UNIT 4

POWER ELECTRONICS & DRIVES

CHAPTER 4
DYNAMICS OF ELECTRIC DRIVES AND BREAKING
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 DRIVE:
A combination of prime mover, transmission equipment and mechanical Working load is called
a drive
1.2 DEFINITION OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES:
Whenever the term electric motor or electrical generator is used, we tend to think that the
speed of rotation of these machines is totally controlled only by the applied voltage and frequency of
the source current. But the speed of rotation of an electrical machine can be controlled precisely also by
implementing the concept of drive. The main advantage of this concept is, the motion control is easily
optimized with the help of drive. In very simple words, the systems which control the motion of the
electrical machines are known as electrical drives.

A typical drive system is assembled with an electric motor (may be several) and a sophisticated
control system that controls the rotation of the motor shaft. Now days, this control can be done easily
with the help of software. So, the controlling becomes more and more accurate and this concept of
drive also provides the ease of use.

This drive system is widely used in large number of industrial and domestic applications like
factories, transportation systems, textile mills, fans, pumps, motors, robots etc. Drives are employed as
prime movers for diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, hydraulic motors and electric motors.

2. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN ELECTRICAL DRIVES

The basic block diagram for electrical drives used for the motion control is shown in the following
figure 4.1. The load in the figure represents various types of equipment which consist of electric motor,
like fans, pumps, washing machines etc. The diagram which shows the basic circuit design and
components of a drives, also shows that, drives have some fixed parts such as, load, motor, power
modulator, control unit and source. These equipments are termed as parts of drive system.

4.1 block diagram for electrical drives

3. BASIC COMPONENT (or) ELEMENTS OF ELETCRIC DRIVES

Block diagram of electric drive:

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a. Motor: actual energy converting machine (electrical to mechanical)

b. Load: usually a machinery to accomplish a given task. Eg-fans, pumps, washing machine etc.
c. Power modulator: modulators (adjust or converter) power flow from the source to the motion
d. Source: energy requirement for the operation the system.
e. Control: adjust motor and load characteristics for the optimal mode.
a. Motor:
Electric motors are of various types.

1. The DC motors can be divided in four types –

a. shunt wound DC motor,
b. series wound DC motor,
c. compound wound DC motor and
d. permanent magnet DC motor
2. . AC motors are of two types –
a. induction motors
i. squirrel cage and
ii. wound motor.
b. synchronous motors.
i. round field and
ii. permanent magnet.
Besides all of these, stepper motors and switched reluctance motors are also considered as the parts of drive
system.
b. Power Modulators –

Power modulators are the devices which alter the nature or frequency as well as change the intensity of
power to control electrical drives. Roughly, power modulators can be classified into three types,
1. Converters,
2. Variable impedance circuits,
3. Switching circuits.

As the name suggests, converters are used to convert currents from one type to other type. Depending on
the type of function, converters can be divided into 5 types -
1. AC to DC converters
2. AC regulators
3. Choppers or DC - DC converters
4. Inverters
5. Cyclo-converters

1. AC to DC converters are used to obtain fixed DC supply from the AC supply of fixed voltage. The very
basic diagram of AC to DC converters is like.

2. Inverters are used to get AC from DC, the operation is just opposite to that of AC to DC converters. PWM
semiconductors are used to invert the current.
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3. Choppers or DC - DC converters are used to get a variable DC voltage. Power transistors, IGBT's, GPO's,
power MOSFET's are mainly used for this purpose.

4. Cycloconverters are used to convert the fixed frequency and fixed voltage AC into variable frequency and
variable voltage AC. Thyristors are used in these converters to control the firing signals.

5. AC Regulators are used to obtain the regulated AC voltage, mainly auto transformers or tap changer
transformers are used in this regulator.

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c. Sources

AC & DC both. May be of 1 phase and 3 phase, 50 Hz AC supply is the most common type of
electricity supplied in India, both for domestic and commercial purpose. Synchronous motors which are
fed 50 Hz supply have maximum speed up to 3000 rpm, and for getting higher speeds higher frequency
supply is needed. Motors of low and medium powers are fed from 400 V supply, and higher ratings like
3.3kv, 6.6kv, 11kv etc are provided also. DC supply also provided.

d. Control Unit –

Choice of control unit depends upon the type of power modulator that is used. These are of
many types, like when semiconductor converters are used, and then the control unit consists of firing
circuits, which employ linear devices and microprocessors. So, the above discussion provides us a
simple concept about the several parts of electrical drive.

e. Switching circuits

In motors and electrical drives are used for running the motor smoothly and they also protects
the machine during faults. These circuits are used for changing the quadrant of operations during the
running condition of a motor. And these circuits are implemented to operate the motor and drives
according to predetermined sequence, to provide interlocking, to disconnect the motor from the main
circuit during any abnormal condition or faults.

f. Loads:

It is very important that you consider the type of load that is being put on each electric motor, as
this can affect the opportunity for energy saving.

The three main electric motor load types are:

Variable-torque loads - eg fans and pumps where the speed varies. With this type of load,
reducing the speed of the motor by even a small amount can save a lot of energy.

Constant-torque loads - eg conveyors, screw and reciprocating compressors, and crushers. With
these loads, the amount of power consumed is in direct proportion to the useful work done. So halving
the speed will halve the energy consumed.

Constant-power loads - eg machine tools and Centre winders. With these loads, the power is
constant so there will rarely be energy savings when the speed is reduced.

The load requirements are in either of

Speed control
Torque control

Depending upon the load requirements the motor has to be chosen.

For example in traction system, the load (traction network) needs high starting torque (initial)
i.e., high current value is needed at the start. A series motor provides a high starting torque. Hence
series motor should be chosen for traction system.

4. JOINT SPEED – TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTOR & LOAD

Equilibrium speed of motor-load system can be obtained when motor torque equals the load
torque. Electric drive system will operate in steady state at this speed, provided it is the speed of stable
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state equilibrium. Concept of steady state stability has been developed to readily evaluate the stability
of an equilibrium point from the steady state speed torque curves of the motor and load system. In most
of the electrical drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared with the
mechanical time constant. During transient condition, electrical motor can be assumed to be in
electrical equilibrium implying that steady state speed torque curves are also applicable to the transient
state operation. Now, consider the steady state equilibrium point A shown in figure below

Now consider equilibrium point B which is obtained when the same motor drives another load
as shown in the figure. A decrease in speed causes the load torque to become greater than the motor
torque, electric drive decelerates and operating point moves away from point B. Similarly when
working at point B and increase in speed will make motor torque greater than the load torque, which
will move the operating point away from point B.

5. CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS
a. Torque dependent on speed
(Ex-hoists, pumping of water or gas against constant pressure)

b. Torque linearly dependent on speed

(Ex- motor driving a DC generator connected to a fixed resistance load [generator field value is kept
constant])
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c. Torque proportional to square of speed

(Ex- fans, centrifugal pumps, propellers)

d. Torque inversely proportional to speed

(Ex-milling and boring, machines)
6. NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUE
Load torques can be classified into two categories: active load torque & passive load torque.

(a) ACTIVE LOAD TORQUE

 It has potential to drive motor under equilibrium condition.
 Such load torque usually retains their sign when the direction of the drive rotation is changed.
 Torque due to gravitational force, tension, compression & torsion come under this category.

(b) PASSIVE LOAD TORQUE

 Torque which always opposes the motion is called passive torque.
 Their sign change on the reversal of motion.
 Torque due to friction, windage, cutting etc. fall under this category.

COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUE

Tl = TF + TL
Where, Tl = load torque
TF = friction torque
TL = useful load torque

TF = TS + TC + TV + TW
Where, Ts = static friction (when ɷm = 0)
TC = Coloumb Friction (independent of speed)
TV = Viscus Friction ( proportional to speed, α ɷm)
TW = windage friction (  ωm2)
Nature of load torque depends on application: torque is constant (independent of speed) & torque is function of
speed
(a) TORQUE IS CONSTANT (INDEPENDENT OF SPEED)
 A low speed hoist: Torque is constant & independent of speed.
 At low speed windage torque is negligible.
 Net torque is mainly due to gravity that is constant & independent.
 Paper mill drive: coulomb friction dominates over other torque components.

(b) TORQUE IS FUNCTION OF SPEED

 Torque is proportional to square of speed (T  ωm2): It has low starting torque. Examples of such loads
are; axial & centrifugal pumps, centrifugal compressors, fans, ship propellers etc.

 Torque is linearly proportional to speed (T  ωm): Examples of such loads are mixers and stirrers.

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 Torque is inversely proportional to speed (T  1⁄ωm): Here developed power is nearly constant. It is
approximately hyperbolic in nature. Examples of such loads are lifts, lathes, wire drawer, winders,
reciprocating rolling mills etc.

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7. TYPES OF DRIVES
1. GROUP DRIVE OR LINE SHAFT DRIVE

The Group drive consists of a single motor which drives or actuates several mechanical load by
means of one or more line shafts supported on bearings. It is also called as „Line Shaft Drive‟. The
line shaft of the group drive is connected with mechanical load through multi- stepped pulleys and
belts. The size of the line shaft pulley and load shaft pulley determines the speed of the drives
machines or loads.

Advantage of Group Drive

1. The group drive is the most economic even after taking into account the cost of line
shaft, pulleys, belts and other installations. This is because the rating of the main motor
is less than sum of the rating of the individual motors required to drive each load
separately.

2. All the loads may not be working at the same time. So the HP of the group drive motor is
less than the sum of HP of individual motor working separately. So the cost is reduced.
Disadvantages of Group Drive
Nowadays group drive is rarely used because of following factor
1. If the fault occur in driving motor, then all the driven loads becomes idle.
2. Since line shaft is long and large and numbers of pulleys are connected, considerable
power loss takes place in energy transmitting device. [Line shaft]
3. The level of noise produced at the work site is high
4. The driven loads have to be installed to suit the layout of line shaft.
5. Due to the line shaft arrangement and belts the drive do not have clean appearance.
6. Due to the belt and multi stepped pulley arrangement, this drive is not safe.
7. An Individual load speed control is very difficult because of the usage of stepped pulleys
and belt arrangement.
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Applications of Group Drive

Group drive is used in processes where the stoppage of one operation needs the stoppage of
sequence of operation, as in the case of „Textile mills‟

2. INDIVIDUAL DRIVE

The individual drive systems consist of only one electric drive motor. This system activates
various parts of single Mechanical equipment. Here each part of Mechanical equipment is
considered as a separate load. The single electric drive motor is connected to all the individual
mechanical load through suitable energy transmission devises

In the above block diagram the mechanical equipment has single electric drive motor M
and three individual load parts namely A, B and C. The individual load parts A,B and C are
connected to the electric motor M. The individual load parts are kept at different position inside
the mechanical equipment. Each load part is connected to the electric motor through different
energy transmission devices.
Example for individual drive is Lathe. Here the individual motor drive is used for
activating various parts i.e., rotating the spindle with the tools, moving the feed (job) and drives
cooling and lubricating pumps. Here all the operation mentioned is carried out by single electric
motor. The energy transmission devices used here are gears and pulley etc.

Advantages of individual Drive:

1. Individual drive has affective layout flexibility i.e. all the drive parts are placed inside single
equipment.
2. Individual drive provides safe working condition, because no moving parts are visible.
3. The appearance of the Individual drive is clean and neat.
Disadvantages of Individual Drive:

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1. The Individual drives are less efficient because the single electric motor is connected with
number of load parts through number of gears. So the energy loss is high.
2. The failure of electric motor stops the entire operations of the mechanical equipment.

3. MULTI-MOTOR DRIVE:
The Multi-motor drive has separate electric motor to drive the different load parts of single
mechanical equipment. In some cases all the motors are used to drive only one load part of the
equipment to fulfill different operation.

The block diagram shows Multi-motor drive system with three separate electric motors
(1, 2, and 3). Each motor drives separate load parts (A, B, C). In some cases there is only one
load, each motor drive this load at different instant of time.

Example of multi-motor drive is travelling cranes .The Travelling crane has only one load
i.e., the movies arm with hook. There are three basic operations in Travelling crane, namely
Hoisting (lowering and raising ), Long-travel motion (stretching forward and backward of the
arm) and Cross-travel motion(moving to the Right and Lift ) These three operations are carried
out by three separate electric motor i.e. one for Hoisting, one for cross-travel motion and one for
long –travel motion.
Applications of Multi – Motor Drive:
Multi –motor is mostly used in
1. Paper mills, 2. Rolling mills, 3. Rotary printing machines 4. Metal working machines.

Advantages of Multi-Motor Drive:

1. Multi-motor driver offers flexibility of layout of loads.

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2. Stoppage of one motor do not affects the operation of other motors and loads.

3. The speed control is very easy.

Disadvantage of Multi-Motor Drive:

1. Its only disadvantage is that it is costly in the initial stages

2. The usage of number of motors leads to confusion during control operation.

8. DYNAMICS OF MOTOR-LOAD SYSTEM

 Motor generally drives a load (mechanical load i.e. machines) through some
transmission system.
 While motor always rotates and load may rotate or undergo a translation motion.
 Load speed may be different than the speed of motor. If the load has many parts then
speed of their may be different. Some load may undergo through the translation motion
& rest may undergo through the rotational motion.
 To derive the fundamental torque equation, consider the diagram shown below.


Load

Tl


This is rotational motion,

T – Tl = (J. ωm 
Where, J = moment of inertia kg-m2
ωm= angular velocity rad/sec
T = developed motor torque N-m
T = loadresisting torque  N-m
L

 Here, load torque includes friction & windage torque of motor.

 Fundamental torque equation of motor-load system is given by,
ωm
T- Tl = J +ω m

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 This equation is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders, reel drives,
industrial robots etc. Because, in these application moment of inertia changes with
respect to time.
 For the drives with the constant inertia (dJ/dt) = 0.

 Torque developed by motor is counter balanced by a load torque and a dynamic torque.
 Dynamic torque (J.dm/dt) is only present during the transient operations.
 Acceleration & Deceleration of the drive depends on magnitudes of T & T l .
 Drive accelerates if T is greater than Tl plus the dynamic torque in order to overcome
the drive inertia
 As shown in the figure 2.1, the load torque always opposes the torque developed by
the motor.
 In steady state, ω m = constant, so T = Tl, because no acceleration in steady state.

9. MULTI-QUADRANT OPERATION OF DRIVE

1. A four-quadrant or multiple-quadrant operation is required in industrial as well as
commercial applications. These applications require both driving and braking, i.e.,
motoring and generating capability.
2. Some of these applications include electric traction systems, cranes and lifts, cable
laying winders, and engine test loading systems.
3. In multi-quadrant operation or four quadrant operation, motor accelerates or
decelerates depending on whether motor torque is lesser or greater than load torque.
4. During motor acceleration, it should supply not only the load torque, but an additional
component of load current to overcome the inertia.

Forward

II

III IV

Reverse

5. Motor positive torque produces the acceleration in forward direction. In this, the motor

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speed is positive when the motor is rotating in forward direction.

6. During motor deceleration, the resultant or dynamic torque has a negative sign. This
torque assists with motor developed torque and maintains the motion by extracting
the energy from stored energy.
7. Hence the motor torque is considered as negative if it produces deceleration.
8. A motor can be controlled in such a way that it operates in two cases; motor action and
braking action.
9. Motor action converts the electric energy into mechanical energy and it produces
forward motion, hence it called as motoring action, whereas braking action
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy which gives forward braking
motion, it is termed as generator.
10. Similarly, these two actions are performed in case motor operating in reverse direction,
i.e., (reverse motoring and reverse braking actions).

10. QUADRATAL DIAGRAM OF SPEED-TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Let us look at the four quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load as shown in
figure 2.3.
2. This hoist consists of a cage with or without any load. A rope, generally made up of a
steel wire is wounded on a drum to raise the cage and a balance weight.
3. This balance weight or counterweight magnitude is greater than that of empty cage, but
less than the loaded cage.
4. For each quadrant of operation, direction of rotation, ɷ, load torque TL, and motor
torque Tm are shown in figure 2.3.
5. Consider that the load torque is constant and independent of motor speed.
TL

Forward Forward
Braking Motoring

Counter weight Counter weight

Empty Loaded
II
cage cage

III IV

Reverse Reverse
Motoring Braking

Empty Loaded
cage cage

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10.1 1ST QUADRANT OPERATION

1. The hoist in which the loaded cage is moving upwards.
2. The direction of rotation of motor,  will be in anticlockwise direction i.e., positive
speed.
3. The load torque acts in opposite direction to the direction of motor rotation.
4. To raise the hoist to upwards, the motor torque, Tm must act in the same direction of
motor speed, .
5. So both motor speed and motor torque will be positive.
6. To make these as positive, the power taken from the supply should be positive. This is
called forward motoring.

10.2 2ND QUADRANT OPERATION

1. The hoist in which unloaded cage is moving upwards.
2. The counterweight is heavier than the unloaded cage and hence hoist can move upwards
at a dangerous speed.
3. To prevent this, motor must produce a torque in the opposite direction of motor speed,
 in order to produce brake to the motor.
4. Therefore, the motor torque, Tm will be negative and motor speed,  will be positive.
5. This quadrant operation is called forward braking.

10.3 3RD QUADRANT OPERATION

1. The empty cage is hoisting down.
2. The downward journey of empty cage is prevented by the torque exerted by the
counterweight.
3. So the direction of motor torque, Tm should be in the same direction of motor rotation ɷ.
4. Due to the downward movement of the cage, the direction of rotation is reversed, i.e.,  is
negative and hence Tm is also negative.
5. Since the machine acting as motor in reverse direction, it receives the power from the
supply and hence power is positive.
6. This quadrant operation is called reverse motoring.

10.4 4TH QUADRANT OPERATION

1. Loaded cage is moving downwards.
2. The loaded cage is moving downward (of which weight is more than counterweight), the
motion takes place without use of any motor.
3. There will be a chance to go downward at a dangerous speed because of loaded cage.
4. To limit the speed of the cage within a safe range, the electrical machine must act as a

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brake.
5. In this the direction of the motor,  is negative and hence the motor torque Tm is
positive to decrease the speed of the motor.
6. Thus, the power is negative that means the electrical machine delivering power to the
supply.
7. This phenomenon is called as regenerative action. This quadrant operation is called
reverse braking.

11. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF ELECTRICAL

DRIVES
(i) Nature of electric supply
 Whether AC or DC supply is to be used for supply

(ii) Nature of the drive

 Whether the particular motor is going to drive individual machine or a group of machines

(iii)Capital and running cost

(iv) Maintenance requirement

(v) Space ad weight restrictions

(vi) Environment and location

(vii) Nature of load

 Whether the load requires light or heavy starting torque
 Whether load torque increases with speed remain constant
 Whether the load has heavy inertia which may require longer straight time

(viii) Electrical characteristics of motor

 Starting characteristics,
 running characteristics,
 speed control and
 Braking characteristics

(ix) Size, rating and duty cycle of motors

 Whether the motor is going to the operator for a short time or whether it has to run
continuously intermittently or on a variable load cycle

(x) Mechanical considerations

 Type of enclosures, type of bearings, transmission of drive and Noise level.
 Due to practical difficulties, it may not possible to satisfy all the above considerations.
 In such circumstances, it is the experience and knowledge background which plays a vital role
in the selection of the suitable drive.

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The following points must be given utmost important for the selection of motor. The factors
are:
 Nature of the mechanical load driven
 Matching of the speed torque characteristics of the motor with that of the load
 Starting conditions of the load.

12. AC DRIVES AND DC DRIVES—A COMPARISON

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