Module 4: Buried and Surface Remain - Depth of topsoil relative to

bedrock
*A Taphonomic effects due to burial
- Other geological factors
environments are key in classifying human
 Expedient or temporary burials are
skeletal remains as being forensic
typically only as deep as necessary to
Soil avoid disturbances by scavenging
animals
 Pedology- study of soil - Burial shaft dimension are
-Crucial to Forensic Analysis generally just large enough to
- Soil characteristics: accommodate the body or
- Color coffin
- Consistency
- Texture
- Structure
 High water tables can result in poor
- Inclusions
preservation
- Soil Formation
*High water tables- ground
- Influenced by complex water upon excavation
interactions of parent material, *Can result in high chemical
topography, climate ,and and chemical erosion in bones
biological organism over time *The osculation of the water
- 5 Common horizons/layers table can also displace skeletal
1. Decomposing plant remains.
matter AKA “O-
Horizon” Soil pH
2. Organic rich top soil
AKA “A-Horizon”  Acidity or Alkaline content of soil
 Preservation of bones is highly
3. Plow zone AKA “AP-
influenced by the soil’s pH.
subhorizon”
 Soil pH is generally most acidic in the
top soil due to leeching of base ions,
4. Lighter colored “D-
decomposing organic matter releasing
Horizon”(Where base
organic acids ,and Carbon Dioxide
minerals accumulate)
dissolving into water from carbonic acid
 Bone preservation is generally excellent
5. ”R-Horizon”-Broken
in pH neutral soil or slightly
up local bedrock
basic(moderate alkaline level)
Depth of Burial  In acidic environment bones can be
severely degraded.
 Can significantly influence the  Acidic Soil corrosion often results in
preservation of buried remains significant changes in the bone’s
morphology, often creating a scooped,
 While common burials are commonly
irregular surface where there was once
believed to be 6 feet under, actual burial
smooth cortical bone.
depth can vary from 1.5 to 12 feet.
Depending on factors like: *in highly acidic conditions with
- Water table height high temperatures and high humidity
 this type of break down can occur very  Boreal forests
rapidly. -Soils in pine forests/ Coniferous forests
typically have a highly acidic top soil
 The increased dissolution of the bone’s
and a more benign sub-soil.
mineral content which constitutes about
*Shallow burials in such context(Pine
70% of the bone occurs even in mildly
forests) may expose the upper most
acidic conditions.
portions of the skeleton, usually the
*Most apparent loss is on the
anterior skull and innominates(pelvis) to
epiphysis of long bones (extremities)
highly acidic soil. Which can lead to
where the cortical bone is thinnest.
highly localized erosion to these parts.
*Other less dense bones such as the
*Melted face pattern of skeletal
vertebrae, sternum, innominates(pelvis)
recovery to these types of places while
with thin cortices are prone to this
the rest of the skeletal remains is
taphonomic process.
preserved. Which is likely to appear in
remains buried for multiple decades.
Soil Dynamics
Plants and other Biological Invasion
 Soft tissue decomposition
 The interplay between Biological and
-The decomposition of the body
chemical processes significantly impacts
temporarily increases the acidity of the
the preservation and degradation of
soil slightly due to the release of organic
buried skeletal remains which can
acids which diminishes as base ions are
provide valuable insights in forensics.
introduced during later decomposition
 Plant root are attracted to Bones
stages.
*Roots are holding the bones together at
-The more recent the introduction of a
times.
remains in the soil, the more acidic the
-Due to the high concentration of
soil is and vice versa.
elements in bones such as nitrogen and
*Over time the local environment
phosphate often leading to the bone
gradually reverts to acidic conditions
structure
*The presence of a hole or partial body
*Bones are fertilizers
in acidic soil therefore, can delay the
 Root etching
onset of acidic soil erosion.
-Invasion of Roots can damage the
bones and leave a distinct pattern of
 Boot/glove taphonomy
surface damage.
- Such buried objects such as leather
-Activity of plant roots and associated
(boots. gloves, etc.) can provide partial
microorganisms can cause acidic
protection to the bones as it reduces
dissolution of the bone mineral content.
contact with acidic soil, restrict acidic
-Root invasion also holds potential
ground water flow, lessen plant root
benefits in PMI determination. Due to
access, and decrease the potential for
tree roots developing annual rings that
disturbance by burrowing animals.
can be counted.
Which may also indicate the former
*Smaller plant root structures may aid in
presence of this item/s and suggest a
the determination in the shorter PMI
pattern of preservation.
intervals.
-Root etching Patterns are typically
meandering and branching causing a U-
shaped profile in individual scores.
 * Sometimes mistaken to be - by product of fat tissue
markings of incisors from scavengers or decomposition in moist-anaerobic
butchery. conditions
* But can be distinguished from such -Once formed can persist for centuries
markings by certain characteristics such - its presence may imply a protected
as: burial environment with limited oxygen
-V-Shaped profile absence.
-Parallel Striations in case of cuts by  Mass Burials
sharp objects -decomposition process are complex and
 Fungi can invade the porous structure of varied
bone -some are slowed down and some co-
-Fungi are major decomposers in most mingled
ecosystems. -A phenomenon called “feather-edge
-Leaving a rough and eroded surface. effect”
-Fungi is everywhere and is located at *The bodies in the periphery
the upper horizons of soil. Which decompose faster than those at the
suggests that much of the damage center due to the exposure to with the
attributed to general acidic soil environmental structure.
corrosion might be due to fungi in *Because individuals in the same mass
combination with inorganic chemical graves could be in varied stages of
reactions decomposition. Possibly misleading
 Termites can consume buried bones. interpretations if contextual data is
*Specially when facing dietary nitrogen lacking.
deficiencies indicating prior burial of the  Plowing
bones. -it can both aid and disrupt forensic
anthropology investigations:
Other factors -Can help unearth and locate shallow
 Bioturbation burials.
-Placement/Displacement of bones due -Can have the potential to damage and
to the activity of various species living scatter remains.
within the soil. (Ie.Earth worms,
rodents, rabbits, and other burrowing Special Natural Burial Environments
animals)  Natural Mummification
-Is significant because it may lead into -Occurs in dry environments and arid
misinterpretations of peri-mortem events climates or very well drained soils
 Soil Staining  Ice Burials
-Bones are porous and tend to take the -Frozen Environments (Glaciers)
color of the medium into which they are Ie, Otzi (Italian alps, 3000BC)
deposited.  Bog Burials
-Can be caused by mineral containing *Bogs-Wetlands which feature acidic
deposits such as mold growth, and water, aerobic conditions, and are
organic compounds like panins devoid of large scavengers.
-Can indicate a bone’s previous burial -Characterized by decomposing plant
 Adiopocere formation remains that can excellently preserve
-Adiopocere AKA “Grave wax” soft tissue
-Can Cause recent forensic interest
 Cemetery Remains Coffin Hardware
-Typically from disrupted recent context
where they are then evaluated  Handles, thumbscrews and escutchions,
-Commonly encountered if there are plates, caplifters, decorative studs, and
construction projects, Natural disasters, white metal screws and tacks.
and deliberate vandalism.  Crucial in determining the age of burials
-Special case -Like fashion trends of coffins that could
 Coffin Environment help when and where the remains have
*Coffins do not provide a constant been buried
environment as coffins too undergo  Viewing windows
gradual breakdown -first to be broken
*Coffins provide physical protection  Iron coffins
which can slow down decomposition -Noted or the excellent preservation of
 Coffin wear soft tissues and degradable artifacts
-Localized destruction of the parts of
skeleton due to contact with the parts of Other artifacts
a coffin.  Clothing remnants such as buttons and
 Warping other fasteners can provide clues about
-Is likely to be caused by the same the period of burial
factors as coffin wear with the added  Ceremonial offerings can be indicative
stress of the mass of sediments pushing of cultural or ethnic affiliations
downwards on remains in collapsed  Burial Fabrics and cushion filings can
coffins provide information about burial
-prominent in the cranium due to its practices
relatively weak structure.  Other Burial characteristics such as
 Staining orientation of the grave, the burial
-Dark chocolate brown staining is often patterns, and the relative location of the
rare in forensic cases as a result of the grave to other landmarks can give
soluble organic tanins each from the insights into cultural and societal
coffin wood ,is intensified by the practices
cooling of water ,and organic acid
leached in the coffin’s interior. Bone Weathering (when not buried)
*remains buried without coffins could  Long exposure to the atmosphere
also have a coloration due high organic  Can help determine the bone’s origin
content found in the soil. and past locations
 Essential for estimating the postmortem
Autopsy and Embalming
interval
 Can vary based on the environment
*Embalming-Prevents putrefaction
 Specific microhabitat within that
environment
 Frequently found in modern cemetery
 Entomological studies do not apply
burials
-a sign of origin of the remains  Such effects remain unstudied due to the
time it takes to collect meaningful data
 Can occasionally result in damage to
and the need to collect large sample
skeletal remains
sizes and known depositional agents for
the bone
 Mechanisms  Heating and cooling
 Loss of Organic content -Bones exposed to temperature changes
 Loss of moisture experience expansion and contraction
 Surface layer bleaching which over time can cause micro-
 Cracking fracturing or sudden failure
-Processes of degradation could be *Can cause more damage to teeth due to
likened to the principles of fatigue in it more mineralized brittle structure
material science  Freezing and Thawing
-Dead bones lack the capacity to repair -Water when frozen can exert a
or heal itself destructive force that can spread existing
-The loss or breakdown of collagen crack in bone making them wider and
which helps limit crack propagation, deeper
increases the bone’s susceptibility to -Could be more destructive in temperate
cracking climates where frequent temperature
-Partial dissolution of the mineral changes occur
component also weakens the bone and
makes it more susceptible to cracking More Environmental Factors
and flaking  More Mineral Crystallization
-Caused by the formation and expansion
Weathering Stages (WS 0 to WS 5) of crystals within the bone structure
 Based on the pattern of linear cracking analogous to how freezing water forms
and flaking of the cortical surface, and expanding ice crystals
fibrous texture formation, and eventual  Groundwater infiltration
loss of bone structure. -can cause serious weathering due to the
 Can indicate the duration of surface ground water carrying mineral and
exposure, regardless of environmental crystals and as the water evaporates, the
conditions. mineral crystals are left in the bones
*Non-human bones are plexiform or  Coffin Burial
have a regular layered structure of how
weathering precedes.  Terrestrial surface exposure
-Growth of Algae and moss to the bone
In contrast, Human bone-structure are which contribute to the weathering of
irregular. the bone

*Bone can display area of different PMI

weathering stages over different surfaces  Macroenvironment
-Broad differences in temperature
Environmental Factors regimes, precipitation, and vegetation
 Solar Radiation -Rate of weathering is slower in colder
-Bleaching resulting to UV light environments and location where bones
exposure are protected from direct sunlight.
-Begins early in the weathering process  Microenvironvent
and is often visible even if the bone -Has profound effects on osseous
reaches a certain weathering stage weathering even for minor variations
 Moisture in wetting and drying cycles -Different types of habitats such as
-The presence of adhering soft tissues dense forests, caves, open crest lands
can slow down the weathering process and the different burial environment can
 significantly influence the rate of
weathering
*Rate of which weathering occurs is not
easy to standardize because weathering
progresses at different rates in various
microenvironments
 Weathering alterations need to be
distinguished from other forms of
taphonomic alteration

Diverse Influences
 Environmental variables can greatly
influence the decomposition and
weathering of bones
 Continued research to understand the
complex processes better