History of education in China

The history of education in China began with the birth of the

Chinese civilization. Nobles often set up educational establishments
for their offspring. Establishment of the imperial examinations
(advocated in the Warring States period, originated in Han, founded
in Tang) was instrumental in the transition from an aristocratic to a
meritocratic government. Education was also seen as a symbol of
power; the educated often earned significantly greater incomes.

Shang and Zhou dynasties

The first written mention of a "school" in China appears in the
oracle bones of the Shang dynasty (about 1800–1050 B.C.E.), which constitute the first written records in
China and the main historical record for that period.[1] Used for divination, questions would be written on
the bones before they were placed in a fire, and then the results printed on the bones. Several of these
divinations contain questions about school: ‘Is it auspicious for the children to go on school? Will it rain on
their way home?’[2] However, the oracle bones contain little information about the function or purpose of
the schools. By the Zhou dynasty, inscriptions from bronze vessels and the Book of Rites suggest that the
Zhou kings founded schools for young aristocratic men to serve the king.[3] The Book of Rites suggests
that most of these schools were located near ponds and forests, and therefore historians infer that these
schools mostly focused on martial arts education, especially archery.[2] From the Zhou period onwards, the
imperial government would have a strong influence on the education system. The traditions from this period
were passed on through the Book of Rites, which later became one of the Five Classics of the Confucian
Canon. During the late Autumn and Spring period, such schools had become commonplace throughout the
Zhou dynasty, but the power of the central government was slowly giving way to local warlords.

The Warring States period

The Warring States period saw the rise of several influential philosophies, including Confucianism,
Mohism, and Daoism. Of these philosophies, Confucianism would have the most long-term impact on state
and imperial education.

The weakening of the Zhou empire and the rise of local warlords ushered in the Period of Warring States.
Some local warlords may have founded academies to consolidate their power and gain legitimacy.[3] The
different schools were often organized into political entities to gain social influence. Rival scholars were
invited to courts; governmental sponsorship led to the development of the first Chinese academies.
Importance of education and respect to the teachers was stressed in the Annals of Lü Buwei.

One educational institution that existed during this period was the Jixia Academy. The open and tolerant
atmosphere in this academy attracted Confucian and Daoist scholars from across the country for debate and
study. However, the institution had no long-term impact on subsequent Chinese institutions.[1]

Han era
Emperor Wu of Han favored Confucianism and made it as the national educational doctrine. In 124 BC,
The Origins of Statecraft in China was set up to turn out civil servant for the state, which taught the Five
Classics of Confucianism. The traditional Chinese attitude towards education followed Mencius's advice
that "Those who labor with their minds govern others; those who labor with their strength are governed by
others."

The Sui and Tang dynasty

In the Sui dynasty (581–619), the imperial examination system was established to train and recruit
Confucian scholar-officials. Especially in the Song dynasty (960–1279), the imperial examination become
the most fundamental and important ancient Chinese political and educational system. The function of
professional bureaucracy in ancient China Higher education served the imperial examination system.[4]

Medieval period
Imperial examination began at 605, which required the competitors to pass their local cutting score before
the final examination in the capital. So the private school prevailed. White Deer Grotto Academy and
Donglin Academy were their models. Meanwhile, the art school Pear Garden appeared in early 8th century,
and in 1178 a national military school was set up.

The invention of paper and movable type greatly boosted the educational industry.

Qing dynasty
Education during the Qing dynasty was dominated by
provincial academies, which did not charge tuition fees and
gave stipends to preselected students. They were dedicated to
the pursuit of independent study of the classics and literature,
rather than to the preparation for governance, as was the case
with imperial academies. Professors rarely lectured students,
instead offering advice and critiquing research.[6]
A Chinese School (1847)[5]
The near total neglect of engineering, mathematics, and other
applied science education by the state contributed to a vast
gap in military power between China and the European empires, as evidenced by the outcomes of the First
and Second Opium Wars and the Sino–French War amongst others. In response, the Qing embarked on a
self-strengthening movement, founding the Tongwen Guan in 1861, which hired foreign teachers to teach
European languages, mathematics, astronomy and chemistry. After Qing was defeated by Japan during the
first Sino-Japanese War, Peiyang University (or Imperial Tientsin University), the first modern university in
China was established in 1895, of which the undergraduate education system was fully based on the
counterpart in USA. In 1898, Peking University was founded, with a curriculum based on the Japanese
system. In 1905, the imperial examinations were abolished.[7]: 15 In 1906, American President Theodore
Roosevelt passed the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program, which diverted overfunding of the Boxer
Indemnity toward higher education inside China. Tsinghua University was founded in 1911 by its
provisions.

Modern era

Republic of China

The New Culture Movement of 1919 was a reaction against the Chinese government's emphasis on
technical knowledge, and resulted in a new enthusiasm for theoretical knowledge, but with a focus on
Western philosophy rather than Confucianism. Education was mostly decentralized in this period, since
China was politically disunited, with Chinese warlords and foreign imperialists, especially the Japanese,
occupying significant chunks of Chinese territory.

Internal Migration in Communist China was almost nonexistent due to policies put in place by the previous
communist government pre 1978. Those pressing policies limited the amount of education that was limited
to citizens due to lack of funding, specifically women as mentioned previously, and the type of employment
that was available to them, which in most cases indicated factory work that only offered harsh working
environments with little pay and to add to the negativity, the salary that the employees were receiving was
not even close to being able to afford medical expenses and many of the "popular" organizations did not
offer any type of health care for their employees. Regardless of the difficulties China met, several
universities were recognized for keeping academic and education excellence during this time period. The
so-called Famous four universities were especially well documented during war period, namely the
National Central University, the Wuhan University, the Zhejiang University, and the National Southwestern
Associated University.[8]

After the Kuomintang's defeat in 1949, the government had retreated to Taiwan. During the first 20 years of
Nationalist rule, mandatory schooling consisted of six years of primary school education, which was also
the length under Japanese rule. In 1968, the ROC government extended it to nine years.

People's Republic of China

During the Chinese Civil War, the Chinese Communist Party improved education in areas it controlled.[9] It
opened schools for adults and children (both male and female) in which locally produced textbooks were
used and led literacy campaigns.[9] These efforts marked the first time in Chinese history that peasants had
educational opportunities.[9] During the Mao era, education for all and literacy campaigns were major
focuses.[10]

After the success of the Chinese Communist Revolution in 1949, the CCP brought the educational system
under national control. Improving population-wide literacy was the focus of education in the early years of
the People's Republic of China.[11] In 1949, the literacy rate was only between 20 and 40%.[11] The CCP
government focused on improving literacy through both formal schooling and literacy campaigns.[11] In the
first sixteen years of the PRC, elementary school enrollment tripled, secondary school enrollment increased
by a factor of 8.5, and college enrollment more than quadrupled.[12] By 1979, participation by Chinese
youth in primary school was nearly universal.[13]

The Chinese Academy of Sciences was set up the year the CCP came into power. Education was reformed
following the Soviet model, and small engineering departments were amalgamated into giant polytechnic
institutes such as Tsinghua University and Tianjin University. Education became highly specialized, with
students studying subjects like "railway bridge construction".[6]

During the period of the First Five Year Plan, the State Planning Commission set the number of university
enrollment spaces.[14]: 71 Beginning in the 1950s and running through the 1960s, university graduates were
provided with jobs via state allocation.[14]: 29

Larger danwei might have schools on their premises.[15]: 310

In 1952, the Ministry of Education sought to develop a system of political counselors as a pilot program in
universities.[16]: 107 Tsinghua University established a political counselor program in 1953, becoming the
first university to do so.[16]: 107 In this program, new graduates who were also Communist Party members
worked as political counselors in managing the student body and student organizations, often
simultaneously serving as Communist Youth League secretaries.[16]: 107

In the late 1950s, language reform by way of simplified Chinese characters were introduced into schools, as
well as in publications like newspapers.[10] This language reform was intended to make reading easier and
thereby increase literacy.[10]

In the 1960s, Mao Zedong viewed the Chinese education system as hampered by a formalism that wasted
young people's talents.[17] By 1964, he argued that school curricula, which had been copied closely from
the Soviet model of the 1950s, should be reformed.[17] Mao proposed reducing the number of school years
so that teaching could be combined with activities in fields like agriculture, industry, military service, and
politics.[17] Mao argued that these changes would overcome the limits of specialization and established
social hierarchies.[17]

Beginning in 1965, the Third Front campaign to develop basic industry and national defense industry in
China's hinterlands also resulted in urban educational standards and pedagogy being brought to the
countryside.[18]: 114–115

Cultural Revolution

The early stages of the Cultural Revolution disrupted education, which became one of the most contested
socio-political matters.[19]: 89 In June 1966, the national university entrance examinations were
suspended.[19]: 113 With the disruption in education, the secondary school classes of 1966, 1967, and 1968
which were unable to graduate on time later became known as the Old three cohort.[18]: 362 Alongside a
break in the direct progression from high school to college, the rural education system was expanded and
rural high school graduates were expected to later return to their villages to contribute to rural
development.[19]: 113

Based on a July 1968 comment by Mao Zedong, July 21st Industrial Universities were established at
factories as part-time technical and engineering study programs.[20]: 362 Mao had stated that short-term
vocational courses should be created for current industrial workers.[20]: 362

Cultural Revolution reformers wanted students to develop critical thinking, industrial skills, and farming
skills, while still retaining a focus on academics.[19]: 105 When schools re-opened in the early 1970s, the
worker, peasant, soldier student was viewed as the main student constituency.[21] Curriculum was revised
with a focus on practical education and abstract learning and "bookishness" were condemned.[22]
Classroom education included only a fraction of the school day and the balance was spent in practical
training.[22] The precise mix of academic work and physical work varied by time and location.[19]: 105
In the early stages of the Cultural Revolution, shiying kebei (trial textbooks) heavily weighted towards
practical knowledge such as operating machinery or pumps proliferated.[19]: 107 By 1971, these textbooks
had achieved a greater balance between practical knowledge and more traditional academic subjects.
[19]: 107 From 1973-1975, the practice of kaimen banxue (running an open school) was encouraged.[19]: 106
Each week, students would have one afternoon of routine physical labor, students could go spend a month
to learn a skill of their choosing at a factory, hospital, or the like.[19]: 106

Hua Guofeng

Beginning in 1977[19]: 61 during the Hua Guofeng era, the college entrance exam system was
reintroduced.[23] Its reintroduction decreased educational opportunities for the highly motivated, but not
academically prepared, peasants who had benefited from the "worker, peasant, soldier" model of the later
stage of the Cultural Revolution.[23] Rusticated youths surged to take the examinations, eager to pick up the
studies they had left off during the chaotic Cultural Revolution period.[23] This included an older generation
of students resuming their studies.[23] Children from Third Front work units received preference on the new
exam.[24]

Vocational and practical training at the university level was greatly decreased in favor of research.[25] Fewer
rural people returned to their villages after completing their university studies.[19]: 61

Deng Xiaoping

Deng endorsed the political counselor program in universities, which had been piloted by Tsinghua
University before the Cultural Revolution and which had resumed in 1977.[16]: 108 After its endorsement by
Deng, the program expanded across higher educational institutions.[16]: 108

Since the 1990s

In 1990, less than 2% of China's adult population had college degrees.[26]: vi Since 2000, higher education
has experienced a boom in China, with many universities and colleges being built in periurban
areas.[15]: 364 By 2015, more than 15% of adults had college degrees.[26]: vi The growth in college
educational opportunities has been particularly large for those born in the 1980s.[26]: vi As of 2020, 54% of
China's college-aged population was enrolled in college.[26]: vi

Women's educational attainment grew considerably.[26]: vi By 2009 half of all college students were
women.[27]: 69 China's rate of increase in women's higher education levels has been substantially greater
than countries with similar, and some countries with higher, per capita income levels.[27]: 69

Since the 1990s the Soviet model has been largely abolished in China, with many universities expanding or
merging with others to provide more comprehensive education in parallel with specialized technical
training.[28][29] Also beginning in the 1990s, the political counselor system was further institutionalized and
expanded in higher educational institutions throughout China, with standardized rules such as term limits
and age limits being issued by the Ministry of Education in 2000.[16]: 108

In 2003, China's Ministry of Education called for adding environmental education content throughout the
public school curriculum from the first year of primary school through the second year of high
school.[30]: 138
Beginning in 2017, Chinese universities and regional governments have begun establishing centers for the
study of Xi Jinping's thoughts on ecological civilization.[15]: 89 At least 18 such centers had been
established as of 2021.[15]: 89

In 2021, the government shutdown private tutoring for schoolchildren based on the rationale that rising
educational costs were antithetical to the goals of common prosperity.[27]: 67

Islamic education
Jingtang Jiaoyu was a form of Islamic education developed during the Ming dynasty among the Hui,
centered around Mosques.[31] The Arabic and Persian language Thirteen Classics were part of the main
curriculum.[32] In the madrassas, some Chinese Muslim literature like the Han Kitab were used for
educational purposes.[33] Liu Zhi (scholar) wrote texts to help Hui learn Arabic.[34] Persian was the main
Islamic foreign language used by Chinese Muslims, followed by Arabic.[35]

Jingtang Jiaoyu was founded during the era of Hu Dengzhou 1522–1597. There were 5 Persian books and
the Qur'an was among 8 Arabic books which made up the "Thirteen Classics" (‫)سابقة‬.[36]

The Chinese Muslim Arabic writing scholars Ma Lianyuan 馬聯元 1841–1903 was trained by Ma Fuchu
馬复初 1794–1874 in Yunnan [36] with Ma Lianyuan writing books on law 'Umdat al-'Islām (‫)عمدة اإلسالم‬
‫ شىي ش‬grammar book on ṣarf (‫ )صرف‬called Hawā and Ma Fuchu writing a grammar book on naḥw
(‫ )نحو‬called Muttasiq (‫ )متسق‬and Kāfiya (‫)كافية‬. Šarḥ al-laṭā'if (‫ )شرح اللطائف‬Liu Zhi's The Philosophy
of Arabia 天方性理 (Tianfang Xingli) Arabic translation by (Muḥammad Nūr al-Ḥaqq ibn Luqmān as-
Ṣīnī) (‫)محمد نور الحق إبن لقمان الصيني‬, the Arabic name of Ma Lianyuan.[37] Islamic names, du'ā' (‫)ُدَعاء‬,
ġusl (‫)غسل‬, prayers, and other ceremonies were taught in the Miscellaneous studies (Zaxue) 雜學 while
'āyāt (‫ )آيات‬from the Qur'an were taught in the Xatm al-Qur'an (‫( )ختم القرآن‬Haiting).[38] Ma Fuchu
brought an Arabic Qasidat (Gesuide jizhu 格随德集注 ) poem to China.[39][40]

Hui Muslim Generals like Ma Fuxiang, Ma Hongkui, and Ma Bufang funded schools or sponsored students
studying abroad. Imam Hu Songshan and Ma Linyi were involved in reforming Islamic education inside
China.

Muslim Kuomintang officials in the Republic of China government supported the Chengda Teachers
Academy, which helped usher in a new era of Islamic education in China, promoting nationalism and
Chinese language among Muslims, and fully incorporating them into the main aspects of Chinese
society.[41] The Ministry of Education provided funds to the Chinese Islamic National Salvation Federation
for Chinese Muslim's education.[42][43] The president of the federation was General Bai Chongxi (Pai
Chung-hsi) and the vice president was Tang Kesan (Tang Ko-san).[44] 40 Sino-Arabic primary schools
were founded in Ningxia by its Governor Ma Hongkui.[45]

Imam Wang Jingzhai studied at Al-Azhar University in Egypt along with several other Chinese Muslim
students, the first Chinese students in modern times to study in the Middle East.[46] Wang recalled his
experience teaching at madrassas in the provinces of Henan (Yu), Hebei (Ji), and Shandong (Lu) which
were outside of the traditional stronghold of Muslim education in northwest China, and where the living
conditions were poorer and the students had a much tougher time than the northwestern students.[47] In
1931 China sent five students to study at Al-Azhar in Egypt, among them was Muhammad Ma Jian[48] and
they were the first Chinese to study at Al-Azhar.[49][50][51][52] Na Zhong, a descendant of Nasr al-Din
(Yunnan) was another one of the students sent to Al-Azhar in 1931, along with Zhang Ziren, Ma Jian, and
Lin Zhongming.[53]
Hui Muslims from the Central Plains (Zhongyuan) differed in their view of women's education than Hui
Muslims from the northwestern provinces, with the Hui from the Central Plains provinces like Henan
having a history of women's Mosques and religious schooling for women, while Hui women in
northwestern provinces were kept in the house. However, in northwestern China reformers, such as Cai
Yuanpei, started bringing female education in the 1920s. In Linxia, Gansu, a secular school for Hui girls
was founded by the Muslim warlord Ma Bufang, the school was named Shuada Suqin Wmen's Primary
School after his wife Ma Suqin who was also involved in its founding.[54] Hui Muslim refugees fled to
northwest China from the central plains after the Japanese invasion of China, where they continued to
practice women's education and build women's mosque communities, while women's education was not
adopted by the local northwestern Hui Muslims and the two different communities continued to differ in
this practice.[55]

General Ma Fuxiang donated funds to promote education for Hui Muslims and help build a class of
intellectuals among the Hui and promote the Hui role in developing the nation's strength.[56]

Although religious education for children is officially forbidden by law in China, the CCP allows Hui
Muslims to violate this law and have their children educated in religion and attend Mosques while the law is
enforced on Uyghurs. After secondary education is completed, China then allows Hui students who are
willing to embark on religious studies under an Imam.[57] China does not enforce the law against children
attending Mosques on non-Uyghurs in areas outside of Xinjiang.[58][59] Since the 1980s Islamic private
schools (Sino-Arabic schools ( 中阿學校 )) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government
among Muslim areas, only specifically excluding Xinjiang from allowing these schools because of
separatist sentiment there.[60][61]

See also
Academies (China)
Yuelu Academy
White Deer Grotto Academy
Guozijian (Imperial Academies)
Hanlin Academy
Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program
Imperial examination
Imperial examination in Chinese mythology
Education in the People's Republic of China

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