Basics of Computer

What is Computer?
Computer is electronic device, which takes Data as input, processes as per Instruction
provided and gives Information as output.
Computer receives the data through Input devices and stores it in Memory, CPU
processes the data and information is provided to users through Output devices. The computer
perform arithmetic and logical operations on the data in order to get desired information. It
stores the data, instructions and information in memory.
Some of the important terminologies of computer system that should be understood in above
paragraph…
 Data: Data is raw information that needs to be processed.
 Instruction: Instruction are set of procedures or rules that the computer follows in order
to get desired output information.
 Information: Information is a final finished data, which is obtained after the process.
 Process: Process is arithmetic and logical manipulation of data
 Input: Input can be data and instruction, which is been processed by CPU.
 Output: Output is the information.
 Input Devices: Input Devices are hardware for providing input to computer.
 Output Devices: Output Devices are hardware for obtaining output from computer.

Characteristics of Computer.
Now that we have defined computer and have learnt about the various terminologies in
the computer system. We can easily say computer is a complex computing device. Indeed it is
complex but its importance in our life inevitable. Let us discus some of the characteristics of
computer that plays vital role in development of Information Technology.
‐ Speed: Computers are known for the speed at which they can perform the given task. A
computer can process millions instructions in seconds. Performance of computer relies on
factor such as CPU Clock speed, CPU Core, CPU Cache. (Eg. CPU with 2Ghz. Clock speed can
perform 2 Billion instruction per second)
‐ Accuracy: Computers perform arithmetical and logical tasks. This task have a definite result to
it. Computer are provided with instructions to perform a specific task. If the instructions
provided are correct then you are bound to get expected result. Computer does not make
mistakes or error, hence they are extremely accurate in performing the given tasks.
‐ Memory: The memory of computer stores data and instructions that are required for
performing the task. It can store very large number of the data and instructions; and can be
retrieve or recalled any number of time even after days it was last performed. Today’s
computer can store billions of data in memory.
‐ Automation: Automation is one of most important characteristics of computer. Automation is
a process or technology that performs task as per instructed autonomously without human
intervention. Computer applications or software’s (Instructions) enables computer to perform
task with minimal or no user intervention.
 ‐ Reliability: Computer are more reliable at performing a tasks as compare to human. They
efficient, fast and accurate. They can work for long hours, round the clock. As long as they are
been kept under normal working conditions (Temp, Humidity, etc.) they can perform
optimally.
‐ Size: Size of computer is all dependent on the nature and complexity of the tasks. PC or
Portable Computer or as we normally say Personal Computer is compact in a size. Where else
Super Computer or Mainframe Computer can occupy a large room. More the complex
functionality bigger the size.
‐ Intelligence: Computer are very good at solving structured problems, i.e. they perform tasks
as been instructed or programmed. Man invented computers and works as he programs it
work. Hence we can say computer has no intelligence of its own. The new technology of AI is
under development, this will enable computer to think and process independently.

Classification of Computers
Computers are been used widely in all government and private sectors. Most of the
organization has implemented this technology to manage and carry out their work. Scientific and
research organization relies on bigger and powerful computers in research & development of
technology and inventions. Based on size, capacity, technology and purpose, computer can be
classified.
‐ Based on Purpose
 General Purpose Computer: General purpose computer are used for general day‐to‐day
tasks done at home and office. Work related to office automation, financial accounting,
inventory management, education, etc. PC are the best examples of general purpose
computer.
 Special Purpose Computer: Special purpose computer are used for performing specific
task, such as research & development, space exploration, weather forecast, medical
equipment. Eg. X‐ray, Scanning Machine, ATM etc.
‐ Based on Technology
 Analog Computer: Analog Computer or Analog compute machines are basically used to
track or measure or sense physical quantities. They are mechanical devices. Eg. Volt‐
Amp meter, Speedometer, Pressure gauge etc.
 Digital Computer: Digital computer are able to compute the task digitally. They are able
to represent the data, instructions, and result in binary form i.e; 0’s & 1’s. All the
modern digital device are Digital Computer.
 Hybrid Computer: Hybrid Computer incorporates both analog and digital technology.
They are able to convert analog data signals to digital data signals and vice‐versa. This
enables to get digital output from analog or physical input, process can be reversed too.
Eg. Digital Thermometer, Robotics etc,
‐ Based on Size and Capacity
 Super Computer: Super computers are specialized computer that are meant for special
and complex task. This are bigger in size, has multiple CPU’s, operates in parallel
computing and are fastest of all other types of computer. They can perform around
1000 peta‐flops operations in a second. (1 Peta‐flops = 1x1015) They are used in
scientific research centers, space research, defense, medical research, nuclear research,
meteorology, etc. Eg. CRAY XC40, PARAM Sanganak, etc.
  Mainframe Computer: Mainframe computers are large and fastest commercial used
computers. They are much slower than super computers. This computers are mainly
used in large organisation where centralized server‐client model of networking is
implemented. Organisation such as Railway, Banks, Insurance, Government, etc. uses
computers where the very large volume of data is processed and managed. Due to
server‐client networking all the terminal (Client PC) are connected to central (Server)
computer, thus allowing sharing of data to all terminals. Eg. Bank Main server, Railway
Main Servers
 Mini Computer: Mini computers are smaller than mainframe computer but faster than
micro computers. They are general purpose computer designed for more specific role in
small‐ mid size organisation. They have similar characteristics of mainframe computer,
but scope is limited to small network.
 Micro Computer: Micro computer are the most widely used computers used by the end
users. They are least powerful, compact and portable computers. PC’s are the best
examples of the micro computers. They are least expensive of all yet powerful enough
to perform day‐to‐day tasks in home , offices organisation etc.

Generation of Computer
Computer has evolved since it was invented in 19th century by English mathematician
Charles Babbage. Babbage designed and build mechanical computing machine such as ‘Difference
Engine’ & ‘Analytical Engine’. Hence he is also termed as “Father of Computer”. His design and
concept of Analytical Engine, has largely inspired to develop modern day computers. All the
computer has these four main components of computing, i.e.; Memory to store, CPU to process,
Input device for Data input & Output device for Information output.
Considering the fact of modern day digital computing we could divide the computer five
generations. There could be a generations of mechanical computers prior the digital computer
(Prior 1946) generation which are termed as “Zeroth Generation Computers”. Each generation of
computer is designed based on a new technological development, resulting in better, cheaper
and smaller computers that are more powerful, faster and efficient than their predecessors. The
five generation are as follows…
First Generation Computers (1946‐1954): This generation was truly a digital computer era. With
the use of Vacuum tubes as logic circuitry this generation was able achieve faster and efficient
computation than their predecessors. They used Machine Language as the programing language.
Magnetic tapes, punch cards, paper tapes were used for giving input and getting output.
They had made computing easier but had many disadvantages. This computers were
bulky, huge in size; consume lot of electricity, generated lot of heat and were unreliable at times.
Thus they were expensive to build and maintain. Eg. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer), UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)
Second Generation Computers (1954‐1965): Second generation was revolutionised by the use of
transistors. It replaced the old vacuum tubes that enabled them to work much faster and
efficiently. It reduced the size of computers, consumed less energy and generated less heat. They
were truly a step ahead and reliable with its predecessors. They used Assembly language and
High‐level language such as FORTRAN, COBOL. The computer used batch processing and
multiprogramming operating system. Magnetic tapes, Magnetic Disks were used as secondary
storage devices.
 They were still expensive, had to be maintained regularly. Eg. of this generation were IBM
7094, UNIVAC 1108.
Third Generation Computers (1965‐1971): Third generation computer used Integrated Circuits or
IC. IC are silicon chips, onto which transistors, resistors, capacitors are closely circuited. Many
transistor were embedded on this chips thus reducing the overall size of computers. This
generation computers were more reliable, fast, energy efficient, generated less heat and
required less maintenance.
They used High‐level programing language such as FORTRAN, PASCAL, COBOL, BASIC,
etc. In this computers Remote Processing, Time‐Sharing, Multiprogramming operating system
were used. Eg. IBM‐360 Series, Honeywell‐6000 series etc
Fourth Generation Computers (1971‐1980): Fourth generation used Large Scale Integrated (LSI)
Chips. Thousands of IC could be put into single LSI Chips. This generation computer were less
expensive and smaller in size. Some of them were portable computers used for office works. They
were efficient, powerful‐fast and more reliable than its predecessors. This computers give rise
next generation of computers with advent in LSI to VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits)
chips. They used High‐level Language such as C, C++, DBASE etc. In this computers Real Time
Networks, Distributed Processing, Time‐Sharing, were used. Eg. CRAY‐1, STAR 1000
Fifth Generation Computers (1980‐Till Date): In late 1970’s VLSI chips were developed. This gave
rise to Fifth generation of computers. They were compact, portable, very efficient & much
powerful than the predecessors. This generation computer put the foundation for future
computers. Early 90’s computer used Microprocessor instead of VSLI chips. Microprocessor are
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration Chips) having ten million electronic component embedded on
to it. This computers were easily available to the mass population as they were compact,
affordable and user friendly. They used High‐level Language as C, C++, Java, .net etc. Eg. Modern
day computers.

Architecture of Computers
Components of Computer System
The Components of Computer System can be classified into Hardware, Software,
Firmware and Humanware. They all are important factors and dependent on each other in this
system. We cannot eliminate any of them in the computer system.
‐ Hardware: Hardware are the physical components or peripherals of the computer. They
comprises of hardware such as CPU, Motherboard, Memory & Storage, Input Devices, Output
Devices, Communication Devices etc.
‐ Software: Software are the set of instructions for the hardware to perform their task. These
are programs for the operating the computers. Software are programmes such as Operating
System, Application Software, Utilities, Languages etc.
‐ Firmware: Firmware are instruction programs in Low‐level language for computer hardware.
This programs are embedded into the hardware memory. This are very essential for hardware
to work or coordinate to other hardware’s in the system. Eg. BIOS, UEFI, CMOS
‐ Humanware: Humanware are the users who are related to development, installation,
maintenance or operation of the computer system. It can be divided into Developer, Analyst,
System Engineer and End User.

Units of Computer & its Functions

The Units of Computer are the physical component or peripherals of computer system.
It is a Hardware of the Computer. Let us now look at various computer peripherals and its
function, required in the computer…
‐ Input Devices: Input devices provides data input the computer. These devices are connected
externally to computer by wire or cable. Some of these devices can be wirelessly connected
too. Examples are as follows…
 Keyboard: Keyboard are used to provide inputs in character text, function command or
selection inputs by pressing the keyboard buttons.
 Mouse: Mouse are used to provide inputs by pointing and selection on the Graphical
User Interface (GUI). A mouse pointer is displayed on GUI, which helps in pointing and
selection. Buttons on mouse also provides appropriate feedback to the function.
 Webcam: Webcam or Camera used for capturing images and provide image data to
related application in the computer.
 Scanner: Scanner are devices which converts physical document into digital data format
for related applications. Documents can be text or image.
 Microphone: Microphone converts your sound wave signals to digital signals. This
digital signals are then saved in digital data format for related applications.
‐ Output Devices: Output devices gives final processed output from the computer. These
devices are connected externally to computer by wire or cable. Some of these devices can be
wirelessly connected too. Examples are as follows…
 Monitor: Monitor are displays which displays the information or result provide by the
computer. These monitor comes in various size and types. The resultant information
that are displayed can be of text, image, videos form. Some of the monitor which has
touch feedback capabilities, can also be used as input‐output device.
 Speaker: Speakers are devices which converts digital signals to sound waves signals
which can be heard. It provides feedback from computer.
  Printer: Printers can convert digital data from the computer and prints them on the
paper in readable form. Printer are of different types such as Dot Matrix, Laser Printer,
Inkjet Printers, Thermal Printers, and Plotter etc.
‐ System Cabinet: System Cabinet are the main system unit. Sometimes it is also simply
referred as CPU. It is the enclosure which houses all the important peripherals of the
computer. Let us look each in brief…
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): Central Processing Unit is the brain of the computer. All
the processing is done in CPU. It control workflow to the computer. It is divided in two
main units, i.e.; Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): ALU performs the process on the Raw Data to convert
into Information. It performs arithmetic operation such as subtraction, addition,
multiplication and division. It also performs logical operation such as comparisons.
 Control Unit (CU): CU controls overall workflow of the data and instructions. It
manages and coordinates with all units of computer. It is responsible to collect
data from input device, store in memory, and direct data to ALU to process and
then display information on output device.
 Memory: Memory are used for storing data, instructions and information during the
process carried out by CPU. Memory are classified in two types, Primary Memory and
Secondary Memory.
 Primary Memory: Primary Memory storage provides memory to save data during
the process done by CPU. They are fast and volatile in nature. Eg. RAM
 Secondary Memory: Secondary Memory storage are slower than primary storage
and permanent in nature. They store final information that needed to be store for
long duration. Eg. Hard‐Disk
 Motherboard: Motherboard are system board which houses all the components. These
components are interconnect through bus line. Data signal flows through bus lines.
 Power Supply Unit (PSU): PSU also known as Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
provides required electric charge to computer system. They have transformer unit
which converts AC supply to variable DC supply as per requirement.Units of Computer &
its Functions

Introduction to Software
Software is set of instructions given by the humanware to the computer system to perform a
specific task. These instructions are set of codes or program written by the programmer and
developers, who build application or software for computer automation. Software is coded in High
Level or Low level Language. These codes are then converted into the binary system and respective
task is performed by the computer system. Software are further classified into two types i.e. System
Software and Application Software.

System Software
System software is software that is intended to computer system to perform various tasks.
This software performs task which includes core operations of the system to managements of
various devices, applications and users. This software also acts as an platform for users or
humanware to interact with system. System software are classified into Operating System,
Development Software and Utility Program.
 Operating System: Operating System is the most important of all software as it is directly related
to operation of the system. This software are responsible for working and management of
various devices in the system. It performs all the basic task related to managing of files,
processing of tasks and memory allocation and management. It is a interface between the
computer system and the user. Eg. Windows, Linux, Mac OS, Android
Development Software: Development software is a tool which enables the developer to build
and develop application software and even system software. This software can be written in High
level or Low level language. This software is a tool through which users can automate complex or
day to day routine tasks, develop web application and many more. Eg. BASIC, C, C++, HTML, PHP
etc.
Utility Program: Utility Program is the software which work conjointly or independently with
Operating Software. This program is responsible for the management of system resources. These
programs are part of operating system such as Drivers, Disk Management Tool, Defragmenter,
Scheduler or installed later on in form of Antivirus Software, Printer Driver Software, VPN & FTP
softwares.

Application Software
Application Software are the computer programs intended for the use of the end‐users to
perform a specific tasks. This software are design by the software developers. This software are used
in day to day work, automation works such as word processing, image editing, illustration work,
design work etc. They are used in home, offices by the end‐users, hence it is also called the End‐User
Software /Program. They are further classified into following…
General Purpose Software: This software are used for general purpose task such as word
processing, accounting etc. This are used at home and offices for their general tasks. These are
used in almost all the computer system. Best example of this software is, the most widely used
productivity software Microsoft Office Suite. As this software comes in suite i.e.; two or more
application is bundled in one package software. This allows user to improve the productivity,
hence they are also called Productivity Software. Web browser are also consider as general
purpose software used for Internet browsing and surfing.

Specific Purpose Software: This software are used for performing specific tasks. These task may
be of specialised in nature. This could be related image, illustration, media, engineering etc. This
software are used by the end user with special training related to software and task. This
software are mainly single package. Examples of Specific Software are as follows…

Specific Software Use of Software

Adobe Photoshop Image Editing
Corel Draw Illustration & Vector Editing
Tally Accounting
Audacity Audio Editing
Adobe Premiere Video Editing
VLC Player Media Player
AutoCAD Engineering Drafting
MySQL Database Management
Operating System
Operating System or OS is system software which manages computer hardware and
software resources, provides services for computer program. It manages all the process done and
memory management required. Operating System is further classified into following types…

Batch Operating System: Batch Operating system were used in earliest computer system. Users
do not directly interact with computer. Every time to use it, a list of job with same system
requirement were grouped into batches and given to the Operator, who would then interact with
the system to carry out the task. It was responsibility of Operator to Sort the programs with
similar requirements.
The disadvantage of this OS were that the user needed operator to carry out task form
computer system. CPU were often ideal as the process of input and output were slow. The
system was hard to debug and would not provide desired output.

Time Sharing Operating System: A time shared operating system allows multiple users to share
computers simultaneously. Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work
smoothly. Each user gets the time of CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also
known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or different users also. The
time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. OS switches to next task as the earlier task
is completed.
The advantage of this OS were that the user get equal opportunity to perform its tasks. CPU
ideal time has reduced as compare to Batch OS. Disadvantages of this OS is that one must have
to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data. There were reliability of
system.

Distributed Operating System: A Distributed Operating System is a system software over a

collection of independent, networked, communicating, and physically separate computer system.
These types of the operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer
technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that too, with a great pace.
Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other using a shared
communication network. Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These
are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. The most important benefit is
that users are able to remotely access and preform task on computer connected to the main
server or the remote computer.
Advantage of Distributed OS is as follows…
 Reduces the load on host computer
 Resources are shared, hence computation is fast and reliable
 System can be scaled‐up as required
 E‐mail services are the best examples of such system
Disadvantage of Distributed OS is as follows…
 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
 To establish distributed systems the language which is used are highly complexes.
 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive.

Network Operating System: Network Operating Systems run on a server and client model. It
provide the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking
 functions. These types of operating systems allow shared access of files, printers, security,
applications, and other networking functions over a small private network. One more important
aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the underlying
configuration, of all other users within the network, their individual connections, etc. These
computers are popularly known as tightly coupled systems.
Advantages of Network Operating System are as follows…
 Highly stable centralized servers
 Security concerns are handled through servers
 New technologies and hardware up‐gradation are easily integrated into the system
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems
Disadvantages of Network Operating System:
 Servers are costly
 User has to depend on a central location for most operations
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly

Real Time Operating System: A Real Time Operating System (RTOS) is an operating system
for real‐time applications that processes data and events that have critically defined time
constraints. Time taken for process and response is called as Response Time. An RTOS manages
the sharing of system resources with a scheduler, data buffers, or fixed task prioritization in a
multitasking or multiprogramming environment. Processing time requirements need to be fully
understood and just kept as a minimum. All processing must occur within the defined constraints.
Real‐time operating systems are capable of monitoring the relevant priority of competing tasks,
and make changes to the task priority. Real‐time systems are used when there are time
requirements that are very strict like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, medical
systems etc.
Two types of Real‐Time Operating System which are as follows…
 Hard Real‐Time Systems: This OS is implemented where time constraints are very
strict. Used in medical systems, airbags, parachutes systems etc.
 Soft Real‐Time Systems: These OS are used for applications where for time‐
constraint is less strict.

Functions of Operating System

Operating System of computer are necessary for the efficient working. This program are
well defined and structured to perform desired tasks. Its functions and features can be described as
follows…
Hardware Resource Manager: All the physical component of the computer system is
interconnected and managed by the OS. Input and Output devices are connected through the
program called Drivers. They enables interconnection with the system and CPU.
Process Management: CPU performs the tasks in the system. OS keeps the status of every tasks
and schedules the processor to perform the tasks. It manages the various task according to the
priority of executions and frees the processor once it is executed.
Memory Management: CPU keeps the track of process in assistance with OS. All the required
data and instructions are being fetched by the processor and saved in the memory. OS provides
space and allocates the location for saving it on the memory. OS keeps the track of the data
 saved and frees up once the process is completed. It can also swap the data to secondary storage
for further use. All the management of memory is done by the OS.
Storage Management: Storage medium such as Hard‐Disk or other secondary storage are also
managed and connected to system by the OS. Once the data is processed and result is acquired
on the output devices, they allow users to store the resultant information to storage devices. OS
and Software Application are also stored on the hard disk of the system. Hence OS manages the
storage of software and data.
User Interface: Computer system is managed by the OS. All the process are carried out as per the
programmed by the developers. The users interact with the system through a medium called
User Interface or UI. The user interface can be either Graphical User Interface (GUI) or
character/Text User Interface (TUI). It is a platform through which data is given as input and also
receives resultant as output.
Application Management: Various Application Software are installed on the OS. It provides a
layer on which these application are installed and are managed through it. They enable proper
functioning of these application. It enables application to interact with computer resources and
perform tasks.
User & Group Management: User accounts are created and customised user desktop are
provided to the user as per the group policy. Similar to the user account, multiple users group is
also created. Users and Group Management policies are implemented as per the requirement.
Security of accounts and resources availability are managed through such polices.
Security Management: Security of account and security of resources are implemented by OS in
order to efficient working of the system. The process are scheduled and secured from
intervention by other unauthorised events or process. They enable error free process does
eliminating bugs.

Boot Process of System

Booting is basically the process of starting the computer. When the CPU is first switched on
it has nothing inside the system Memory. In order to start the Computer, Operating System has to
be loaded to system memory. The process of switching ON the computer to displaying Desktop on
the monitor is called Boot Process. Lots of the background process goes on during the boot process.
Computer Boot Process are of two types Hard (Cold) Boot & Soft Boot. Hard Boot is the boot process
when computer is switched ON from the switched OFF state. Whereas Soft Boot is rebooting of
computer from ON state.

Boot Sequence of System

Boot sequence of the computer involve start‐up sequence called POST. POST stands for
Power On Self‐Test. Whenever you switch ON the computer, system firmware BIOS (Basic Input
Output System) triggers the POST. During the POST, all the computer components and resources
including I/O devices are initiated and checked for their proper working. Once the POST is
successfully done, CPU of the system takes initiative and searches for Hard Disk Drive for MBR
(Master Boot Record). MBR is then loaded into System Memory. MBR then loads the Boot Loader
present in MBR. Boot Loader are Operating System specific. Depending on the OS Boot Loader (Grub
for Linux, Windows NT, NTLDR, Bootmgr etc. for Windows) OS is loaded in the Memory. Once the
Operating System is initiated, it performs various task related to Driver, System program and
Services initialisation, Security and Account policy are activated to the User Desktop. Finally the
Login Screen and Desktop is displayed.

Windows Operating System

Windows are the widely used Operating System for Home/Office computers. It is very
intuitive and User friendly. It provides very attractive and user specific interface to interaction with
the system. It provides Graphical User Interface (GUI) for interaction with computer system. It
manages all the hardware resources including Input‐Output devices. It provide customized Desktop
for the Users as per the User and Group Policies. Users can carry out various tasks and work on
Windows OS. Windows provides platform for various Application software to be installed and run on
it. It also provide Security system for users and applications.

Windows OS Important Terms

 File: Files are container that saves the data. Users created data in various format, it may be
text, image, audio, video or codes. All these data has to be organized and saved to a specific
container unit called as File. The File in the system is given alpha‐numeric name by the user
to identify uniquely. Along with the file name a file extension name is followed with a dot
(‘.’). This is to identify and associate the program for executing it. Eg. “TestFile.docx”; here
‘TestFile’ is the File name and ‘.docx’ is the Extension name which denotes it is a Word
Document file and will open with the Word Process program.
 Directory: Directory is the container for saving the file or number of files. Directory can save
directory called sub‐directory into it. Word directory is generally used in Linux‐Unix or DOS
OS basically in TUI. In Windows and other GUI it is termed as ‘Folder’ and Sub‐Folder if saved
in Folder.
 Volume: Volume is term used for the partition for storage of data on the Hard Disk. It is a
logical space assigned by the OS. You can name the Volume for identification. User can
create multiple volume in hard disk. Every volume created in the system has a data structure
know as File System (FS) depending on the OS. Windows OS has any one of FAT, FAT32 or
NTFS file system assigned to the volume created.
 Label: Label are the friendly name assigned to File, Directory or Volume. The label names
are limited to character with alpha‐numeric characters.
 Drive Name: Drive name is usually denoted by the alphabet letter with ‘Colon’. Eg. ‘C:’, ‘D:’
or ‘E:’. Every drive on the computer system can have Drive Lable and Drive Name Letter.
Letter ‘A:’ and ‘B:’ are reserved for Floppy Disk drives. Hence the Windows OS drive is
generally denoted by letter ‘C:’. Other drive names proceeds from D: and so on.

Computer Language and Its Type

Computer Language are languages for expressing a set of detailed instructions for a digital
computer. Such instructions can be executed directly when they are in the computer binary systems.
But a User of the system may not necessarily be aware or have knowledge of these binary system.
Hence there was a need for developing such computer language system which would translate the
human understanding instructions to machine acceptable form. This was achieved by developing
translator, assemblers and compilers. They provided an environment to user to create application
program. Such system is called IDE (Integrated Development Environment). Computer Language are
classified in Low‐Level Language and High‐Level Language.
 Low‐level Languages:
In early days of computers, only those languages were used for programming, which could
be directly executed on computer. Languages, which computer can understand directly and are
machine dependent, are called low‐level languages. For example, Machine Language and
Assembly Language are two important low‐level languages. Low‐level languages are used for
development of system software. As they are not used for applications development, managers
or application programmers do not need to learn these languages.
Machine language is the oldest and most difficult of all the languages. It is also known as
First Generation Language. In machine language, all the instructions are given to computer in
binary digits, and hence are directly understood by the computer. There is no need of a
translator. The machine language is already in machine‐understandable form. Execution is fast in
machine language because all data is already present in binary format. Machine language is
hardware dependent.
Assembly language is the more than low level, it is an intermediary language. Assembly
languages use numbers, symbols, and abbreviations instead of 0s and 1s. For example: For
Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplications it uses mnemonics likes Add, Sub, and Mul, etc.
Assembler is used as a translator to convert mnemonics into machine‐understandable form.
Execution is slow as compared to machine language. Assembly language is the machine‐
dependent and it is not portable.
High‐level Languages:
Development of applications using low level languages requires a deep understanding of the
hardware. In order to facilitate the programmers to write programs without knowing the internal
details of computer components, many languages were developed. These languages use common
English words and are translated into low‐level languages before processing by the computer.
These languages which computer cannot understand directly and are not machine dependent,
are called High‐Level Languages (HLL). These languages are also known as Third Generation
Languages. Some of the common high‐level languages are
(i) BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code);
(ii) COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language);
(iii) FORTRAN (Formula Translator);
(iv) PASCAL (Name of a Scientist);
(v) C (it does not stand for anything).

Assemblers, Interpreters & Compilers

Assemblers
Assemblers translate the assembly language code (source program) into machine language
code (object program). After assembling, a linker program is used to convert the object program into
an executable program. Assembly language is easier than machine language, and is known as Second
Generation Language. In assembly language, 33 instructions are given using mnemonic operation
codes (such as ADD, MUL etc.) instead of binary digits. The Microsoft Assembler Program (MASM)
and Borland Turbo Assembler Program (TASM) are two popular assemblers. Assemblers are used
mainly in development of system software.
Interpreters
Instructions of a high‐level language are coded in many statements. At the time of their execution,
they are converted into machine code statement by statement, by using system software, called
Interpreters. For example, programs written in BASIC language are executed by using BASIC A or
GWBASIC interpreters. Programs written in some fourth generation languages, like dBASE III plus are
also executed using dBASE interpreter. There are certain disadvantages of interpreters. As
instructions are translated and executed simultaneously using interpreters, they are very slow for
executing large programs. Hence, interpreters are not suitable for most of applications
development.

Compilers:
In contrast to interpreters, compilers provide faster execution speed. Compilers do not translate and
execute the instructions at the same Time. They translate the entire program (source code) into
machine code (object code). Using linker, the object code is converted into executable code.
Compilers are widely used in translating codes of high level languages (e.g. COBOL, FORTRAN,
PASCAL, Turbo/ Quick BASIC, Turbo/ Microsoft C etc.) and fourth generation languages (dBASE IV,
Foxpro etc.). As compared to interpreters or assemblers, they are preferred in development of
application software.
 Computer Memory
Computer Memory is a device or system that is used to store data and instructions which is
then processes by the CPU of computer to obtain information. This information is then again stored
in memory for further process or use. Memory is the electronic holding place for the instructions
and data a computer needs to reach quickly. It's where information is stored for immediate use.
Memory is one of the basic functions of a computer, because without it, a computer would not be
able to function properly. Computer memory are then classified into Primary Memory and
Secondary Memory as per their application in computer system. The basic units of memory is Byte.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off; hence it is also known
as volatile memory. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are fast as
compared to Secondary Memory. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the
main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

RAM (Random Access Memory):

RAM is the hardware in a computing device where the operating system (OS), application
programs and data in current use are kept so they can be quickly reached by the CPU. RAM is the
main memory in a computer. It is much faster to read from and write to than other kinds of storage,
such as a hard disk drive (HDD), solid‐state drive (SSD) or optical drive. Random Access Memory is
volatile. That means data is retained in RAM as long as the computer is ON, but it is lost when the
computer is turned OFF. When the computer is booted or rebooted, the OS and other files are
reloaded into RAM, usually from an HDD or SSD.

There are two types of RAM. Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM). In the
computer system we use DRAM as the main memory. Currently we use DDR‐4 type of memory in
our computer system. Static RAM or SRAM are also present in the computer system. They are faster
than DRAM and expensive too. Hence they are used as Cache Memory in the computer devices.

ROM (Random Access Memory):

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non‐volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer
but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven. ROM are of following
types…

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): PROM is read‐only memory that can be modified only
once by a manufacturer or user. Manufacturer may install PROM on devices and program it for its
function. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be
programmed only once and is not erasable. Eg. CMOS, CD‐R (Compact Disc Read Only)

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): As the name suggest it is PROM which
can be erased and re‐programed. EPROM is erased by exposing it to ultra‐violet light for a long
duration of time. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. For erasing a ultra‐violet light is
passed through a quartz crystal window (lid).

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): EEPROM is programmed
and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing
and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively
erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire
chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow. Eg. CMOS, BIOS, CD‐RW (Compact
Disc Rewrite)

Advantages of ROM: The advantages of ROM are as follows…

 Non‐volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified

Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is computer memory that is non‐volatile and persistent in nature and is
not directly accessed by a computer/processor. It allows a user to store data that may be instantly
and easily retrieved, transported and used by applications and services. Secondary memory is also
known as secondary storage. Secondary memory consists of all permanent or persistent storage
devices, such as read‐only memory (ROM), flash drives, hard disk drives (HDD), magnetic tapes and
other types of internal/external storage media. In computing operations, secondary memory is
accessed only by the primary or main memory and later transported to the processor. Secondary
memory is slower than primary memory but can store and retain data, even if the computer is not
connected to electrical power. It also has substantial storage capacities, ranging from megabytes to
several terabytes of storage space within single memory. Secondary Memory can be classified into
two types, Fixed Storage and Removable Storage.

Fixed Storage: Fixed storage is an internal media device that is fixed or attached inside of computer
system. Fixed storage is generally known as fixed disk drives or hard drives. Generally, the data of
the computer system is stored in a built‐in fixed storage device. Fixed storage cannot be removed
while system is ON or it is working. Fixed storage does not mean that you cannot remove them from
the computer system, you can remove the fixed storage device for repairing, for the upgrade, or for
maintenance, etc. with the help of an expert or engineer. Eg. Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Solid State Drive
(SSD).

Removable Storage: Removable storage is an external media device that is used to store data in a
computer system. Removable storage is generally known as external drives. It is a storage device
that can be inserted or removed from the computer according to our requirements. We can easily
remove them from the computer system while the computer system is running. Removable storage
devices are portable so we can easily transfer data from one computer to another. Also, removable
storage devices provide the fast data transfer rates associated with storage area networks (SANs).
Eg. Optical Drives (CD, DVD), Memory Cards, Flash drives, External HDD.

Memory Size Units

Memory of a Computer is any physical device that is capable of storing information whether
it is large or small and stores it temporarily or permanently. All the devices store certain amount of
data or information into it. This can take a specific size into the memory and it is defined by the unit
known as Byte.
As we know that, data stored in the computer system is in binary form i.e. 0’s and 1’s. Each and
every data stored are converted to its binary form and saved in the memory. This binary digits are
grouped in 8 bit to form a Byte. Hence Byte is basic unit of memory. Example is as follows…
 Alphabet ‘A’ has a value 65 in ASCII table. Thus while storing value of ‘A’, it is first converted
to binary form and saved. ‘A’ = 65 = 0100 0001 = 1 Byte.

Units of Memory
8 Bit 1 Byte
1024 Byte 1 Kilo Byte
1024 Kilo Byte 1 Mega Byte
1024 Mega Byte 1 Giga Byte
1024 Giga Byte 1 Tera Byte
1024 Tera Byte 1 Peta Byte
1024 Peta Byte 1 Exa Byte
1024 Exa Byte 1 Zetta Byte
1024 Zetta Byte 1 Yotta Byte
 Computer Software
Introduction to Software
Software is set of instructions given by the humanware to the computer system to perform a
specific task. These instructions are set of codes or program written by the programmer and
developers, who build application or software for computer automation. Software is coded in High
Level or Low level Language. These codes are then converted into the binary system and respective
task is performed by the computer system. Software are further classified into two types i.e. System
Software and Application Software.

System Software
System software is software that is intended to computer system to perform various tasks.
This software performs task which includes core operations of the system to managements of
various devices, applications and users. This software also acts as an platform for users or
humanware to interact with system. System software are classified into Operating System,
Development Software and Utility Program.
Operating System: Operating System is the most important of all software as it is directly related
to operation of the system. This software are responsible for working and management of
various devices in the system. It performs all the basic task related to managing of files,
processing of tasks and memory allocation and management. It is a interface between the
computer system and the user. Eg. Windows, Linux, Mac OS, Android
Development Software: Development software is a tool which enables the developer to build
and develop application software and even system software. This software can be written in High
level or Low level language. This software is a tool through which users can automate complex or
day to day routine tasks, develop web application and many more. Eg. BASIC, C, C++, HTML, PHP
etc.
Utility Program: Utility Program is the software which work conjointly or independently with
Operating Software. This program is responsible for the management of system resources. These
programs are part of operating system such as Drivers, Disk Management Tool, Defragmenter,
Scheduler or installed later on in form of Antivirus Software, Printer Driver Software, VPN & FTP
softwares.

Application Software
Application Software are the computer programs intended for the use of the end‐users to
perform a specific tasks. This software are design by the software developers. This software are used
in day to day work, automation works such as word processing, image editing, illustration work,
design work etc. They are used in home, offices by the end‐users, hence it is also called the End‐User
Software /Program. They are further classified into following…
General Purpose Software: This software are used for general purpose task such as word
processing, accounting etc. This are used at home and offices for their general tasks. These are
used in almost all the computer system. Best example of this software is, the most widely used
productivity software Microsoft Office Suite. As this software comes in suite i.e.; two or more
application is bundled in one package software. This allows user to improve the productivity,
hence they are also called Productivity Software. Web browser are also consider as general
purpose software used for Internet browsing and surfing.
 Specific Purpose Software: This software are used for performing specific tasks. These task may
be of specialised in nature. This could be related image, illustration, media, engineering etc. This
software are used by the end user with special training related to software and task. This
software are mainly single package. Examples of Specific Software are as follows…

Specific Software Use of Software

Adobe Photoshop Image Editing
Corel Draw Illustration & Vector Editing
Tally Accounting
Audacity Audio Editing
Adobe Premiere Video Editing
VLC Player Media Player
AutoCAD Engineering Drafting
MySQL Database Management

Operating System
Operating System or OS is system software which manages computer hardware and
software resources, provides services for computer program. It manages all the process done and
memory management required. Operating System is further classified into following types…
Batch Operating System: Batch Operating system were used in earliest computer system. Users
do not directly interact with computer. Every time to use it, a list of job with same system
requirement were grouped into batches and given to the Operator, who would then interact with
the system to carry out the task. It was responsibility of Operator to Sort the programs with
similar requirements.
The disadvantage of this OS were that the user needed operator to carry out task form
computer system. CPU were often ideal as the process of input and output were slow. The
system was hard to debug and would not provide desired output.

Time Sharing Operating System: A time shared operating system allows multiple users to share
computers simultaneously. Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work
smoothly. Each user gets the time of CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also
known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or different users also. The
time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. OS switches to next task as the earlier task
is completed.
The advantage of this OS were that the user get equal opportunity to perform its tasks. CPU
ideal time has reduced as compare to Batch OS. Disadvantages of this OS is that one must have
to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data. There were reliability of
system.

Distributed Operating System: A Distributed Operating System is a system software over a

collection of independent, networked, communicating, and physically separate computer system.
These types of the operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer
technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that too, with a great pace.
Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other using a shared
communication network. Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These
are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. The most important benefit is
that users are able to remotely access and preform task on computer connected to the main
server or the remote computer.
Advantage of Distributed OS is as follows…
 Reduces the load on host computer
 Resources are shared, hence computation is fast and reliable
 System can be scaled‐up as required
 E‐mail services are the best examples of such system
Disadvantage of Distributed OS is as follows…
 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
 To establish distributed systems the language which is used are highly complexes.
 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive.

Network Operating System: Network Operating Systems run on a server and client model. It
provide the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking
functions. These types of operating systems allow shared access of files, printers, security,
applications, and other networking functions over a small private network. One more important
aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the underlying
configuration, of all other users within the network, their individual connections, etc. These
computers are popularly known as tightly coupled systems.
Advantages of Network Operating System are as follows…
 Highly stable centralized servers
 Security concerns are handled through servers
 New technologies and hardware up‐gradation are easily integrated into the system
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems
Disadvantages of Network Operating System:
 Servers are costly
 User has to depend on a central location for most operations
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly

Real Time Operating System: A Real Time Operating System (RTOS) is an operating system
for real‐time applications that processes data and events that have critically defined time
constraints. Time taken for process and response is called as Response Time. An RTOS manages
the sharing of system resources with a scheduler, data buffers, or fixed task prioritization in a
multitasking or multiprogramming environment. Processing time requirements need to be fully
understood and just kept as a minimum. All processing must occur within the defined constraints.
Real‐time operating systems are capable of monitoring the relevant priority of competing tasks,
and make changes to the task priority. Real‐time systems are used when there are time
requirements that are very strict like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, medical
systems etc.
Two types of Real‐Time Operating System which are as follows…
 Hard Real‐Time Systems: This OS is implemented where time constraints are very
strict. Used in medical systems, airbags, parachutes systems etc.
 Soft Real‐Time Systems: These OS are used for applications where for time‐
constraint is less strict.
Functions of Operating System
Operating System of computer are necessary for the efficient working. This program are
well defined and structured to perform desired tasks. Its functions and features can be described as
follows…
Hardware Resource Manager: All the physical component of the computer system is
interconnected and managed by the OS. Input and Output devices are connected through the
program called Drivers. They enables interconnection with the system and CPU.
Process Management: CPU performs the tasks in the system. OS keeps the status of every tasks
and schedules the processor to perform the tasks. It manages the various task according to the
priority of executions and frees the processor once it is executed.
Memory Management: CPU keeps the track of process in assistance with OS. All the required
data and instructions are being fetched by the processor and saved in the memory. OS provides
space and allocates the location for saving it on the memory. OS keeps the track of the data
saved and frees up once the process is completed. It can also swap the data to secondary storage
for further use. All the management of memory is done by the OS.
Storage Management: Storage medium such as Hard‐Disk or other secondary storage are also
managed and connected to system by the OS. Once the data is processed and result is acquired
on the output devices, they allow users to store the resultant information to storage devices. OS
and Software Application are also stored on the hard disk of the system. Hence OS manages the
storage of software and data.
User Interface: Computer system is managed by the OS. All the process are carried out as per the
programmed by the developers. The users interact with the system through a medium called
User Interface or UI. The user interface can be either Graphical User Interface (GUI) or
character/Text User Interface (TUI). It is a platform through which data is given as input and also
receives resultant as output.
Application Management: Various Application Software are installed on the OS. It provides a
layer on which these application are installed and are managed through it. They enable proper
functioning of these application. It enables application to interact with computer resources and
perform tasks.
User & Group Management: User accounts are created and customised user desktop are
provided to the user as per the group policy. Similar to the user account, multiple users group is
also created. Users and Group Management policies are implemented as per the requirement.
Security of accounts and resources availability are managed through such polices.
Security Management: Security of account and security of resources are implemented by OS in
order to efficient working of the system. The process are scheduled and secured from
intervention by other unauthorised events or process. They enable error free process does
eliminating bugs.

Boot Process of System

Booting is basically the process of starting the computer. When the CPU is first switched on
it has nothing inside the system Memory. In order to start the Computer, Operating System has to
be loaded to system memory. The process of switching ON the computer to displaying Desktop on
the monitor is called Boot Process. Lots of the background process goes on during the boot process.
Computer Boot Process are of two types Hard (Cold) Boot & Soft Boot. Hard Boot is the boot process
when computer is switched ON from the switched OFF state. Whereas Soft Boot is rebooting of
computer from ON state.

Boot Sequence of System

Boot sequence of the computer involve start‐up sequence called POST. POST stands for
Power On Self‐Test. Whenever you switch ON the computer, system firmware BIOS (Basic Input
Output System) triggers the POST. During the POST, all the computer components and resources
including I/O devices are initiated and checked for their proper working. Once the POST is
successfully done, CPU of the system takes initiative and searches for Hard Disk Drive for MBR
(Master Boot Record). MBR is then loaded into System Memory. MBR then loads the Boot Loader
present in MBR. Boot Loader are Operating System specific. Depending on the OS Boot Loader (Grub
for Linux, Windows NT, NTLDR, Bootmgr etc. for Windows) OS is loaded in the Memory. Once the
Operating System is initiated, it performs various task related to Driver, System program and
Services initialisation, Security and Account policy are activated to the User Desktop. Finally the
Login Screen and Desktop is displayed.

Windows Operating System

Windows are the widely used Operating System for Home/Office computers. It is very
intuitive and User friendly. It provides very attractive and user specific interface to interaction with
the system. It provides Graphical User Interface (GUI) for interaction with computer system. It
manages all the hardware resources including Input‐Output devices. It provide customized Desktop
for the Users as per the User and Group Policies. Users can carry out various tasks and work on
Windows OS. Windows provides platform for various Application software to be installed and run on
it. It also provide Security system for users and applications.

Windows OS Important Terms

 File: Files are container that saves the data. Users created data in various format, it may be
text, image, audio, video or codes. All these data has to be organized and saved to a specific
container unit called as File. The File in the system is given alpha‐numeric name by the user
to identify uniquely. Along with the file name a file extension name is followed with a dot
(‘.’). This is to identify and associate the program for executing it. Eg. “TestFile.docx”; here
‘TestFile’ is the File name and ‘.docx’ is the Extension name which denotes it is a Word
Document file and will open with the Word Process program.
 Directory: Directory is the container for saving the file or number of files. Directory can save
directory called sub‐directory into it. Word directory is generally used in Linux‐Unix or DOS
OS basically in TUI. In Windows and other GUI it is termed as ‘Folder’ and Sub‐Folder if saved
in Folder.
 Volume: Volume is term used for the partition for storage of data on the Hard Disk. It is a
logical space assigned by the OS. You can name the Volume for identification. User can
create multiple volume in hard disk. Every volume created in the system has a data structure
know as File System (FS) depending on the OS. Windows OS has any one of FAT, FAT32 or
NTFS file system assigned to the volume created.
 Label: Label are the friendly name assigned to File, Directory or Volume. The label names
are limited to character with alpha‐numeric characters.
  Drive Name: Drive name is usually denoted by the alphabet letter with ‘Colon’. Eg. ‘C:’, ‘D:’
or ‘E:’. Every drive on the computer system can have Drive Lable and Drive Name Letter.
Letter ‘A:’ and ‘B:’ are reserved for Floppy Disk drives. Hence the Windows OS drive is
generally denoted by letter ‘C:’. Other drive names proceeds from D: and so on.

Computer Language and Its Type

Computer Language are languages for expressing a set of detailed instructions for a digital
computer. Such instructions can be executed directly when they are in the computer binary systems.
But a User of the system may not necessarily be aware or have knowledge of these binary system.
Hence there was a need for developing such computer language system which would translate the
human understanding instructions to machine acceptable form. This was achieved by developing
translator, assemblers and compilers. They provided an environment to user to create application
program. Such system is called IDE (Integrated Development Environment). Computer Language are
classified in Low‐Level Language and High‐Level Language.
Low‐level Languages:
In early days of computers, only those languages were used for programming, which could
be directly executed on computer. Languages, which computer can understand directly and are
machine dependent, are called low‐level languages. For example, Machine Language and
Assembly Language are two important low‐level languages. Machine language is the oldest and
most difficult of all the languages. It is also known as First Generation Language. In machine
language, all the instructions are given to computer in binary digits, and hence are directly
understood by the computer. Low‐level languages are used for development of system software.
As they are not used for applications development, managers or application programmers do not
need to learn these languages.
High‐level Languages:
Development of applications using low level languages requires a deep understanding of the
hardware. In order to facilitate the programmers to write programs without knowing the internal
details of computer components, many languages were developed. These languages use common
English words and are translated into low‐level languages before processing by the computer.
These languages which computer cannot understand directly and are not machine dependent,
are called High‐Level Languages (HLL). These languages are also known as Third Generation
Languages. Some of the common high‐level languages are
(i) BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code);
(ii) COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language);
(iii) FORTRAN (Formula Translator);
(iv) PASCAL (Name of a Scientist);
(v) C (it does not stand for anything).

Assemblers
Assemblers translate the assembly language code (source program) into machine language
code (object program). After assembling, a linker program is used to convert the object program into
an executable program. Assembly language is easier than machine language, and is known as Second
Generation Language. In assembly language, 33 instructions are given using mnemonic operation
codes (such as ADD, MUL etc.) instead of binary digits. The Microsoft Assembler Program (MASM)
and Borland Turbo Assembler Program (TASM) are two popular assemblers. Assemblers are used
mainly in development of system software.

Interpreters
Instructions of a high‐level language are coded in many statements. At the time of their execution,
they are converted into machine code statement by statement, by using system software, called
Interpreters. For example, programs written in BASIC language are executed by using BASIC A or
GWBASIC interpreters. Programs written in some fourth generation languages, like dBASE III plus are
also executed using dBASE interpreter. There are certain disadvantages of interpreters. As
instructions are translated and executed simultaneously using interpreters, they are very slow for
executing large programs. Hence, interpreters are not suitable for most of applications
development.

Compilers:
In contrast to interpreters, compilers provide faster execution speed. Compilers do not translate and
execute the instructions at the same Time. They translate the entire program (source code) into
machine code (object code). Using linker, the object code is converted into executable code.
Compilers are widely used in translating codes of high level languages (e.g. COBOL, FORTRAN,
PASCAL, Turbo/ Quick BASIC, Turbo/ Microsoft C etc.) and fourth generation languages (dBASE IV,
Foxpro etc.). As compared to interpreters or assemblers, they are preferred in development of
application software.
 INPUT & OUTPUT DEVICES
Input Device
An input device is a computer device that allows computer users to enter data into a system
and send instructions to the system to execute tasks accordingly. These devices are mainly hardware
like keyboards, mouses, joysticks, etc. Users interact with the computer through Input Device. It is
the first or primary step in the processing of computer data that is done at the Central Processing
Unit (CPU). The delivered signals are received by the CPU which processes them. Input devices can
be classified further as per the modality like visual or audio, discrete or continuous, and direct or
indirect. Some of the main input devices are explained below with their descriptions.

Keyboard: The keyboard is the most fundamental input device of the computer. It is commonly used
to insert data on the computer by using keys mounted on a keyboard. It is connected to the
computer system through Serial RS‐232, PS‐2, USB, Bluetooth or Wi‐Fi connections. There are
different varieties of keys for different purposes like numerals, letters, special characters, and
functions. It is the main input device to command the computer system. Keyboard can be classified
as per following types…

 Keyboard on the layout basis

 QWERTY keyboard
 Dvoark keyboard
 Keyboard on basis of keys
 Membrane Keyboard
 Mechanical Keyboard
 Keyboard on basis of form layout
 Standard Keyboard
 Multimedia Keyboard
 Ergonomic Keyboard
 Flexible Keyboard
Mouse: A Mouse is a handheld device that enables computer users to move the cursor point on the
computer screen. A mouse consists of two buttons namely left and right, and scroll on its top
portion. It works on a flat surface to select and move the mouse around. It is connected to the
computer system through Serial RS‐232, PS‐2, USB, Bluetooth or Wi‐Fi connections. Mouse can be
classified as per following types…

 Mouse on basis of types

 Mechanical Mouse
 Optical Mouse
 Mouse on basis of Connection
 Wired Mouse
 Wireless Mouse
 Mouse on basis Application
 Gaming Mouse
 Ergonomic Mouse
 Trackball Mouse
Scanner: A scanner is an input device that can scan different types of files of different formats like
images or text and then convert them into digital signals. It can bring the document files to the
computer screen by converting these files into a digital format. It operates like a photocopy machine
to make the written information or data on a computer screen from paper. Scanner can be further
distinguished as…

 Scanner on basis of types

 Flatbed Scanner
 Automatic Document Feeder (ADF)
 Overhead Scanner
 Handheld Scanner
Joy Stick: Joystick comprises a stick connected to the base at an angle so that it can be easily moved
and controlled. It is mainly applied in controlling the movement of characters in video games. It is
also employed in the cockpit of an airplane, wheelchairs, cranes, and trucks to regulate them
properly. Its function is also to move the cursor on the screen but it is not like a mouse.

Light Pen: A light pen is a pointing input device that is in a pen‐like structure. It allows computer
users to select options on the screen and even draw on the screen. It is light‐sensitive equipment as
photocells are inbuilt in this device that allows the flow of instructions to the CPU. It is generally
used with a cathode ray tube (CRT) of the computer.

Microphone: A microphone is an inbuilt voice input device in which different sounds can be
collected in their digital form. This input device converts sound instructions into electrical signals. It
has to be linked with an amplifier for recording or reproducing the sound.

Barcode Reader: A barcode reader is a type of optical scanner device. It can read and understand
the bar code data attached to goods, books, etc. It is like a reading device that throws a ray of light
on a bar code and then the aspects and details of that particular item are displayed on the screen.

Some other types of Input Devices that are used as follows…

 Physical Control Device

 Stylus
 Graphic Tablet
 Joystick, Gamepad, Steering Wheel

Input Device
An output device is a computer device that displays the result of the inserted input data
after getting processed from the CPU. CPU of a computer converts received information from
machine language to a human‐friendly language and then sends these signals to output devices to
execute the tasks as per entered data. These output devices are mainly hardware like printers,
monitors, speakers, etc. When the data entered by the input devices is processed by the CPU of the
computer then the output devices take care of the result. These results after processing of data may
be in image, graphic, textual or audio form. The output devices display the visual contents on the
monitor screen while sound contents are delivered to the speaker connected to a computer. Some
of the main output devices are explained below with their descriptions.

Monitor: The monitor is the main output device that displays all the data related to icons, text,
images, etc. on its screen. When we enter the command to the computer to execute an action, then
the outcome of that action is displayed on the screen of the monitor. Different types of monitors
have been developed over time can be classified as follows…

 Monitor Types
 Cathode Ray Tube Monitor
 Flat Panel Monitor
‐ LCD‐LED Monitor
‐ Curve Monitor
‐ OLED Monitor
 Monitor Connection Types
 VGA (Visual Display Array)
 DVI (Digital Video Interface)
 HDMI (High Definition Media Interface)
 Monitor Panel Types
 Twisted Nematic
 Vertical Alignment
 In‐Plane Switching
 Resolution
 Pixel
 DPI
 Resolution
‐ HD (1366x768)
‐ FHD (1920x1080)
‐ UHD (3840x2160)

Printer: A Printer is an output device that produces a copy of the pictorial or textual files generally
over a page. Its primary function is to print the information on paper. For example, an writer types a
complete book on his computer system. He has to take a printout of it in the form of paper so that
the book can be reviewed and later published. There are different types of printers in the market for
different purposes are as follows…

 Printer Types
 Dot Matrix Printer: A dot matrix printer is an impact printer that prints using a fixed
number of pins or wires. Typically the pins or wires are arranged in one or several
vertical columns. The pins strike an ink‐coated ribbon and force contact between the
ribbon and the paper, so that each pin makes a small dot on the paper. The
combination of these dots forms a dot matrix image. They were also known as serial dot
matrix printers.
 Ink‐Jet Printers: An inkjet printer is a computer peripheral that produces hard copies of
a text document or photo by spraying droplets of ink onto paper. A typical inkjet printer
can produce colour printing copies with a resolution of 1200 x 1440 dpi.
  Laser Printer: A laser printer is a type of printer that uses a laser and electrical charge
model instead of the traditional printing of ink onto paper. Laser printers prints with
typical resolution of 600 DPI or higher. In a laser print operation, a laser beam fires on a
mechanical cylinder known as a photoreceptor (Drum). This results in a pattern on the
photoreceptor that gets coated with toner. Because of electrical charges, the toner
sticks to the paper in patterns that are dictated by the software used to print. Finally,
the paper is heated in order to fuse the toner to the paper.
 Thermal Printer: Thermal printer is a digital printer which produces a printed image by
passing paper with a thermochromic coating, commonly known as thermal paper, over
a print head consisting of tiny electrically heated elements. The coating turns black in
the areas where it is heated, producing an image.
 Plotter Types: Plotters are specialized pieces of equipment designed to print out vector
graphics in a variety of colours. They are used for commercial purpose.
‐ Drum Plotter
‐ Flatbed Plotter
‐ Ink‐Jet Plotter
 3D Printer: 3D printer constructs or layers the objects in three‐dimension from a CAD
model or a digital 3D model. It can be done in a processes of depositing material under
computer controlled. PLA (Polyactic acid) is widely used as filament to fuse it into
object. 3D printing techniques were considered suitable only for the production of
functional or aesthetic prototypes. 3D Printing is also known as Additive Manufacturing.
Speakers: A Speaker is an output device that converts electrical instructions into a sound signal. It
helps you to listen to sound signals as an outcome of what you enter data into a computer. It is a
hardware device that may or may not be attached to the computer system. Now, speakers are
becoming wireless devices and can be linked with systems with the help of Bluetooth or else.

Projector: A Projector is the output and optical device that presents visual contents like moving or
stationary images on the screen. These projecting devices are generally applied in auditoriums and
cinema theatres for screening videos and lighting effects. Once a projector is linked to a computer
system then the content displayed on the projection screen will be the same as displayed on the
Monitor screen. The difference here is that projector displays contents on the bigger screens.

Headphones: The headphones operate on the same principles as a speaker operates. The only
difference between headphones and speaker is the frequency of sound. With the help of speakers,
the released sound can cover a larger area while with the help of headphones, the released sound
can cover only a smaller area to make it audible only to a person who is wearing these headphones.
These are also called earphones or headsets.

Other Input - Output Devices

Some of the computer devices which are able to serve both the purpose of input and output
are been used widely in commercial purpose. Some of the handheld devices are also compactible
such feature. Today we can see the mobile phone have this feature as standard. We get display
output, and can also be given feedback through the touch on the display as the input. The touch
panels on the display enables to serve it as Input‐Output device. These device can be of following
types…

 Touch Screen Panels

 Monitor: It is a monitor with touch sensing feature for providing input.
 KIOSK: A KIOSK is an interactive digital display or small structure that provide
information or offer self‐service options for businesses in high‐traffic areas. In today's
fast‐paced environment, kiosks offer a great opportunity to improve store functions and
customer experience.
 VR Headset: A virtual reality (VR) headset is an apparatus that provides virtual reality data
input for a user, and typically is strapped onto the user’s head over the eyes. These
innovative headsets are part of more comprehensive virtual reality systems that affect more
of the human’s five senses in order to create virtual experiences. A virtual reality headset is
also known as a virtual reality visor. VR headsets typically have stereoscopic technology,
which provides a separate image for each of the two eyes. Gyroscopes, accelerometers and
other tools may monitor motion. They are used in gaming industry, virtual reality
simulations for medical and military training as well as other purposes.
 Data Representation
Number System
The Number System is a way to represent or express numbers. In general we know number
systems such as whole numbers, real numbers etc. A computer system only understands numbers. A
computer can understand the positional number system where there are only a few symbols called
digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the
number.
The value of each digit in a number can be determined using…
 The Symbol or Digit
 The Position of the Symbol or Digit in the number
 The base of the number system
(Base is defined as the total number of symbol or digit available in the number system)

Types of Number Systems:

There are two types of Number system…
 Non‐positional number systems.
 Positional number systems

Non‐positional Number Systems:

Non‐positional number system is also known as non‐weighted number system. Symbol value
is independent of its position. Each Symbol represents the same value regardless of its position in
the number. The symbols are simply added to find out the value.
Symbols used may be of many types, but it is mandatory to use same unique symbol at a
time. Thus it is easy to count small, but may be difficult to count or add large number of symbols.

Example of Non‐positional number system:

Symbol Respective Count

I, II, III, IIII, IIIIII,IIIIIIIII 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9
*************************************************** 51

Positional Number Systems:

A Positional Number System is also known as Weighted Number System. As the name
implies there will be a weight associated with each symbol as per its position in the number.
Towards the left the weights increases by a constant factor equivalent to the base or radix. Any
integer value that is greater than or equal to 2 can be used as the base or radix.
They use only few symbols called Digits. Each Digit represents with unique value. The digits
used in this number system are as follows…
Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Value 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
 Base is the factor for defining a Number System. Base determines the total number of digits
used in the Number System. The maximum value of digit in number system is one less than the value
of base. If B is base, then Max Digit Value = (B ‐1)
Number System Base Digit Used Max Digit Value
(B) (B‐1)
Binary 2 0, 1 1

Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 7

Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 9

Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F 15

The value of each digit is determined by:

 The digit itself
‐ The above table will show the value of each digit.
 The position of the digit in the number
‐ Value of digit changes from right to left in increasing order with respect to base.
 The base of the number system
‐ Base defines the Number System

Decimal Number System

Decimal Number System is most widely used number system all around for numerical
calculations. Decimal number system has base of 10. Hence ten digit with unique value are used. The
maximum value of digit in this system is 9. The value of digit changes with respect to the position of
digit in the Number. The value of digit changes from right to left in increasing order. Each position of
is represented by specific power to the base. Decimal Number system is denoted as [Decimal
Number]10
Let ‘B’ be the base, ‘N’ be the position from right to left and ‘D’ is a digit. Hence the value of
digit will be as given…
𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐃𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐭 𝐃 𝑩𝑵
If the Number is ‘2568136’, then the number in Decimal Number System can be given as follows…
Position
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
(N)
Base (B) 10
Digit (D) 2 5 6 8 1 3 6
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Digit 2 x 10 5 x 10 6 x 10 8 x 10 1 x 10 3 x 10 6 x 10
Value 0 2000000 500000 60000 8000 100 30 6

[2568136]10 = (2000000) + (500000) + (60000) + (8000) + (100) + (30) + (6)

[2568136]10 = 2568136
Binary Number System
Binary Number System is a number expressed in the base‐2 numeral system or binary
numeral system, a method of mathematical expression which uses only two Digits: typically "0" and
"1". This is a typical way of representing data in digital form for processing in electronic system. The
maximum value of digit in this system is 2. The value of digit is specific and precise. Digit ‘1’
represents value 1 or Bit ON or value True. Digit ‘0’ represents value 0 or Bit OFF or value False. A
typical binary number is denoted by 1‐Byte or 8‐Bit. Binary Number system is denoted as [Binary
Number]2
If the Binary Number is ‘0001 1001’, then the number in Decimal Number System can be given as
follows…
Bit Position 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Base 2
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Bit Value 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Digit 1 1 0 0 1
Digit Value 0 x 128 0 x 64 0 x 32 1 x 16 1x8 0x4 0x2 1x1

[0001 1001]2 = (1 x 16) + (1 x 8) + (1 x 1)

[0001 1001]2 = [25]10

Octal Number System

Octal Number System is the number system that has base of 10. Hence eight digit with
unique value are used. The maximum value of digit in this system is 7. The value of digit changes
with respect to the position of digit in the Number. The value of digit changes from right to left in
increasing order. Each position of is represented by specific power to the base. Since there are only 8
digits, 3 bits (23 = 8) are sufficient to represent any octal number in binary. Octal Number system is
denoted as [Octal Number]8
Let ‘B’ be the base, ‘N’ be the position from right to left and ‘D’ is a digit. Hence the value of
digit will be as given…
𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐃𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐭 𝐃 𝑩𝑵
If the Octal Number is ‘506’, then the number in Decimal Number System can be given as follows…
Position
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
(N)
Base (B) 8
Digit (D) 5 0 6
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Digit 0x8 0x8 0x8 0x8 0x8 5x8 0x8 6x8
Value 0 0 0 0 0 320 0 6

[506]8 = (320) + (6)

[506]8 = [326]10
Hexadecimal Number System
Hexadecimal Number System is the number system that has base of 16. Hence sixteen digit
with unique value are used. The maximum value of digit in this system is 15. The value of digit
changes with respect to the position of digit in the Number. The value of digit changes from right to
left in increasing order. Each position of is represented by specific power to the base. Since there are
only 16 digits, 4 bits (24 = 8) are sufficient to represent any hexadecimal number in binary.
Hexadecimal Number system is denoted as [Hexadecimal Number]16 . The decimal value of each
digit is as given below.

Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Value 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Let ‘B’ be the base, ‘N’ be the position from right to left and ‘D’ is a digit. Hence the value of
digit will be as given…
𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐃𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐭 𝐃 𝑩𝑵
If the Hexadecimal Number is ‘1AF’, then the number in Decimal Number System can be given as
follows…
Position
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
(N)
Base (B) 16
Digit (D) 1 A F
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Digit 0 x 16 0 x 16 0 x 16 0 x 16 0 x 16 1 x 16 10 x 16 15 x 16
Value 0 0 0 0 0 256 160 15

[1AF]16 = (256) + (160) + (15)

[1AF]16 = [431]10

Conversion of Number Systems

Octal Number to Decimal Number:
Convert [4706]8 into Decimal Number
[4706]8 = (4 x 83) + (7 x 82) + (0 x 81) + (6 x 80)
= (4 x 512) + (7 x 64) + (0 x 8) + (6 x 1)
= (2048) + (448) + (0) + (6)
= [2502]10

Decimal Number to Octal Number:

Convert [245]10 into Octal Number
[245]10 = [ ? ]8 Divide decimal number by 8
8 245 Reminder
30 5
3 6 Since 3 is not divisible by 8, we stop division here

Hence [245]10 = [ 365 ]8 Write in direction of Red Arrow

Hexadecimal Number to Decimal Number:
Convert [2AB]16 into Decimal Number
[2AB]16 = (2 x 162) + (A x 161) + (B x 160)
= (2 x 162) + (10 x 161) + (11 x 160)
= (2 x 256) + (10 x 16) + (11 x 1)
= (512) + (160) + (11)
= [683]10

Decimal Number to Hexadecimal Number:

Convert [386]10 into Hexadecimal Number
[386]10 = [ ? ]16 Divide decimal number by 16
16 386 Reminder
24 2
1 8 Since 1 is not divisible by 16, we stop division here

Hence [245]10 = [ 182 ]8 Write in direction of Red Arrow

Binary Number to Decimal Number:

Convert [00100110]2 into Decimal Number
[00100110]2 = (0 x 27) + (0 x 26) + (1 x 25) + (0 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (0 x 20)
= (0 x 128) + (0 x 64) + (1 x 32) + (0 x 16) + (0 x 8) + (1 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (0 x 1)
= (32) + (4) + (2)
= [38]10

Decimal Number to Binary Number:

Convert [156]10 into Binary Number
[156]10 = [ ? ]2 Divide decimal number by 2
2 156 Reminder
78 0
39 0
19 1
9 1
4 1
2 0
1 0 Since 1 is not divisible by 2, we stop division here

Hence [245]10 = [ 1001 1100 ]2 Write in direction of Red Arrow

 B I N A R Y A D D I T I O N

Que. (100010)2 + (111000)2 (34)10 + (56)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 3 4
+ 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 5 6
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 9 0

Que. (100110)2 + (1001000)2 (38)10 + (72)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 3 8
+ 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 7 2
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
Que. (1010)2 + (100100)2 + (111010)2 (10)10 + (36)10 + (58)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 6
+ 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 5 8
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 4

Que. (1010)2 + (100100)2 + (10010111)2 (10)10 + (36)10 + (151)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 6
+ 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 5 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 9 7
 B I N A R Y S U B T R A C T I O N

Que. (1000000)2 ‐ (100110)2 (64)10 ‐ (38)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
st 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 Level 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2nd Level 0 1 1 1 1 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 4
‐ 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 3 8
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 6

Que. (1001000)2 ‐ (1010)2 (72)10 ‐ (10)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
st
1 Level 0 2 0 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
2nd Level 1 2 2 1 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
3rd Level 1 2
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 7 2
‐ 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 6 2
Que. (110100)2 ‐ (100110)2 (52)10 ‐ (38)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
st 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 Level 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2nd Level 1 2
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 5 2
‐ 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 3 8
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 4

Que. (101101)2 ‐ (100110)2 (45)10 ‐ (38)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
st 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 Level 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2nd Level 2
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 4 5
‐ 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 3 8
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 7
 B I N A R Y M U L T I P L I C A T I O N

Que. (100010)2 × (111000)2 (34)10 × (56)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
210 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 3 4
× 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 5 6
0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 1 0 0 0 1 0
+ 1 0 0 0 1 0
+ 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 9 0 4
Que. (100110)2 × (1001000)2 (38)10 × (72)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 3 8
× 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 7 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 + 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 1 0 0 1 1 0
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 7 3 6
Que. (1101000)2 × (10000010)2 (104)10 × (130)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
8192 4096 2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 4
× 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 3 5 2 0
Que. (10)2 × (1000)2 (2)10 × (8)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 0 1 0 2
× 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 8
0 0
+ 0 0
+ 0 0
+ 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 6

Que. (110100)2 × (1100)2 (52)10 × (12)10

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R
2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 5 2
× 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 + 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 + 1 1 0 1 0 0
+ 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 7 3 6
 B I N A R Y D I V I S I O N

Que. (1001)2 ÷ (11)2

0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1
‐ 0 0 1 1 × 0 = 0 0
1 0 0
‐ 0 0 1 1 × 0 = 0 0
1 0 0
‐ 1 1 1 1 × 1 = 1 1
0 1 1
‐ 1 1 1 1 × 1 = 1 1
0 0

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 0 0 1 9
÷ ÷
1 1 3
1 1 3

Que. (111000)2 ÷ (111)2

0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
‐ 0 0 0 1 1 1 × 0 = 0 0 0
1 1 1
‐ 1 1 1 1 1 1 × 1 = 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
‐ 0 0 0 1 1 1 × 0 = 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
‐ 0 0 0 1 1 1 × 0 = 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
‐ 0 0 0 1 1 1 × 0 = 0 0 0
0 0 0
 B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 0 0 0 5 6
÷ ÷
1 1 1 7
0 1 0 0 0 8

Que. (101010)2 ÷ (110)2

0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
‐ 0 0 0 1 1 0 × 0 = 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
‐ 1 1 0 1 1 0 × 1 = 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
‐ 1 1 0 1 1 0 × 1 = 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
‐ 1 1 1 1 1 0 × 1 = 1 1 0
0 0 0

B I N A R Y D E C I M A L
N U M B E R N U M B E R

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 TL L TTh Th H T U
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 0 1 0 1 0 4 2
÷ ÷
1 1 0 6
1 1 1 7