RESPIRATORY SYSTEM  Act as resonance chambers for

speech
Functional anatomy of the respiratory system  Produce mucus
Pharynx
Alveoli - Commonly called the throat
- Where gas exchange between the blood and - Muscular passageway from nasal cavity to larynx
external environment occurs. o Continuous with the posterior nasal
Upper respiratory tract aperture
- Includes passageways form the nose to larynx o Serves as common passageway for food
Lower Respiratory tract and air
- Includes passageways from trachea to alveoli - Three regions of the pharynx
o Passageways to the lungs purify, 1. Nasopharynx
humidify, and warm the incoming air o Superior region behind nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx
o Middle region behind mouth
3. Laryngopharynx
o Inferior region attached to larynx

Nose
- The only externally visible part of the respiratory
- Oropharynx and laryngopharynx
system
o Serve as common passageway for air and
o Nostrils (nares)
food
 Route through which air enters
 Epiglottis routes food into the
the nose
posterior tube, the esophagus.
o Nasal Cavity
- Pharyngotympanic tubes open into the nasopharynx
 Interior of the nose o Drain the middle ear
o Nasal Septum
- Tonsils
 Divides the nasal cavity o Clusters of lymphatic tissue that play a
- Olfactory receptors—located in the mucosa on the
role in protecting the body from infection
superior surface
 Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid), a
- Rest of the cavity--- lined with respiratory mucosa,
single tonsil, located in the
which
nasopharynx
o Moistens air
 Palatine tonsils (2)—located in
o Traps incoming foreign particles the oropharynx at the end of the
o Enzymes in the mucus destroy bacteria soft palate
chemically  Lingual Tonsils (2)—found at the
- Conchae—projections from the lateral walls base of the tongue
o Increase surface area Larynx
o Increase air turbulence within the nasal - Commonly called the voice box
cavity - Located inferior to the pharynx
o Increased trapping of inhaled particles - Made of:
- Palate—separates the nasal cavity from the oral o Eight rigid hyaline cartilages
cavity  Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple)
o Hard palate—anterior and supported by —largest
bone o Epiglottis—spoon-shaped flap of elastic
o Soft palate—posterior and unsupported cartilage
- Paranasal Sinuses - Functions
o Cavities within the frontal, sphenoid, o Routes air and food into proper channels
ethmoid, and maxillary bones surrounding o Plays a role in speech
the nasal cavity - Epiglottis
o Sinuses: o Protects the superior opening of the larynx
 Lighten the skull
 o Routes food to the posteriorly situate o Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the
esophagus and routes air toward the lung surface
traches o Parietal pleura lines the walls of the
o During swallowing, the epiglottis rises and thoracic activity
form a lid over the opening of the larynx - Pleural fluid fills the area between layers
- Vocal folds (true vocal cords) o Allows the lungs to glide over the thorax
o Vibrate with expelled air which allow us o Decreases friction during breathing
to speak - Pleural space (between the layers) is more of a
- Glottis potential space
o Include the vocal cords and the opening
between the vocal cords
- Trachea
o Commonly called the windpipe
o 4-inch-long tube that connects to the
larynx
o Walls are reinforced with C-shaped rings
of hyaline cartilage, which keep the
trachea patent (open)
o Lined with ciliated mucosa
 Cilia beat continuously in the
opposite direction of incoming
air
 Expel mucus loaded with dust
and other debris away from lungs

- Bronchial Tree
o Main bronchi subdivide into smaller and
smaller branches
o Bronchial (respiratory) tree is the network
of branching passageways
o All but the smallest passageways have
reinforcing cartilage in the walls
o Conduits to and from the respiratory zone
Main Bronchi o Bronchioles
- Formed by division of the trachea  Smallest conducting passageways
- Each bronchus enters the lung at the hilum (medial
depression) Respiratory Zone and structures and the respiratory
- Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter membrane
than left - Terminal bronchioles lead into respiratory zone
- Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller structures and terminate in alveoli
branches - Respiratory zone includes:
o Respiratory bronchioles
o Alveolar ducts
o Alveolar sacs
o Alveoli (air sacs)—only site of gas
exchange
- Conducting zone structures include all other
passageways

Lungs
- Occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the
central mediastinum
- Apex of each lung
o Near the clavicle (superior portion)
- Base
o Rests on the diaphragm
- Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
o Left lung—two lobes
o Right lung—three lobes
- Serosa covers the outer surface of the lungs
 - Alveoli  Flow of air into lungs until
o Simple squamous epithelial cells largely intrapulmonary pressure equals
compose the walls atmospheric pressure
o Alveolar pores connect neighboring air  Diaphragm and external
sacs intercostal muscles contract
- Pulmonary capillaries  Intrapulmonary volume increases
o Cover external surfaces of alveoli  Gas pressure decreases
- Respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier)
o On one side of the membrane is air, and
on the other side is blood flowing past
o Formed by alveolar and capillary walls
- Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion
o Oxygen enters the blood
o Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli

o Expiration—exhalation
 Air leaving lungs
 Largely a passive process that
depends on natural lung capacity
 Intrapulmonary volume decreases
 Gas pressure increases
- Alveolar Macrophages (dust cells)  Gases passively flow out to
o Add protection by picking up bacteria, equalize the pressure
carbon particles, and other debris  Forced expiration can occur
- Surfactant (a lipid molecule) mostly by contraction of internal
o Coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces intercostal muscles to depress the
o Secreted by cuboidal surfactant-secreting rib cage
cells - Intrapleural pressure
Respiratory Physiology o The pressure within the pleural space is
- Functions of the respiratory system always negative
o Supply the body with oxygen o Major factor preventing lung collapse
o Dispose of carbon dioxide o If intrapleural pressure equals atmospheric
- Respiration includes four distinct events pressure, the lungs recoil and collapse
o Pulmonary ventilation
moving air into and out of the lungs
(commonly called breathing)
o External respiration
gas exchange between pulmonary blood
and alveoli
oxygen is loaded into the blood
carbon dioxide is unloaded from the
blood
o Respiratory gas transport
transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
via the bloodstream Respiratory Volume and Capacities
o Internal respiration - Factors affecting respiratory capacity
gas exchange between blood and tissue o Size
cells in systemic capillaries o Sex
o Age
Mechanics of Breathing o Physical condition
- Pulmonary ventilation - Tidal Volume (TV)
o Mechanical process that depends on o Normal quiet breathing
volume changes on the thoracic cavity o 500 ml of air is moved in/out of lungs with
o Rule: each breath
 Volume changes to pressure - Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
changes, which lead to the flow o Amount of air tat can be taken in forcibly
of gases to equalize pressure over the tidal volume
- Two phases of pulmonary ventilation o Usually around 3,100 ml
o Inspiration—inhalation
- Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
 o Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled o Internal respiration is an exchange of
after a tidal expiration gases occurring between the blood and
o Approximately 1,200 ml tissue cells (systemic capillary gas
- Residual Volume exchange)
o Air remaining in lung after expiration - Movement of the gas is toward the area of lower
o Cannot be voluntarily exhaled concentration
o Allows gas exchange to go on
continuously, even between breaths, and
helps keep alveoli open (inflated)
o About 1,200 ml
- Vital Capacity
o The total amount of exchangeable air
o Vital capacity= TV + IRV + ERV
o 4,800 ml in men; 3,100 ml in women
- Dead space volume
o Air that remains in conducting zone and
never reaches alveoli
o About 150 ml
- Functional volume
o Air that actually reaches the respiratory
zone
o Usually about 350 ml External respiration
- Respiratory capacities are measured with a - Oxygen is loaded into the blood
spirometer o Oxygen diffuses from the oxygen-rich air
of the alveoli to the oxygen-poor blood of
Nonrespiratory air movements the pulmonary capillaries
- Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary actions - Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of the blood
- Example: o CO2 diffuses from the blood of the
o Cough and sneeze—clears lungs of debris pulmonary capillaries to the alveoli
o Crying—emotionally induced mechanism
o Laughing—similar to crying
o Hiccup—sudden inspirations
o Yawn—very deep inspiration

Respiratory Sounds
- Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
- Two recognizable sounds can be heard with a
stethoscope
1. Bronchial sounds
o Produced by air rushing through large
passageways such as the trachea and
bronchi
2. Vesicular breathing sounds
o Soft sounds of air filling alveoli Gas Transport in the blood
3. Crackle - Oxygen transport in the blood
o Bubbling sound o Most oxygen travels attached to
4. Wheezing hemoglobin and forms oxyhemoglobin
o Whistling sound (HbO2)
5. Rales o A small, dissolved amount is carried in the
o Abnormal bronchial sounds produced by plasma
the presence of mucus or exudate in the - Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
lung passages or by thickening of the o Most CO2 is transported in the plasma as
bronchial walls bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
External respiration, Gas Transport, and Internal Respiration o A small amount is caried inside RBC in
- Gas exchanges occur as a result of diffusion hemoglobin, but at different binding sites
o External respiration is an exchange of from those of oxygen
gases occurring between the alveoli and - For CO2 to diffuse out of blood into the alveoli, it
pulmonary blood (pulmonary gas must be released from its bicarbonate form:
exchange) o Bicarbonate ions enter RBC
o Combine with hydrogen ions
 o Form carbonic acid (H2CO3)  Coughing
o Carbonic acid splits to form water + CO2 o Volition (conscious control
o Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into o Emotional factors such as fear, anger, and
alveoli excitement
o Chemical factors: CO2 levels
Internal Respiration  Body’s need to rid itself of CO2
- Exchange of gases between blood and tissue cells is the most important stimulus for
- An opposite reaction from what occurs in the lungs breathing
o Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue cells  Increased levels of carbon
to blood (called loading) dioxide (and thus, a decreased or
o Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue acidic pH0 in the blood increase
(called unloading) the rate and depth of breathing
 Changes in carbon dioxide act
directly on the medulla oblongata
o Chemical factors: Oxygen levels
 Changes in O2 concentration in
the blood are detected by
chemoreceptors in the aorta and
common carotid artery
 Information is sent to the medulla
 O2 is the stimulus for those
whose systems have become
accustomed to high level of CO2
as a result of disease
o Chemical Factors
Control of respiration  Hyperventilation
- Neural regulation: setting the basic rhythm  Rising levels of CO2 in
o Activity of respiratory muscles is the blood (acidosis)
transmitted to and from the brain by result in faster, deeper
phrenic and intercostal nerves breathing
o Neural center that control rate and depth  Exhale more CO2 to
are in the medulla and pons elevate blood pH
 Medulla—sets basic rhythm of  May result in apnea and
breathing and contains a dizziness and lead to
pacemaker (self-exciting alkalosis
inspiratory center) called the  Hypoventilation
ventral respiratory group (VRG)  Results when blood
 Pons—smooth out respiratory becomes alkaline
rate (alkalosis)
 Extremely slow or
shallow breathing
 Allows CO2 to
accumulate in the blood
Respiratory Disorders
- Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
o Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
emphysema
o Shared features of these diseases
1. Patients almost always have
- Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) a history of smoking
o 12 to 15 respirations per minute 2. Labored breathing becomes
- Hyperpnea progressively worse
o Increased respiratory rate, often due to 3. Coughing and frequent
extra oxygen needs pulmonary infections are
- Non-neural factors influencing respiratory rate and common
depth 4. Most COPD patients are
o Physical factors hypoxic, retain CO2 and
 Increased body temperature have respiratory acidosis and
 Exercise ultimately develop
 Talking respiratory failure
- Chronic Bronchitis
 o Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages o Adults: 12 to 18 respirations per minute
becomes o Rate often increases again in old age
severely inflamed - Asthma
o Excessive mucus production impairs o Chronically inflamed, hypersensitive
ventilation and gas exchange bronchiole passages
o Patients become cyanotic and are o Respond to irritants with dyspnea,
sometimes called blue bloaters as a result coughing, and wheezing
of chronic hypoxia and carbon dioxide - Youth and middle age
retention o Most respiratory system problems are a
- Emphysema result of external factors, such as
o Alveoli walls are destroyed; remaining infections and substances that physically
alveoli enlarge block respiratory passageways
o Chronic inflammation promotes lung - Aging effects
fibrosis, and lungs lose elasticity o Elasticity of lungs decreases
o Patients use a large amount of energy to o Vital capacity decreases
exhale; some air remains in the lungs o Blood oxygen levels decrease
o Sufferers are often called pink puffers o Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
because oxygen exchange is efficient decrease
o Overinflation of the lungs leads to a o Elderly is often hypoxic and exhibit sleep
permanently expanded barrel chest apnea
o Cyanosis appears late in the disease o More risks of respiratory tract infection

- Lung Cancer
o Leading cause of cancer death for men and
women
o Nearly 90 percent of cases result from
smoking
o Aggressive cancer that metastasizes
rapidly
o Three common types
1. Adenocarcinoma
2. Squamous cell carcinoma
3. Small cell carcinoma

Development aspects of the Respiratory system

- Lungs do not fully inflate until 2 weeks after birth
o This change from nonfunctional to
functional respiration depends on
surfactant
o Surfactant lowers surface tension, so the
alveoli do not collapse
o Surfactant is formed late in pregnancy,
around 28 to 30 weeks
- Respiratory rate changes throughout life
o Newborns: 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
o Infants: 30 respirations per minute
o Age 5: 25 respirations per minute