Computer Fundamentals Tutorial

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as an input from the
user and processes it under the control of a set of instructions (called program),
produces a result (output), and saves it for future use. This tutorial explains the
foundational concepts of computer hardware, software, operating systems, peripherals,
etc. along with how to get the most value and impact from computer technology.

Audience
This tutorial has been prepared for beginners as well as advanced learners who want to
deal with computers. The tutorial is also very useful for undergraduate students of
computer science, engineering, business administration, management, science,
commerce and arts, where an introductory course on computers is a part of curriculum.
After completing this tutorial, you will find yourself at a moderate level of expertise in the
knowledge of computer basics from where you can take yourself to the next level.

Prerequisites
Knowledge of computers is not a prerequisite to follow the contents of this tutorial. This
tutorial assumes no background in Computers or Computer programming.
Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone
to know about computers. A computer is an electronic data processing device, which
accepts and stores data input, processes the data input, and generates the output in a
required format.
The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its fundamentals.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five
functions −
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.
Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who
will spend many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.
Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.
Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
  Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the
computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory,
then the program and instruction can control the program execution without
human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in
paper work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially
reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
Environment
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.
 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge
unlike humans.

Computer - Applications
In this chapter, we will discuss the application of computers in various fields.
Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility

which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.
Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −
 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making
deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
  ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for
customers to deal with banks.
Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers.
Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using
computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
−

 Procedure to continue with policies

 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus
Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

  The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer
Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a
computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is
carried out on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

 Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics,

write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more
products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit
direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They
are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used
in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans,
etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.
  Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause
of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by
computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry
dates, harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −

 Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships,
buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.
Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military
also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has
been used are −

 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is
received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some
main areas in this category are −

 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
  FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this
category are −

 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

Computer - Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being
used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which
together make up an entire computer system.
There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table,
approximate dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally
accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers.

S.No Generation & Description

1 First Generation
 The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

Computer - Types
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

S.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately

1
Computer) powerful microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal

2 Workstation
computer however has a more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting

3 Mini Computer
hundreds of users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting

4 Main Frame hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is
different from minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds

5 Supercomputer
of millions of instructions per second.
PC (Personal Computer)

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an

individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers
for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and
database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal
computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are
normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-end
models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics
capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop

publishing, software development, and other such types of applications which require a
moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large
amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most
workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of
workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to
form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users
simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many
programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of programs.
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers
are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense
amount of mathematical calculations (number crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid

dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of
geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

Computer - Components
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following
five basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

The process of entering data and instructions into the computer

1 Take Input
system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for

2 Store Data
processing as and when required.

Processing Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to

3
Data convert them into useful information.

Output The process of producing useful information or results for the

4
Information user, such as a printed report or visual display.
 Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above
5
workflow operations are performed.

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This
unit creates a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the
information into a form understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data
processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It
controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has the following three components −

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from
the computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices
translate the computer's output into a form understandable by the users.

Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit)

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal
storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory
(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory
are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any
actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other
units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
  It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging of data.

Computer - Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data
to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although
there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys
or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.N Keys & Description

o

Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give
the same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad
2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of
a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding
machines and calculators.

Function Keys
3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a
row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is
used for some specific purpose.

4
Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow
keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page
 Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device
having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement
of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are
pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the
screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a
monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The
lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer
Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system
placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead
of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the
pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used
when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk
of the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form
that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could
be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of
whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial
data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and
image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to
be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on
the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that
are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine
readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light
and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the
books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value,
which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by
pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and
marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple
choice questions.