom for 50 students and one instructor. Lighting is provided by 16 fluorescent light bulbs, 40 W
each, and the ballasts consume an additional 12 percent.

a. Determine the rate of internal heat generation in this classroom when it is fully occupied.

b. This classroom is heated by a natural gas furnace whose efficiency is 88 percent. Taking the unit cost of natural gas to
be $1.30/therm, determine the reduction in the amount and cost of natural gas consumption due to internal heat
generation by lighting in the classroom. Assume this internal heat generation holds for 600 h in the winter season.

c. This classroom is cooled by an air conditioner whose average COP is 2.3. Taking the unit cost of electricity to be
$0.125/kWh, determine the increase in the amount and cost of electricity consumption for cooling due to internal heat
generation by lighting in the classroom. Assume this internal heat generation holds for 400 h in the summer season.

13-57 Repeat Prob. 13-56 if the existing 40-W fluorescent lamps are replaced by 32-W T8 fluorescent lamps providing the
same amount of lighting. The ballasts consume an additional 8 percent for T8 lamps. Also, determine the net change
(increase or decrease) in the cost of heating and cooling as a result of this lighting retrofit. Consider the lighting cost in the
analysis.

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 13-58 Which one is not a suitable application area for a motion sensor for lighting?

a. Meeting room

b. Storage room

c. Office

d. Warehouse

e. Classroom

13-59 Which one decreases as the window glazing area of a building increases?

I. Lighting energy consumption

II. Design heating load

III. Design cooling load

IV. Annual energy consumption for heating

V. Annual energy consumption for cooling

a. I

b. II and III

c. IV and V

d. II and IV

e. I, III, and V

13-60 Which one increases as a result of replacing the incandescent lamps of a building with high-efficiency fluorescent
lamps?

a. Lighting energy consumption

b. Design heating load

c. Design cooling load

d. Annual energy consumption for heating

e. Annual energy consumption for cooling

13-61 What is the effect of increased window glazing area of a building on the following? Neglect solar heat input through
the window in winter.

Lighting energy consumption:

a. Increases

b. Decreases

c. Remains the same

d. Insufficient information

Design heating load:

a. Increases

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 b. Decreases

c. Remains the same

d. Insufficient information

Design cooling load:

a. Increases

b. Decreases

c. Remains the same

d. Insufficient information

Annual energy consumption for heating:

a. Increases

b. Decreases

c. Remains the same

d. Insufficient information

Annual energy consumption for cooling:

a. Increases

b. Decreases

c. Remains the same

d. Insufficient information

13-62 What is the effect of replacing the incandescent lamps of a building with high-efficiency fluorescent lamps on the
following?

Lighting energy consumption:

a. Increases

b. Decreases

c. Remains the same

d. Insufficient information

Design heating load:

a. Increases

b. Decreases

c. Remains the same

d. Insufficient information

Design cooling load:

a. Increases

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 b. Decreases

c. Remains the same

d. Insufficient information

Annual energy consumption for heating:

a. Increases

b. Decreases

c. Remains the same

d. Insufficient information

Annual energy consumption for cooling:

a. Increases

b. Decreases

c. Remains the same

d. Insufficient information

CONTROL SYSTEMS

13-63 What control systems are used for lighting applications?

13-64 What types of sensors are used for lighting control? Describe their operation and characteristics.

13-65 What is a switch compensator? For what applications and for which type of lamp is it commonly used?

13-66 Which one is not a control system used for lighting applications?

a. Dynamic control

b. Static control

c. Communication

d. Ballast

e. Compensator

13-67 Which one is not a sensor type for lighting control applications?

a. Photocell

b. Ultraviolet

c. Infrared

d. Audio

e. Clock

13-68 Which control system senses the daylight levels and automatically dims lights to keep the room at the specified
lighting level?

a. Photocell

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 b. Switched compensator

c. Sensored compensator

d. Audio sensor

e. Motion sensor

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