MATH 1100

Department of Mathematics and Physics

1st sem SY 2020-2021
MODULE 21

Mathematical language and symbols

Objectives:
Upon completion of this module, you are expected to:
1. Discuss the language, symbol and conventions of mathematics.
2. Explain the nature of Mathematics as a language.
3. Perform operations on Mathematical expressions correctly.
4. Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language..

1. Role of language in mathematics

In this chapter, we introduce the basic mathematical language needed to express a range
of mathematical concepts.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

 Precise
Mathematical expressions or statements are precise, it has its own distinct meaning.

Preciseness of mathematical expression or statements is best learned through

understanding the language of mathematics.

Example 1. Reducing the long English sentence,

“The number of boys in a class, denoted by 𝑥 , is less than the number of

girls in a class, denoted by 𝑦.”

symbolically into
𝑥 < 𝑦
greatly simplifies the sentence.

The symbols retain the important and exact information and the context need only to be
referred to again when stating a solution.

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This module is based from the book “Mathematics in the Modern World” by the Department of Mathematics and
Physics, CS, CLSU.

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 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
 Concise
The language of mathematics is concise because it uses symbols instead of spelled-
out words for brevity.

Example 2. The English sentence

“Fourteen plus twenty one equals thirty five.”
is expressed simply in the language of mathematics as
14 + 21 = 35.

By the use of symbols, mathematical expressions become brief, and ambiguities are
avoided.

 Powerful
Mathematics is powerful because students can only perform efficiently in problem
solving if they understand the language of mathematics.

To express mathematical ideas, students need to master particular requirements and

conventions. In this way, complex ideas may be expressed in a greatly simplified manner.
In other words, learning the language of mathematics empowers the students to be
efficient problem solvers. Students also gain confidence in talking about their
mathematical learning and articulate for themselves what else they need to learn. Overall,
mathematical language skills include the abilities to read with comprehension, to express
mathematical thoughts clearly, to reason logically, and to recognize and employ common
patterns of mathematical thought.

EXPRESSIONS vs. SENTENCES

Mathematical language is composed of expressions and sentences.

An expression is any correct arrangement of mathematics symbols, used to

represent a mathematical object of interest; it does not state a complete thought and so
it does not make sense to ask if it is true or false.

Example 3.
An example of expression can be as simple as 10 + 13.
We could change the (+) to make different mathematical expressions such as 10 – 13,
(10)(13), or 10 ÷ 13.

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 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are called operations. There are many
more operations that can be used in a mathematical expression, which usually includes
numbers, sets, functions, ordered pairs, matrices, and others.

The following table lists the some key words used to express the four main operations.
Mathematical Operations

Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division

Add Subtract Multiply Divide

Increased by Decreased by Product Quotient

Plus Minus Times Shared

Sum Difference Twice Split between

Total Reduced by Of Divided by

More Less than

Usually, verbal phrases are translated into variable expressions to simplify them into
an equivalent form that usually involves fewer symbols and operations, or into a form
that is best suited to a current application, or into a preferred form or style

Some examples are shown below:

Verbal Phrase Variable Expression
The sum of 𝑥 and 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
The difference of a number and ten 𝑥 – 10
A number increased by four 𝑥+4
Three more than a number 𝑥+3
Three less than a number 𝑥−3
A number minus three 𝑥−3
Five taken from a number 𝑥−5
Six subtracted from a number 𝑥−6
Five times a number 5𝑥
Twice a number 2𝑥

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 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
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The quotient of 12 and a number
x
1
One half of a number x
2
The sum of five times a number and twelve 5𝑥 + 12
The product of six and twice a number (6)(2𝑥)
The square of a number 𝑥2
The square root of a number √𝑥
The cube of a number 𝑥3
The sum of the cube of a number and four x3  4

Whenever possible, select a single variable to represent an unknown quantity. Then,

express related quantities in terms of the selected variable.

Look at the following examples.

For each relationship, select a variable to represent one quantity and state what that
variable represents. Then, express the second quantity in terms of the variable selected.

1. Two consecutive odd integers.

Let 𝑥 = smaller odd integer
𝑥 + 2 = bigger odd integer
If you are wondering why?
First, list some consecutive odd integers: … , −5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
How do you get the odd number next to the previous odd number? We add 2.
2. The tens digit of a two-digit number exceeds the units digit by 5.
Let 𝑥 = units digit.
𝑥 + 5 = tens digit
Here we are considering two quantities: the units digit and the tens digit of the two-digit
number. How are these two quantities related?

3. The length of a rectangle is thrice its width.

Let 𝑥 = width of the rectangle
3𝑥 = length of the rectangle
We are considering two quantities: the length and the width of a rectangle. How are
these two quantities related?

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 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
A mathematical sentence is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols stating
a complete thought. The most common mathematical statements or sentences are called
equations and inequalities.
A mathematical sentence is one that makes a statement about the relationship of two
expressions. These two expressions are written in symbols such as numbers and
variables, or a combination of both. The relationship of the two expressions is usually
stated by using symbols or words such as
 equals (=),
 greater than (>),
 greater than or equal (≥),
 less than (<), or
 less than or equal(≤).

The table below shows a comparison between expressions and sentences.

Expression Sentence
It is just a mathematical phrase; It is a complete mathematical statement
a part of a sentence. with a complete thought.
A student only simplifies an expression. A student solves a sentence.
It has no relation symbol. Involves a relation symbol such as
equality or inequality.
Examples:
1.Ten is a number less than five:
1. A number less than five: 10 = 5 − 𝑥
5−𝑥 2. A number is less than five:
𝑥 < 5

The following table illustrates more on this.

Mathematical Expression in Words In Symbols

1. Thrice a number 𝑥 decreased by four is equal to

3𝑥 − 4 = 𝑥 + 10
ten more than the number 𝑥.

2. Half the difference of a number 𝑥 and its square 𝑥 − 𝑥2

≥ −1
is greater than or equal to negative one. 2

3. Twice a number 𝑥 less five is less than

2𝑥 − 5 < 3 + 𝑥
the sum of three and the number 𝑥.

4. Sum of the squares of a number 𝑥 and three is equal to

𝑥 2 + 32 = 3 + 5𝑥
the sum of three and the product of five and number 𝑥.
In #4, “squares of a number 𝑥 and three” is written as 𝑥 2 + 32 . Observe that “squares”
is in plural form so it talks about the square of 𝑥 and the square of 3.
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Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
A mathematical sentence that is sometimes true or sometimes false is called an open
sentence. Open sentences usually arise when variables are used. To illustrate,

1. 𝑥 − 1 > 3𝑥 + 1
2. 2𝑥 − 18 = 6𝑦 + 1
3. A square has 𝑥 sides.

In the above illustrations, the mathematical sentences may or may not be true
depending on the values of the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦. The truth or falsity of such a sentence
is open, depending on the values of the variables.

On the other hand, we have a closed sentence if the mathematical sentence is

definitely true or definitely false. Each of the following are closed sentences. Why?

1. The smallest prime number is 1.

2. The square root of 9 is 3.
3. 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥 + 2
4. −112 is an even number.
5. 663 + 336 = 999
6. The square root of – 16 is – 4.

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 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
2. Basic Mathematical Concepts

Discussed below are fundamental concepts in mathematics; namely Sets, Functions and
Relations, Binary Operations, and Logic.

2.1 Sets
A set is a collection or grouping of elements. These elements can be anything such
as numbers, letters, names, sentences etc.

The capital letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, … are usually used to name sets; if the elements are also letters,
the small letters 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, … are used.

Describing sets
 Roster (or List) Method
-The simplest way of describing a set is to just list its elements separated by commas
inside a pair of braces.

It easy to use especially if the set has only a few elements no matter what they are.

Example: The set 𝐴 whose elements are 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 can be expressed as:
𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}

The order by which the elements are listed is irrelevant;

a set is defined by what elements it contains, not by any ordering or priority among those
elements. Thus, each of the following refers to the same set.
𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 } 𝐴 = {𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑐 } 𝐴 = {𝑐, 𝑎, 𝑏}
𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑏} 𝐴 = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑎} 𝐴 = {𝑐, 𝑏, 𝑎}

Other examples:
𝐵 = {𝑚, 𝑎, 𝑡, ℎ}
𝐶 = {book, pen, paper, scissors}
𝐷 = {– 2, 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 2020}

 Rule (or Description) Method

-Another way of describing a set is giving a description that befits each of the elements.

Example:

𝐴 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a vowel of the English alphabet},

which is read as “𝐴 is composed of any 𝑥 , where 𝑥 is a vowel of the English alphabet”.

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Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
We call the number of elements of any set 𝐴 as the cardinal number of 𝐴. It is
denoted as |𝐴|.
Example: If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ}, then |𝐴| = 8.

If an element 𝑥 is a member of the set 𝐴, we write 𝑥 ∈ A; otherwise, we write 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴.

Example: If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ}, then 𝑓 ∈ 𝐴 but note that 𝐹 ∉ 𝐴.

Definition:
Set 𝐴 is a subset of set 𝐵, written 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, if every member of 𝐴 is also a member of 𝐵.
Otherwise, we write 𝐴 ⊄ 𝐵, read “𝐴 is not a subset of 𝐵” to mean there is at least one
element of 𝐴 that is not in 𝐵.

Example:
Given 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}.
Then 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 because all members of 𝐴 are members of 𝐵.
On the other hand, 𝐵 ⊄ 𝐴 because 𝑒 ∈ 𝐵 but 𝑒 ∉ 𝐵.

It follows from the definition that any set 𝐴 is a subset of itself, i.e., 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴.

Note that ∈ and ⊂ mean two different concepts.

To illustrate,
𝑎 ∈ {𝑎, 𝑏} but 𝑎 ⊄ {𝑎, 𝑏}
{𝑎} ⊂ {𝑎, 𝑏} but {𝑎} ∉ {𝑎, 𝑏}
{𝑎} ∈ {{𝑎}, 𝑏, 𝑐} but {𝑎} ⊄ {{𝑎}, 𝑏, 𝑐}.
Definition:
Two sets are equal, written 𝐴 = 𝐵, if and only if they have the same elements.
Alternatively, 𝐴 = 𝐵, if and only if 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴.

Definition:
Any set that has no element at all is called a null (or empty) set, denoted by { } or 𝜙.

The null set is a subset of any other set.

The set 𝐴 = { 𝑥 | 𝑥 is an integer between 1 and 2} is a null set.

Definition:
Any set that contains all elements under consideration is called a universal set, denoted
by U.

Whenever necessary in any discussion, the universal set is always given or identified.

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 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
Operations On Sets
Given a list of sets, other sets may be formed by performing one or more operations on
the given sets. Basically these operations are the union (∪), intersection (∩), complement
(′), difference (−), and the Cartesian or cross product (×).

 Union
The union (∪) operation combines all elements of two sets.
Any element that occurs in both sets only occurs once in the new set.

Example:
If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝐵 = {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} then 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}.
If 𝐶 = {1, 2, 3, 5} and 𝐷 = {2, 4,6} then 𝐶 ∪ 𝐷 = ______________. (Answer2)

 Intersection
The intersection (∩) operation contains all elements found in two sets.
In other words, the intersection of two sets contains only the elements common to both
sets.

Example:
1. If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝐵 = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} then
a. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑏, 𝑐}
b. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}

2. If 𝐶 = {1, 2, 3, 5} and 𝐷 = {2, 4,6} then 𝐶 ∩ 𝐷 = ______________. (Answer3)

3. If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝐶 = {1, 2, 3, 5} then 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 = { }.

 Complement
The complement (′) of a set, denoted 𝐴’, identifies the elements of the universal set 𝑈
that are not in 𝐴.

Examples:
1. If 𝐴 = {𝑥, 𝑦} and 𝑈 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}, then 𝐴’ = {𝑧}.
2. If 𝐶 = {2, 4, 6, 8} and 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} then 𝐶 ′ = _______. (Answer4)
3. Ø’ = 𝑈

2
𝐶 ∪ 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3,4,5,6}
3
𝐶 ∩ 𝐷 = {2}
4
𝐶′ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

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 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
 Difference
The difference of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted 𝐴 − 𝐵, is defined to be the set whose
elements are those of 𝐴 that are not in 𝐵.

Example:
If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝐵 = {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, then
a. 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏}
b. 𝐵 – 𝐴 = {𝑑, 𝑒}.

For the complement and difference operations,

𝐴′ = 𝑈 − 𝐴
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′

 Cartesian Product
The Cartesian Product or Cross Product of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted 𝐴 × 𝐵, is the
set of all ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦), such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵.

Example:
If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏} and 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3}, then
a. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑏, 3)}
b. 𝐵 × 𝐴 = {(1, 𝑎), (1, 𝑏), (2, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑎), (3, 𝑏)}
Note: (3, 𝑎) ∉ 𝐴 × 𝐵

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 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
2.2 Functions and Relations

A relation 𝑅 is any set of ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦).

The set of all 𝑥-components is called the domain while the set of all 𝑦-components is
called the range.

Example:
The set 𝑅 = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)} is a relation.
The first components 1, 3, 5 of the ordered pairs are respectively related to the second
components 2, 4, 6. The set {1, 3, 5} is called the domain of the relation while the set
{2, 4, 6} is called its range.

Consider the relation 𝐴 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑏), (2, 𝑑), (1, 𝑒)}.
What is its domain? How about its range? (Answer5)

A function is a special kind of relation. In a function, every element of the domain is

related with one and only one element of the range . This means that no two distinct
ordered pairs have the same first components.

Illustrations:
1. The relation 𝐵 = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,5), (5,6)} is a function.
2. The relation 𝐶 = {(1,2), (𝟐, 𝟑), (4,5), (𝟐, 𝟕)} is not a function.
Ordered pairs (2,3) and (2,7) have the same first components.

Aside from observing functions and relations in sets of ordered pairs, they may also
be described in other ways such as in graphs, and most often in equations that specify
the relationship between two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.
In equations, functions are exclusively identified with the notation
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
With this notation, the function is given the name 𝑓; 𝑥 is called the independent
variable (also called argument) and 𝑦 is the dependent variable. The value of 𝑦 depends
upon the value of 𝑥.

The function 𝑓 may be likened into a machine where if

we input 𝑥 into it, it produces the output 𝑦.

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Domain: {1, 2, 3} ; Range: {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑, 𝑒}

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 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
Say, the machine (function 𝑓) is a juice-maker. If we put in a mango, then mango
juice will come out; if we put in a pineapple, then pineapple juice comes out. But if we
put in a stone (not in its domain!), what happens? Functions are similar to the machine.

Now suppose we have two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 defined by

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 2.

Then, 𝑓(7) means inputting 7 into function f which processes it accordingly as 2(7) + 3
that produces the output 17.

Similarly, 𝑔(−4) means inputting −4 into function 𝑔 which processes it accordingly as

(– 4)2 – 3(– 4) + 2 and produces the output 30.

Depending on how the function is defined (how the machine is designed), inputs
(expressions) are processed accordingly to produce an output.

Example: Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 – 5𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 – 3𝑥. Find each of the following:
a. 𝑓(2) d. 𝑓(1/2) – 𝑔(2) + 3/2
b. 𝑔(– 3/2) e. 𝑓(3) + 𝑔(2𝑥– 7)
c. 𝑓(– 2) – 𝑔(4/3) f. 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
Solutions.
a. 𝑓(2) = 3(2)2 – 5(2) + 2 = 3(4) – 10 + 2 = 4

3 3 9 13
b. 𝑔 (– ) = 2 – 3 (– ) = 2 + =
2 2 2 2

4 4
c. 𝑓 (– 2) − 𝑔 ( ) = [3(– 2)2 – 5(– 2) + 2] − [2 – 3 ( )]
3 3
= [12 + 10 + 2] – [2 – 4]
= 24 – (– 2)
= 26

1 2 1 2 1 3
d. 𝑓 ( ) – 𝑔(2) + = [3 ( ) – 5 ( ) + 2] – [2 – 3(2)] +
2 3 2 2 2
3 5 3
= [ – + 2] – [2 – 6] +
4 2 2
1 3
= – [– 4] +
4 2
23
=
4

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Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
e. 𝑓(3) + 𝑔(2𝑥– 7) = [3(3)2 – 5(3) + 2] + [2 – 3(2𝑥– 7)]
= [14] + [2 – 6𝑥 + 21]
= 37 − 6𝑥

f. 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) = 3[𝑔(𝑥 )]2 – 5[𝑔(𝑥 )] + 2

= 3(2 – 3𝑥 )2 – 5(2 – 3𝑥) + 2
= 3(4 – 12𝑥 + 9𝑥2) – 10 + 15𝑥 + 2
= 27𝑥 2 – 21𝑥 + 4

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 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
2.3 Binary Operations

A binary operation on a set is a rule for combining two elements of the set, to produce
another element of the same set. A binary operation ＊ defined on a non-empty set 𝑆 is
a rule that assigns to each ordered pair (𝑎, 𝑏) of elements of 𝑆 a unique element 𝑎＊𝑏 ∈
𝑆.

Illustrations:
1. On the set of natural numbers 𝑁 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . }, addition and multiplication
are binary operations because adding or multiplying any two elements of 𝑁
produces an element that also belongs to 𝑁.

2. On the set of natural numbers 𝑁 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . }, subtraction and division are

not binary operations. Why? (Answer6)

Properties of a Binary Operation

1. Closure Property
The binary operation ＊ defined on a set 𝐴 is closed on set 𝐴 if and only if
𝒂＊𝒃 ∈ 𝑨 for any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑨.

Example:
The binary operation addition “+” is closed on the set of integers because when we add
any two integers, the result is also an integer.

However, division “/” is not closed on the set of integers because when we divide any
two integers such as 5/3, the result may happen to be not integer.

2. Commutative Property
A binary operation＊ defined on a set A is said to be commutative if
𝒂＊𝒃 = 𝒃＊𝒂 for any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑨.

Example:
The binary operations addition and multiplication are commutative on the set of real
numbers.

Subtraction and division are not commutative because for example,

2– 5 ≠ 5– 2 and 8/4 ≠ 4/8.

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If you consider two elements in 𝑁, say 1 and 5, 1 − 5 = −4 or 1 ÷ 5 = 1/5 is not an element of 𝑆. So subtraction
and division are not binary operations in 𝑁.

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Department of Mathematics and Physics
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3. Associative Property
A binary operation ＊ defined on a set 𝐴 is said to be associative if
(𝒂＊𝒃)＊𝒄 = 𝒂＊(𝒃＊𝒄) for any 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑨.

Example:
Both addition and multiplication are associative operations on natural numbers.
Subtraction is not an associative operation because for example,
(11 – 18) – 7 ≠ 11 – (18 – 7) .

4. Existence of an Identity Element

If ＊ is a binary operation on 𝐴, an element 𝑚 ∈ 𝐴 is an identity element of 𝐴 with
respect to ＊ if
𝒂 ＊ 𝒎 = 𝒎 ＊ 𝒂 = 𝒂 for any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨

Example:
In the set of real numbers, the identity element for multiplication is 1 while the identity
element for addition is 0.

5. Existence of an Inverse Element

Let ＊ be a binary operation on 𝐴 with identity 𝑚, and let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.
If there exists an element 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝒂＊𝒃 = 𝒃＊𝒂 = 𝒎, then 𝑏 is called the
inverse element of 𝑎.

Note: An inverse may or may not exist for some elements.

Example:
In the set of integers ℤ, every element has an additive inverse.
However, not one of the elements has a multiplicative inverse.

In the set of whole numbers 𝑊 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }, the only element that has an additive
inverse is zero; its inverse is itself.

SAQ: Suppose ＊is defined on the set of integers ℤ by 𝑎＊ 𝑏 = √𝑎𝑏 − 3 . Find

a. 4＊ 3 b. – 3 ＊– 13 c. 0 ＊4 d. Is ＊ a binary operation? Why?
Solutions:
a. 4＊3 = √4(3) − 3 = √12 − 3 = √9 = 3
b. – 3＊– 13 = √(−3)(−13) − 3 = √39 − 3 = √36 = 6
c. 0＊4 = √0(4) − 3 = √−3 = ? , does not exists
d. Item (c) shows that ＊ is not a binary operation.

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Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021
2.4 Elementary Logic
Logic is the primary basis of all mathematical reasoning. As such, it is concerned with the
investigation of consequences that hold between the premises and the conclusion of a
sound argument.

An argument is said to be sound (valid, correct) if its conclusions follows from, or is a

consequence of its premises; otherwise it is unsound.

Statements (Propositions)
A statement (or proposition) is the basic building block of logical reasoning. It is a
declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both. If it is true, its truth value
is said to be T (true); otherwise, it is an F (false).

Illustrations:
1. “10 + 12 = 22” is a statement that is true.
2. “The letter s is a vowel” is a statement that is false.
3. “Samsung creates cellphones” is a statement that is true.
4. “Samsung creates the best cellphones” is not a statement;
it is an opinion that may be true to some people but false to others.
5. “2𝑥 + 5 = 𝑦 − 3” is not a statement;
it is sometimes true and sometimes false.

Statements are commonly represented by small letters; most frequently used are p, q, r,
s, and t.

For example, the statement “It is raining” may be represented by p as in the following:
p: It is raining.

If it is truly raining, its truth value is T; if not, it is F.

Compound Statements
Statements constructed by connecting one or more simpler statements are
called compound statements. The simpler statements are connected together by
using connectives such as “not”, ‘‘and”, “or”, “if…then”, “only if”, and “if and only if”.

Example:
“Ben donated ₱10,000 and he did not take a bath or attended his class”
is a compound statement that is composed of 3 simpler statements:
p: Ben donated P10000.
q: He did not take a bath.

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r: He attended his class.

To determine the truth value of a compound statement, we need to first consider and
examine the way the simpler statements are connected. The resulting compound
statement can be a negation, a conjunction, a disjunction, an implication, a double
implication or any combination of these.

Negation (¬)
The negation of a statement is denial of the statement. To negate a statement, the
symbol ¬ is used. To illustrate,

Statement Negation
p: It is raining. ¬p: It is not raining.

q: The land is wet. ¬q: The land is not wet.

r: Some classmates are upperclassmen. ¬r: No classmates are upperclassmen.

Note:
“Some classmates are not upperclassmen”
is not a negation of r (why?)

s: All CLSU students are optimistic. ¬s: Not all CLSU students are optimistic.
Note:
“All CLSU students are not optimistic.”
is not a negation of s (why?)

The statement “r: Some classmates are upperclassmen.” means that at least one of the
classmate is upperclassman. The negation of the statement should mean that none of
the classmates are upperclassmen.

The statement “s: All CLSU students are optimistic.” means that every CLSU student is
optimistic. The negation of the statement should mean that there is at least one CLSU
student that is not optimistic.

A negation is true T if and only the statement itself is false F. Similarly, a negation is false
F if and only the statement itself is true T.

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Conjunction (∧)
A conjunction consists of 2 or more simpler statements that are connected by the word
“and ”, represented by the symbol ∧. That is, the conjunction p ∧ q represents the
compound statement “p and q”.

Illustration: If p: Janre is a CLSU graduate.

q: Janre is 30 years old.
Then, p ∧ q: Janre is a CLSU graduate and Janre is 31 years old.
p ∧ ¬q: Janre is a CLSU graduate and Janre is not 31 years old.
¬p ∧ q: Janre is not a CLSU graduate and Janre is 31 years old.
¬p ∧ ¬q: Janre is not a CLSU graduate and Janre is not 31 years old

A conjunction of 2 statements p and q is true if and only if both p and q are true.

Disjunction (∨)
A disjunction consists of 2 or more simpler statements that are connected by the word
“or ”, represented by the symbol ∨. That is, the conjunction p ∨ q represents the
compound statement “p or q”.

Illustration: If p: Tom is a BSMath student.

q: Jerry is a BSAgri student.
Then, p ∨ q: Tom is a BSMath student or Jerry is a BSAgri student.
¬p ∨ q: Tom is not a BSMath student or Jerry is a BSAgri student.

A disjunction of 2 statements p and q is true if and only if at least one of p and q is true.

 A popular compound statement, known as De Morgan’s Law, is the equivalent

of negating a conjunction or negating a disjunction. Namely,
i. ¬(p ∧ q) = ¬p ∨ ¬q
ii. ¬ (p ∨ q) = ¬p ∧ ¬q

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Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Implication (  )
An implication (also called conditional) consists of two cause-and-effect statements. One
is a premise and the other is a consequence that are connected by the words “if…then”.
The symbol  is used. That is, the implication p  q represents the compound
statement “if p then q”. Equivalently, it means

 "p is sufficient for q"

 "q when p"
 "a necessary condition for q is p"
 "q unless not p"
 "q follows from p

Illustration: p: It is raining.
q: The ground is wet.
p  q: If it is raining then the ground is wet.
¬p  q: If it is not raining then the ground is wet.

An implication p  q is considered false only if p is true and q is false.

Sometimes, we are interested in taking the converse, the inverse, or the contrapositive
of an implication p  q. These are defined as

Converse : q  p
Inverse: ¬p  ¬q
Contrapositive: ¬q  ¬p

Example:
Statement: If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a senior
citizen’s card.
Converse: If you are entitled to a senior citizen’s card, then you are more than 60
years old.
Inverse: If you are not more than 60 years old, then you are not entitled to a
senior citizen’s card.
Contrapositive: If you are not entitled to a senior citizen’s card, then you are not more
than 60 years old.

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1st sem SY 2020-2021

Double Implication (  )
A double implication (also called biconditional) is a statement of the form
(p  q)  (q  p),
and is written as p  q.

The double implication p  q is read “p if and only if q” and is frequently abbreviated “p

iff q”. It is a conjunction of the two implications p  q and q  p which are conversely
related; one statement is a necessary and sufficient condition for the other.

Illustration: p: ∆ABC is a right triangle.

q: c2 = a2 + b2 .
p  q: ∆ABC is a right triangle iff c2 = a2 + b2 .
: c2 = a2 + b2 iff ∆ABC is a right triangle.

A biconditional p  q is considered true if and only if p and q are both true or are both
false.

Quantifiers
Some statements are made to refer to a specific case, or refer only to a few, or refer to
every case. This is called quantification of the statement. Such quantification can be done
with two quantifiers; namely the universal quantifier (∀) and the existential
quantifier (∃).

We often quantify a variable for a statement, by claiming that a statement holds

for all values of the quantity or we say that there exists a quantity (at least one) for
which the statement holds. Respectively, we use the symbols ∀ or ∃ for these, such as in
the following.

Statement Interpretation
∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑃 (𝑥 ) For any 𝑥 in the set 𝐴, the statement 𝑃(𝑥) is true
∃ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 , 𝑃 (𝑥 ) There exists an 𝑥 in 𝐴 so that 𝑃(𝑥) is true.

When a quantifier is used on a variable 𝑥, we say that 𝑥 is bound. If no quantifier is

used, it is said to be free.
For example,
∃𝑥 ∀𝑦 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) Both x and y are bound.
∀ 𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑥 is bound but 𝑦 is free.
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Examples:
1. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, ∃𝑦 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 0
Read as: “For any 𝑥 in the set ℝ of real numbers, there exists 𝑦 in the set ℕ of natural
numbers where the square of 𝑥 minus the square of 𝑦 is 0.”
Both 𝑥 and 𝑦 are bound.
Here ℝ is the set of real numbers and ℕ is the set of natural numbers. The statement is
false. If we consider a real number say 2.1 there is no natural number that satisfies 𝑥 2 −
𝑦 2 = 0.

2. ∃𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ, 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 > 7
Read as: “There exist 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the set ℤ of integers where 3𝑥 plus 2𝑦 is greater than
7.”
Both 𝑥 and 𝑦 are bound.
The statement is true. We are only concerned if we can find two integers 𝑥 and 𝑦 that
satisfy 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 > 7. We can pick 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 3 so that 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 3(1) + 2(3) = 9
which is greater than 7.

3. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℤ, √𝑥 + 𝑦 > 0
Only 𝑥 is bound, 𝑦 is free.
The statement is false. When 𝑥 is an integer say 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑦 = −7, √𝑥 + 𝑦 = √5 + (−7)
is not greater than 0.

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