H'Y

VECTORS
A vector is a directed straight line with a specific
magnitude. A vector is specified completely by its
direction and magnitude soY
...,/
v
Unit vectors are vectors with unit magnitudes (i.e.,
magnitudes of one)

j
 vector magnitud e

jR
rt-'--ax-----w-,1

z
I

Example
Find the unit vector (i.e., the direction vector) asso-
ciated with the origin-based vector 18i + 3j + 29k.
(A) 0.525i + 0.088j + 0.846k
(B) 0.892i + 0.178j + 0.416k ()}\.,
(C) 1.342i + 0.868j + 2.437k ~;~ t>e·
. . g.l t?>"'cf)
~t~
2
(D) 6I+J+ ik
~
Solution
The unit vector o ncular vector is the vector itself
divided by its len

•t t 18i + 3j + 29k
un1 vee or=---;:::.==================
J 2 2
(18) + (3) + (29)
2

= 0.525i + 0.088j + 0.846k

\~·
 Addition and subtraction:

Example
Vv'hat i::; r.lte . liWll o vectors 5i + 3j - 7k and
lOi- l2j + .5 k?
(A 8i -7j ~k

(B) 1 Oi - 9.j + :3k

(C) l5i - 9j - 2k
(D} l5.i 7j- 3k
'~'

Vector Dot Product

The dot product is a scalar product and represents the
projection of B onto A times IAL It is given by
A•B =a b +a b + a b
X X y Jl Z = ~!ZJ":J
=IAIIBicos8 = -~',) A
'>

~0~:>v/._1'
.-.vL~

AoB= B•A; A•(B+C)=AoB+A• C C{((..r B

A I A= IA12 1-<l-1•_ ___,,I
A·B
i i =j j =k k=1
I I I IBI

i~j=j~k=k~i=O

If A B=0, then either A= 0, B=0, or Ais perpendicular

1

to B.
 Examples: Dot products

What is the angle betvveen the vectors F 1 and F 2 ?

F 1 =5i+4j +6k:F2 =4i+ lOj +7k

8= 25.2°

(20+40+42) =7.9
.J16 + 100 + 49

cross product
The cross product is a vector product of magnitude
IBIIAI sine which is perpendicular to the plane containing
A and B. The product is
li) , ..,
J k c ,.
,,'-:>.
AxB= ~ ay Gz =- B xA
h_,. by bz

uxv

A X B =-B X A
A X (B + C) = (A X B) + (A X C)
(B + C) X A= (B X A) + (C X A)
i x i=j .-< j=k x k=O
i X j = k = - j X i; j X k = i = -k X j
k Y i = j = -i X k
If A x B = 0, then either A= 0, B = 0, or A' it parallel to B.
What is the area of the parallelognm1 made by the vectors F1 and F2?
F1 =5i +4j +6k~ F2 =4i +lOj +7k
' ~')
,J

~~~!~")~.:
i j k 0 (:~
rN §
F1 XF2 = 5 4 6 = (28- 60)i- -~24j.f(50 -16)k = -32 i - llj + 34k
-t 10 7

\t.O

Gradient, Divergence, and Curl

The vector del operator, V , is defined as

V _ a.+-
-- ~
ax
aJ
{)y
.+a
- k
{)z

r7A,
v'+':;:;
(a-I+-J
. 8ya. -
·fj~

Variation

"!(
v x, y, z
)= (8/(x,fJxy, z)).1 + (8f(x,{Jyy, z)).J
In the above two images, the values of the
+ ef(~:· z))k function are represented in black and white, black
representing higher values, and its corresponding
gradient is represented by blue arrows.
 Example

Find !ne gra~ien! ol !he function l(x, ~zJ =6x2-7y- sin(z)in C~~~ian coordinates
~ . .,o;.;'Cj
0l fb~}:.?

~t~ '

Divergence
Imagine a fluid, with the vector field representing the velocity of the fluid at each
point in space. Divergence measures the net flow of fluid out of (i.e., diverging from)
f
a given point. lffluid is instead flowing into that point, the-divergence will be
negative.
"~(
A point or region with positive dive s~.oAftZeterred to as a "source" (offiuid,
or whatever the field is describing) ~ mt or region with negative divergence
is a "sink".
Ex.armpl e
V\lha..t is tbe dbrergen.ce of the fol lo-,;o;ring ......,.-ector- fieJ d ~!

v- = 2ri + :2yj
(.i\... ) 0
(B) :2
( C~) :3
(D) -1.

=2 +2
=4

The answer Is (D).

H.'\

Curl of a Vector Field

Curl is a vector operator that describes a vector

field 's vorticity (rotation) 9): a point
!Q~ .. , 'v

Let's go back to our fl · , ' !th the vector field

representing fluid v~ lo~~x~The curl measures
the degree to whia~ e fluid is rotating about a
given point
Variation

curl V= \7 x V
i
a
ox
P(x, y, z)

~ ......_ ..__
..«'"- ~ ~
~...._~
~~~
~~~

~~

\0\

Example
Determine the curl of the vector function V(x, y, z).

(A) 7exy
(B) 7exyi
(C) 7exw
(D) 7exyk

\OY
Solution
Using the variation of~· 7.48~

i j k

curl 'V =
a a
ay oz
' 0

The ansrt~VeT Is {D)-

\or

Vector
Identities

\Of.
 Laplacian of a Scalar

Example
Deter.mine the scalar function
tx-3- 9y + 5 at t

(A) 0
(B) 1
(C) 6
(D) 9

\00

The Laplacian of the function is

At (3, 2, 7). 2x= (2)(3) =6.

The answer Is (C).

\01
 'ov

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

cry(x) dy(x) ( )- ( )
bn d n
X
+ ... + b. dX + boY X - j X
,VJ
~· ,c~'
~i ~c 0
0~·/JJ
Linear Differential Equatio~j . ' / onstant Coefficient
~z

cfy(x) dy(x) ) ( )
bn dx" + ... + b. dx + boy(x = j x

·where bn, ... , b1, ••• , bP b 0 are constants.

'Ot\
Example
Which of the following is NOT a linear differential
equation?
2
(A) 5 ~;%- 8 ~~ + 16y = 4te- 7 t

( B) 5 d2y t?- dy
dt? - 8 dt + 16y = 0 ~
R'lt d-11 dy .f\.1> 0
cc) s-~- s - ~ + 16y = - ~. o'·e:,0
dt2 dt dy9)~ ~, 0.§
(D) 5cdy) 2- 8dy + 16'&-o.v~.~~
.~
;~--v
dt dt ~7
Solution '

\0'\

LINEAR HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT
COEFFICIENTS

Characteristic Equ
 Solving Linear Differential
Equations with Constant Coefficients
Homogeneous First-Order Linear Differential
Equations

E~ample: First-order homogeneous equations

Find the solution to the differential equation y = 4y' if y(O) = 1.

(A) 4e-4t (B) %e·~~ (C) e·Y.t (D) eY.t

Second-Order Linear Homogeneous Differential

Equations
with Constant Coefficients
An equation ofthe fonn
_v"+ ay'+ by= 0
can be solved by the method of undetennined coefficients
where a solution of the form y ~ '':X; is sought. Substitution of
tllis solution gives ~ q~
, ~w··?f
(1,2 + ar + b) cex =~ ~ ·"
and since Cerx cannot be z ro~ characteristic equation must
0
vanish or

and can be 1·eal and distinct £or a 2 > 4b~ real and equal for
a 2 = 4b, and complex for a 2 < 4b.
 If a 2 > 4b, the solution is of the fonn (overdamped)
V=
.
c1e'iX + c2er2X
If r?= 4b, the solution is of the fonn (critically damped)
.v = ( c1+ c ?:-r )e'·lx
2
If a < 4b, the solution is of the form (tmderdamped)
.V = ea:t (C1 cos ~x + C2 sin ~x), where ..,. eP.:>
~ ~0 -.),e:;
a= - a/2
0
B_ 14b - cJ o<o ~.'li-"'J?'P
- 2 &>...Xf./
~~
Wbat is the g ener o n to the ·following homoge-
neot.IS differen tial .!'r'....,lflo&·- on ?

I - 8'!/ + 16y = Q

(A) 11 = Ca e4 x
(B) y = ( Ct +C~x)e4:r:
(C) y = C1 e-43: + 02 e4 x
(D) y = Cr e 2"" + C2e4:r.
nr

Find the roots of the characteri stic equation .

.,-2- Br+ 16= 0

a= - 8
b= 16
From Eq. 8.9,

= 4,4

Because a2 =4b. th · · equation has double

roots. With r = 4, the solution takes the form

11 = ( C1 + Ggx)e'z
= ( G1 + C2x)e4x
 Ex:runple: Second-order homogeneoillS equations

_v'. . + 6y'+ S_v =0

y(O) = 1
y'(O) = 0

Wtite the equation in standard fonn:

v'' + (2)(3)v'
- -
+ 5v- = 0

The characteristic equation is:

2
1 + (2)(3)r + 5 = 0

Roots =-3±~32 -5 =-3±2=-1,-5

ere are two real roots, so the general solution is:

y = C le -lx + C 2e -5x
_v(O) = 1 = c1 + c2
y'(O) = 0 = -C1- SC2
1 =-4C2
1
c2 =- 4
C1=114
y = 1%e-x- %e·5x no

Nonhomogeneous equations
y//- y/- 2y = 10 COS X
General solution = particular solution + homogeneous
- solution)

~ .• ,., '<,-

homogeneous solution&o~~:P·
As homogeneous equations ~r

particular solution
fo solve the particular solution, you must know the fotm of the solution. The form of the
pmticular solution is given in the NCEES Handbook for cettain possible forcing
functions, f{x).
fo solve the patticular solution:
differentiate and then plug into the original equation
collect like tenns.
n"\
 The coefficients of the like tetms must sum to zero, giving simultaneous equations.
Solve the equations and detetmine what the constant(s) is (are).

ful :Yp~
A B
Aeax Beax a t root of characteristic equation
A1 sin lU\: + A2cos mx B1 sin lU\: + B2 cos lllt

\lV

From the table in the NCEES Handbook, the particular solution has-the form:
YP = B1cos x + B2 sinx
yp' = -B1 sinx +B2 cos x
YP " =- B 1 cos x- B 2 sm
. x

~r ( '-
Plugging in, we get: ~ r_

- B1 cos x-B2 sinx- (-B1 sin x + B x) 2(B1 cos x + B2 sin x) = 10 cos x

(-3 B 1 - B2 )cos x + (B 1 - 3 B2 )sin - 0 _yx 7

~Y
~
' - -~ - L..~ -- - .. . ,-~

Isolating the sin and cos coeffi · e get the following simultaneous equations:
-3 B1-B2= 10
B1-3 B2=0
B1 =-3
B2=-l
YP = -3 cos x- sin x

\\A
 ROOT EXTRACTION
Newton's Method for Root Extraction
Given a function/(x) which has a simple root of/{x) = 0 at
x = a au impoliant c01nputational ta k w a &be to find that
. �"-:)
root. If/{x) has a continuous first 1 • wthen the
0
(j + 1 )st estimate of the root is
��

The initial estimate of the root a0 1nust be near enough to the

achial root to cause the algorithm to converge to the root.

'
Exa01ple
Ne~n's method is being used to find the roots . o:f the
equation f(x) = ( x - 2) 2 - 1. What is the -third approxi-
mation of the root i f x = 9.33 iS chosen as the first
a.ppro:x:i.x:n.ation?

(A) 1.0
(B) 2.0
(C) 3.0
(D) 4.0

Solution
Perform two iterations of Newton's method with an
initial guess of 9.33.
](x) = (x- 2) 2 -1
f(x) = (2)(x- 2)
!(x1) = (9.33- 2) 2 - 1 =-5~.73
/'(xt) = (2)(9.33 :Y:.. : r l~'6~
v~ (
• •.f ~/
From. Eq. 9.1,
r::Y >.." ~#
'-"'l.~ v t:Y
_¢,

'+1
= . J(x) ~'Vff
.xi' .afJ ---
.f'(x) "-,·<{~-

83 - 1(9~33) = 9.33 - 52.73

I' (9.33) 14.66
= 5.73
!(x2) = (5. 73 - 2) 2 - 1 = 12.91
;f(x2) = (2)(5.73- 2) = 7.46
= - /(X2) = 5 73 - /(5. 73) = 5 73 - 12.91
X~ X2. f'(X2) . /'(5.73) . 7.46
=4.0

The answer Is (D).

 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
Numerical Integration
Three of the mot·e common n1.unet-ical integration algoritlnns
used to evaluate the integral
[,b f(~1)dx

k = O k= 1 k= 2 k = n-1 k = n

1.Euler's or Forward Rectangular Rule

'
2. Trapezoidal Rule ~~tl-~'·\>-
3.Simpson 's Rule/PaeJI901ic Rule
'-~'I"
~--~f

0
 Euler's or Forward Rectangular Rule
lzb .f(x)dx
are:
Euler's or Forward Recta
fab f(x)dx

with L1x = (b- a)/n

n = number of intervals between data points

v
 Trapezoidal Rule
If the irregular side can be divided into a series of
n cells of equal width, and if the irregular side of each
cell is fairly straight :y. .- z>'
0
£}..~A.~.~'
ov (;V,/>- ,l

Trape::oidal Rule 0"0.~//'

for n = 1 '·, <>. . ,§Y'
~;-

t j(x)dx "' ~[.;.;;-___,......:;.~-

for n > 1

t j(x)dx "' ~ [j(a) + 2:~ :j(a + kllr) + f(b)]

"
Exa.rnple
For the irregula..Jr" area· under the curve sho-w:n, a = 3,
and b = 15. The formula. of the curve is
f(x) = (1 - x)(:z:- 30)

:F(xl

VVhat ffi the ap~rox1~~~~ ··~·~~~ using the trapezoidal

rule?
(A) 1200
(B) 1300,
(C) 1600
(D) 1900
 Solution
Calculate t1.x.
Ax = b - a = 15 - 3 = 12
Calculate j{ a) and !(b).
J(ci) = (1 ~ a)( a- 30) = (1- 3)(3- 30) =54
J(b) = (1- b)(b- 3o) = (1-15 5 ao-f = 210
This is a one-trapezoid integrati 9)~~(n = 1), so use
Eq. 9.6. The area under the c /

area= Ax[/(a) ;1 (~; (54~210)

= 1584 (

The answer is (C).

Simpson's Rule/Parabolic Rule

If the irregular side of each cell is curved {parabolic},

Simpson's rule (parabolic rule) should b.e used. n must
be even to use Simpson's rule. ~~c;
. . ·0
Simpson's Rule/Parabolic Rule (n mus ~ ~n e . ih integer)
for 11 = 2 "
~{a! b)+ f(b)]
for n 2:: 4
n-2
f(a)+2 L f(a+k!:l.x)
fu k=2,4,6, ...
J/ j(x)dlC ::::: 3 "-I
+4 I: f(a+kb.x)+f(h)
k=1,3,5, . . .

with ~x: = (b- a)ln

n = munber of intervals between data points

"
Exam pte
For the in~egular area under the curve shoWD..t a = 3,
a.nd b = 15. ~e formula -of the curve is
f(x) = (1 - :z;)'(x- 30)

f(x~

\Vhat is the ~ppr~~.,..te area. usin.g Simpson's rule?

(A) 1310
(B) 1870
(C) 1960
(D) 2000

f(a) = (1- a)(a- 30) = (l.- 3)(3- 30) =54

/(b)= (1- b)(b- 30) = (1 - 15)(15- 30) = 210

a+ b= 3+ 15 = 9
2 2
t(a; b) = f(9) = (1 - 9)(9

Calculate Aa; using the smt~~1!l,~~h number of oells,

n=2. and Eq. 9.10.

Ax = (b-

Using Eq. 9 ..8~ the

1 11
f(x) .dx [!(a)+ 4/C"; 0) +/(b)]
; 3) (54+ {4)(168) + 210)
= 1872 (1870)
Thtl answer Is (B) ..

H'
 Numerical Solution of Ordinary
Differential Equations
Euler's Approximation
Given a differential equation
dddt =f (x, t) with x(O) = X 0
~
0
At some general time kl!!.t ~ • o<:'..,0e..
i[(k + 1)8.1] =x(k8.t) + 8.tf[x(k8.t~t t$-"'l.,fJ-.0
which can be used with starting condit~
· ~-;;~
recursively for x(8.t), x(2Llt), . .. , x(n ~7
The method can be extended to 1 erential equations
by recasting them as n first-o-·............,...
In particular, when dx/dt =

which can be expressed as the recursive equation

xk+ 1 = xk + 8.t (dx,/dt)
xk+ 1 = x + 8.t [f(x(k), t(k))]

3. Use Euler•s approxi1nation to detennine x{1.5), the

value of a function at t = 1.5. g]ven increments of t of
0.25, x(l) = 1, and dx/ dt = 2x.
(A) 0
(B) 0.75
(C) 1.5
("~
(D) 2.3 ~~rl?
tjY~O~
0~~cP
3. Euler's approximatio '¥ ~
'V.i. .. ~
,..~~ dx~c
dt
x(l + 0 - (l) + ~t(2x(1))
x(L = 1 + (0.25)(2) ( 1) = 1.5
x(l.25 + 0.25) = x(1.25) +At(2x(L25))
x(l.5) = 1.5 + (0.25)(2)(1.5)
= 2.25 (2.3)

The answer Is {D)-