Chapter 2: Groups

Section 3: Isomorphisms
Alec Mouri
June 23, 2023

Exercises
(1) Let φ(x) = 2x . Then for a, b ∈ R+ , φ(a + b) = 2a+b = 2a 2b = φ(a)φ(b).
Since 2x > 0 for all x, then φ is injective. And, log2 (2x ) = x, so φ is
surjective, and is therefore bijective. So, φ is an isomorphism from R+
to P . Thus, R+ and P are isomorphic.

(2) a(ba)a−1 = ab, so ab and ba are conjugate elements.

(3) Suppose a = a′ . Then

a = bab−1 → ab = ba

Now suppose ab = ba. Then

ab = ba → b−1 ab = a → a = a′

(4) (a) Suppose for n − 1 ≥ 1, b′n−1 = abn−1 a−1 . Then

b′n = (aba−1 )n = aba−1 (aba−1 )n−1 = aba−1 abn−1 a−1 = abn a−1

If n = 0, Then ab0 a−1 = 1 = b′0 .

If n ≤ −1, then

b′n = (b−n )−1 = (ab−n a−1 )−1 = abn a−1

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 (b) Note that ab = b2 a. Then

a3 ba−3 = a2 b2 a−2 = ab2 aba−2 = ab4 a−1 = b8

(5) Since φ is a bijection, then φ−1 is also a bijection. And, for c, d ∈ G′ ,

then for some a, b ∈ G, φ(a) = c and φ(b) = d. Then

φ−1 (cd) = φ−1 (φ(a)φ(b)) = φ−1 (φ(ab)) = ab = φ−1 (c)φ−1 (d)

Thus, φ−1 is an isomorphism.

(6) (a) Let n, m be the orders of x and x′ respectively. Then

1 = φ(1) = φ(xn ) = φ(x)n = x′n

So m ≤ n. But

1 = x′m = φ(x)m = φ(xm ) → xm = 1

So, n ≤ m. Therefore, n = m.
(b)
x′ y ′ x′ = φ(x)φ(y)φ(x) = φ(xyx) = φ(yxy)
= φ(y)φ(x)φ(y) = y ′ x′ y ′
(c) Since
1 = φ(1) = φ(xx−1 ) = φ(x)φ(x−1 )
Then
φ(x−1 ) = φ(x)−1 = x′−1

(7) Note that

        
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= =
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Thus,   
1 1 1
1 1 1
are conjugate elements in GL2 (R). Now, let
 
a b
A= ∈ SL2 (R)
c d

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 Then  
−1 d −b
A =
−c a
So if the two matrices are conjugate, then now we have
     
1 a b 1 1 d −b
=
1 1 c d 1 −c a
    
a b d−c a−b ad − ac − bc a2
= =
c d −c a −c2 ac + ad − bc
 
−ac a2
=
−c2 ac
So, we have 1 = ac and a2 = 0. So a = 0. But then we have 1 = 0, a
contradiction. Thus, they are not conjugate in the group SLn (R).
(8) Let    
1 3 −1 1 −3
A= ,A =
1 1
Then
        
1 3 1 1 −3 1 3 1 −3 1 3
= =
1 2 1 1 2 2
So,    
1 1 3
,
2 2
are conjugate elements in GL2 (R).
(9) Denote · to be the group operation of G0 . Consider φ(x) = x−1 . Since
x = φ(x)−1 , then φ is a bijection. Then for a, b ∈ G,
φ(ab) = (ab−1 ) = b−1 a−1 = a−1 · b−1 = φ(a) · φ(b)
Thus, φ is an isomorphism between G and G0 .
(10) Denote φ(A) = (A⊤ )−1 . Since
φ(A⊤ )−1 ) = (((A⊤ )−1 )⊤ )−1 = (((A⊤ )−1 )−1 )⊤ = A
Then φ is a bijection. Then for A, B ∈ GLn (R),
φ(AB) = ((AB)⊤ )−1 = (B ⊤ A⊤ )−1 = (A⊤ )−1 (B ⊤ )−1 = φ(A)φ(B)
Thus, φ is an automorphism of GLn (R).

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(11) Consider φ, τ ∈ Aut G. Let a, b ∈ G. Then

(φ ◦ τ )(ab)φ(τ (a)τ (b)) = φ(τ (a))φ(τ (b)) = (φ ◦ τ )(a)(φ ◦ τ )(b)

Furthermore, φ−1 and τ −1 exist since φ and τ are bijections. Then

((τ −1 ◦ φ−1 ) ◦ (φ ◦ τ ))(a) = a, so φ ◦ τ is a bijection. Therefore, func-
tion composition is a law of composition of Aut G. Further, function
composition is associative.
Let e be the trivial automorphism, ie. e(a) = a. Note that φ◦e = e◦φ.
So, e is the identity automorphism.
Further, φ ◦ φ−1 = φ−1 ◦ φ = e. so Aut G is closed under inverses, and
is therefore a group.

(12) (a) φ(x−1 = x, so φ is bijective.

(b) Suppose φ is an automorphism. Then for x, y ∈ G, then

y −1 x−1 = φ(xy) = φ(x)φ(y) = x−1 y −1 → xy = yx

So, G is abelian.
Now suppose G is abelian. Then

φ(xy) = (xy)−1 = (yx)−1 = x−1 y −1 = φ(x)φ(y)

So, φ is an automorphism.

(13) (a) Suppose for some a ∈ G, that an = 1, where n > 4. Then

1, a, a2 , a3 , a4 are all distinct (if ai = aj for some i, j, n > j > i,
then aj−i = 1, so |a| < n). So, |G| ≥ 5, a contradiction. Thus,
n ≤ 4. Suppose n = 3. Then for some b ∈ G, 1 ̸= a ̸= a2 ̸= b.
Consider the product ab. If ab = b, then a = 1, a contradiction.
For i = 1, 2, if ab = ai , then b = ai−1 , a contradiction. And, if
ab = 1, then b = a−1 = a2 , a contradiction. Therefore, ab ̸∈ G, so
therefore if G has order 4, then no element can have order 3.
(b) (i) Consider a ∈ G, where |a| = 4. Then 1, a, a2 , a3 are distinct.
Since |G| = 4, then a generates G, so G is a cyclic group of
order 4.
(ii) Consider a ∈ G. If a1 = 1, then a = 1. If a2 = 1, then
a = a−1 . So, the elements of G are their own inverses.

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(14) (a) Let φ be an automorphism of Z+ . Note that for n ∈ Z+ ,

φ(n) = φ(n1) = nφ(1)

So, if φ(1) = a, then an = φ(n), ie. φ is determined by the

mapping 1 7→ a. Furthermore, since φ−1 (n) = na , then a1 , then
for all n, a divides n. Thus, a = 1, −1. So, φ is the mapping
determined by 1 7→ {−1, 1}.
(b) Let G be a cyclic group of order 10 generated by g. For an au-
tomorphism φ of G and x ∈ G, then |x| = |φ(x)|. So, g maps
to one of g, g 3 , g 7 , g 9 . Then for all i, φ(g i ) = φ(g)i = g ik , where
k = 1, 3, 7, 9. For i, j, if g ik = g jk , then g k(j−i) = 1. Then j = i, so
therefore each g ik is distinct. Thus, φ is the mapping determined
by g 7→ {g, g 3 , g 7 , g 9 }.
(c) Let    
1 1
x= 1 , y = 1 
1 1
Let φ be an automorphism of S3 . Then for 0 ≤ i ≤ 2, 0 ≤ j ≤ 1,

φ(xi y j ) = φ(x)i φ(y)j

Ie. φ is determined by φ(x) and φ(y). Since |x| = |x2 | and

|y| = |xy| = |x2 y|, then x maps to one of x, x2 , and y maps to one
of y, xy, x2 y. Thus, φ is the mapping determined by x 7→ {x, x2 }
and y 7→ {y, xy, x2 y}.

(15) First, denote e(x) = x. Note that for some function f , e(f (x)) =
f (x) = f (e(x)), so e(x) is an identity function. Further,
1
f 2 (x) = 1 = x = e(x)
x

x−1
− 1 x−1−x −1
g 2 (x) = x
x−1 = =
x
x−1 x−1
−1
x−1
− 1 −1 − (x − 1)
g 3 (x) = −1 = = x = e(x)
x−1
−1

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 1
x
−1 1−x
(g ◦ f )(x) = 1 =
x
x
−1 −x
(g 2 ◦ f )(x) = 1 =
x
−1 1−x
1 x
(f ◦ g)(x) = x−1 = = (g 2 ◦ f )(x)
x
x−1
So, f has order 2 and g has order 3. So, we can write any composition
of functions as g i f j , where 0 ≤ i ≤ 2, 0 ≤ j ≤ 1. Define φ such
that φ(f ) = y and φ(g) = x and φ(g i f j ) = xi y j . Since φ−1 (xi y j ) =
g i f j , then φ is a bijection. Then let (g a f b )(g c f d ) = g m f n , so then
(xa y b )(xa y b ) = xm y n . Then

φ((g a f b )(g c f d )) = φ(g m f n ) = xm y n = (xa y b )(xc y d ) = φ(g a f b )φ(g c f d )

So f and g generates a group G where G is isomorphic to S3 .

(16) Consider groups G and S3 from the previous exercise. Consider τ (f ) =

x2 y and τ (g) = x, and τ (g i f j ) = xi (x2 y)j . If j = 0, then τ (g i ) = xi . If
j = 1, then τ (g i f ) = xi x2 y = xi+2 y. Since τ −1 (xi y j ), then g i f j , then τ
is a bijection. Let (g a f b )(g c f d ) = g m f n , so then (xa (x2 y)b )(xa (x2 y)b ) =
xm (x2 y)n . Then

τ ((g a f b )(g c f d )) = τ (g m f n ) = xm (x2 y)n

= (xa (x2 y)b )(xa (x2 y)b ) = τ (g a f b )(g c f d )

So, τ is an isomorphism. But, φ(f ) = y, but τ (f ) = x2 y. So, φ ̸= τ .
So, there is more than one isomorphism between f and g.