O Istorie A Bisericii Catolice

A SHORT HISTORY
CATHOLIC CHURCH
BY
HERMANN WEDEWER
PROFESSOR AT THE ROYAL GYMNASIUM OF WIESBADEN
AND
JOSEPH McSORLEY
OF THE PAULIST FATHERS
FOURTH EDITION
B. HERDER BOOK CO.

17 SOUTH BROADWAY, ST. Louis, Mo.
AND
68 GREAT RUSSELL ST. LONDON, W. C.
1918
NIHIL OBSTAT
Sti. Ludovici, die 5, Aug. 1916.
F. G. Holweck,
Censor Lib ro rum
IMPRIMATUR
Sti. Ludovici, die 5, Aug. 1916.
^Joannes J. Glennon,
Archie pisco pus

Sti. Ludovici
Copyright,
by
Joseph Gummcrsbach
All rights reserved
Printed in U. S. A.
VAIL-BALLOU COMPANY
BINSMAMTON AND NEW YORK
PREFACE
The present volume consists largely of an adaptation
of the twelfth edition of Professor Hermann Wedewer s
Grundriss der Kirchengeschichte (Freiburg i. B., 1907).
With a view to the needs of American schools, however,
numerous changes have been made, and a considerable
portion of the original text is omitted. The new ma
terial includes the chapters on Foreign Missions (XIX-
XX) and the chapters on the latest period of Church

History (XXI-XXVI).
JOSEPH MCSORLEY, C. S. P.
New York, January, 1916.

CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE ................. "
CHAPTER
I ............
INTRODUCTION I
II THE WORLD AT THE COMING OF CHRIST .... 3
FIRST EPOCH: CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITY

PERIOD I. A. D. 30-313
FKOM THE DEATH OF CHRIST TO THE EDICT OF MILAN

III HISTORICAL OUTLINE .......... 5
i. Labors of the Apostles....... 12
ii. .....
The Destruction of Jerusalem 13
iii. Persecutions.......... J3
iv. Attacks by Pagan ....

Philosophers 17
IV LIFE OF THE CHURCH .......... 19

i. Heresies ............ *9
ii. Constitution of the Church ...... 22
iii. Theology and Catholic Practice .... 28
PERIOD II. A. D. 313-800

FROM CONSTANTINE TO CHARLEMAGNE
V HISTORICAL OUTLINE .......... 41
VI LIFE OF THE CHURCH ..... ..... 46

i. Heresies............ 46
ii. Constitution of the Church ...... 54
iii. Theology and Catholic Practice .... 58
iv. Monasticism .......... 66
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
VII THE NEW NATIONS 71
i. General View 71
ii. Italy 72
iii. Spain 73
iv. France 75
v. The British Isles 76
vi. Germany 78
vii. Charlemagne Empire
s 78
viii. States of the Church 8r
VIII THE EASTERN EMPIRE 83

i. Mohammedanism 83
ii. Iconoclasm 84
SECOND EPOCH: THE MIDDLE AGES

PERIOD A. D. 800-1073
I.
FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO GREGORY VII

IX HISTORICAL OUTLINE 86
X LIFE OF THE CHURCH 91
PERIOD II. A. D. 1073-1303

FROM GREGORY VII TO BONIFACE VIII
XI HISTORICAL OUTLINE 94
i. The Investiture Conflict , 94
ii. The Popes and the Rulers 98
iii. The Crusades 103
iv. Religious Orders of Knights 106
XII LIFE OF THE CHURCH . ... . . . . . . . . 108

i. Heresies 108
ii. Monasticism 112
iii. Theology and Catholic Practice 116
PERIOD A. D. 1303-1517
III.
FROM THE REIGN OF BONIFACE VIII TO LUTHER S REVOLT

XIII HISTORICAL OUTLINE 122
i. The Popes at Avignon 122
ii. The Great Western Schism 133
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
iii. The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Ecumenical
Councils 125
Church and State 127
The New World 129
XIV LIFE OF THE CHURCH 131

i. Heresies 131
ii. Theology and Catholic Practice . . .
.135
THIRD EPOCH: MODERN TIMES

PERIOD I. A. D. 1517-1789
FROM LUTHER S REVOLT TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
XV GENERAL VIEW 143
XVI PROTESTANTISM 146

i. Luther s Outbreak 146
ii. Progress of Protestantism in Germany . .
150
iii. Switzerland 160
iv. France 162
v. England 166
vi. Ireland 172
vii. Scotland 176
viii. The Netherlands 178
ix. Other Countries 179
x. Summary 182
XVII THE CATHOLIC CHURCH 187

i. The Catholic Revival 187
ii. The Religious Orders 189
iii. The Jesuits 191
iv. Theology and Catholic Practice .... 196
XVIII RELIGIOUS DISCORDS 201

i. The Thirty Years War 201
ii. Theological Errors 203
iii. Eighteenth Century Philosophy .... 206
XIX FOREIGN MISSIONS IN AFRICA AND ASIA .... 210

i. The New Movement 210
ii. Africa 213
iii. Asia 214
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
XX FOREIGN MISSIONS IN AMERICA 219
i. The Norse Settlements 219
ii. The Portuguese Settlements 219
iii. The Spanish Settlements in Central and
South America
The Spanish
.,..,..,. 220
iv. Settlements in Mexico and
Southern United States 225
v. The French Settlements 232
vi. The British Settlements 236
PERIOD II. A. D. 1789-1914

FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE ACCESSION OF
BENEDICT XV
-
XXI THE PAPACY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY . . .
238
XXII EUROPE 249
General View 249
Italy 250
France 252
iv. Spain and Portugal 258
v. Germany 260
vi. Switzerland and Luxemburg 268
vii. The Netherlands 269
viii. Scandinavia 272
ix. Austria-Hungary 273
x. Russia and Poland 276
xi. The Balkans 278
xii. Great Britain 280
XXIII OCEANIA, ASIA AND AFRICA 286

i. Oceania 286
ii. Asia 287
iii. Africa 289
XXIV EASTERN CHRISTIAN CHURCHES 291
XXV SPANISH AND BRITISH AMERICA . 295

i. South America .
295
ii. Central America 298
iii. The West Indies 300
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
iv. Mexico 302
v. British America 304
XXVI THE UNITED STATES 309
i. Growth of the Church 309
ii. The Hierarchy 316
iii. Racial Elements 322
iv. Persecutions 332
CONCLUSION 336
APPENDIX I The Ecumenical Councils 339
APPENDIX II List of the Popes 34*
INDEX . 345
LIST OF MAPS
MAP PAGE
I Early Christendom 7
II Mediaeval Central Europe 7
III Mediaeval Western Europe 74
IV Central Europe in the Sixteenth Century .... 147
V Early Missions in Africa and India 212
VI Missions in China and Japan 215
VII Early Bishoprics in South America 221
VIII Early Missions and Bishoprics in Mexico . . . .226

IX Early Missions in French and British America . .
235
X British America 305
XI Sees in the United States (i) 310
XII Sees in the United States (2) 3U

A SHORT HISTORY
OF THE
CATHOLIC CHURCH
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1. The Purpose of Church History. Church history
isa record of the origin and development of the Church
of Christ and of her influence on the world. Since the
Church was founded to continue the three-fold office of
Christ as Teacher, Priest and Ruler, the history of the
Church should show how she has :
1. Taught Christ s doctrines among all nations,
2. Exercised Christ s priestly office in developing pub
lic worship, and
3. Acted as supreme ruler in formulating an ecclesi
astical constitution and establishing a church discipline.
2. The Divisions of Church History. Church his
tory falls into the following divisions:

First Epoch: Christian Antiquity (A. D. 30-800):
Grseco-Roman Christianity.
Period I : From the Death of Christ to the Edict of
Milan (30-313) Age of the Mar
:
tyrs.
2 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
Period II: From Constantine to Charlemagne (313-
800) Age of the Fathers.
:
Second Epoch: The Middle Ages (800-1517) : Catho

lic Europe.
Period I: From Charlemagne to Gregory VII (800-
1073) :
Development of the Temporal
Power of the Popes.
Period II: From Gregory VII to Boniface VIII
(1073-1303) :
Flourishing Period of
the Papacy.
Period III: From Boniface VIII to Luther (1303-
1517) : Decline of the Papal Power.

Third Epoch: Modern Times (1517-1914): Divided
Christendom.
Period I : From Luther s Revolt to the French Revo
lution (1517-1789): Political and
Religious Disturbances.
Period II : From the French Revolution to the Acces
sion of Benedict XV (1789-1914):
New Growth of the Church.
CHAPTER II
THE WORLD AT THE COMING OF CHRIST
I. THE PAGANS
3. Negative Preparation. The history of the pa

gan world had shown that human unaided by efforts,
God, could obtain neither quiet of mind nor peace of
heart. At the coming of Christ, the general religious
condition was most deplorable. Paganism was unable to
satisfy the cravings of the human heart ; philosophy con
fessed its helplessness by developing many conflicting sys
tems of thought. Unbelief, immorality, superstition,
idolatry, slavery and suicide were commonly defended.
4. Positive Preparation. Great progress had been
made in philosophy, art, science and jurisprudence.
The world had become acquainted with the Jewish re
ligious traditions. Although polytheism was wide
spread, still there lingered a general knowledge of the
One God and of personal guilt, and a hope in a Re
deemer to come. 1
II. THE JEWS

5. The Chosen People. The discipline of the Law,
2
the "Pedagogue unto Christ," had for fifteen centuries
prepared the Jewish people for the advent of Christ.

Having renounced idolatry, and having been again con
firmed in the faith of their fathers, they were looking
anxiously forward to the coming of the Redeemer fore-
1 See Virgil, Suetonius, and Tacitus.
2 Galatians iii. 24.
3
told But as their observance of an
by the prophets.
cient customs arose largelyfrom political motives, and
was mixed with pride and moral depravity, their idea of
a Messiah remained dim, and they expected him to be an
earthly king.
There existed three principal sects among the Jews:
I. The Sadducees, principally of the aristocracy, liberal in
belief and licentious in conduct. 2. The Pharisees, lead
ers of the people, chiefly hypocrites, given to external

works of devotion and to interior corruption. 3. The
Essenes, possessing all their goods in common and
largely resembling the Pharisees both in their doctrines
and in their spiritual life.
The Birth of Christ. It was evident that man
6.
kind could be saved only by a Divine Mediator. The

fulness of time having come, God sent His only-begot
ten Son, Jesus Christ, Who was born of the Virgin Mary
3
at Bethlehem.
The hidden life of Christ embraces a period of thirty
years. In
the year 26, St. John the Baptist began
his ministry. Then Christ was baptized and entered upon
His public life. Two years later St. John was condemned
to death. On the I4th of Nisan, the first month of the
Hebrew year (probably 29), Christ died
April 7th, A. D.
upon the cross. Church history properly begins at the

death of Christ.
3
This event happened about the year 4, according to our
present method of reckoning. Denys the Little, in the sixth
century, began the custom of dating history from the birth of
Christ. But he thought that Christ was born in the year 754
A. u. c. (Ab Urbe Condita) and so he made that the year I of
the Christian era. Later researches have pkced the birth of
Christ several years earlier, so that Christ was really about four
years old in what we call the year I.
FIRST EPOCH: CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITY
(30-800)
PERIOD I
FROM THE DEATH OF CHRIST TO THE
EDICT OF MILAN (30-313): AGE OF
THE MARTYRS
CHAPTER III
HISTORICAL OUTLINE
*
I. LABORS OF THE APOSTLES
7. First Years of the Church (A. D. 30-42). On

Pentecost, the harvest feast of the Jews, the Holy Ghost
descended on the assembled Apostles and disciples.
After Peter s first sermon, three thousand were added to
the Church; and a little later over five thousand more.
These early Christians were persevering in the teaching
"
of the Apostles and in the communion of the breaking

of bread and in prayer." They had a common fund.
Seven deacons were appointed to take care of the poor
and to assist in the preaching of the word of God.
Mathias was chosen as an Apostle soon after the defec
tion of Judas.
Peter and John were accused before the Sanhedrin for
having cured a lame man, and were forbidden to teach in
the name of Christ. Before long, all the Apostles were
1 See the Acts of the Apostles.
6
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
imprisoned and scourged. The bitter opposition of the

Jews broke out in an open persecution of the Christians ;
and the first victim, St. Stephen, was stoned to death in

the year 36. Persecuted Christianity now gained disciples
everywhere. Enlightened by God in the three visions of
unclean animals, Peter received the first pagan convert,
Cornelius the centurion, into the Church.
Herod Agrippa began to persecute the Christians
about the year 44. St. James the elder, brother of St.
John, was put to death; St. Peter was imprisoned, but

having been liberated by an angel, he went into another
"
place," probably Rome.

Paul (37-67).
8. St. Saul, a young Pharisee of
Tarsus in Cilicia, a disciple of Gamaliel, had approved
St. Stephen s death; but, as he was on his way to
Damascus, Our Lord appeared to him and the violent

enemy of the Christians was converted and baptized
in the year 37. He remained in solitude for three years,
and then went to Jerusalem to see Peter." At Antioch

"
he was ordained and officially recognized as an Apostle of

the Gospel. Soon afterward, in company with Barnabas,
he set out on his first missionary journey (46-48). He
went first to Cyprus where he converted the proconsul,
Sergius Paulus; passed thence to Asia Minor, spreading
the Gospel and strengthening the people in the faith of
Christ ; and then returned to Antioch, and was known by
thename of Paul.
Meanwhile a great controversy had arisen in the
church of Antioch. The Jewish Christians contended
who were admitted into the Church with
that the Gentiles,
out circumcision, should be made subject to the Law of
Moses. The difficulty was settled by the Apostolic Coun
cil of Jerusalem (in the year 50) in the following decision :
HISTORICAL OUTLINE
Jerusalem SY RIAN
DESERT
MAP I. EARLY CHRISTENDOM

"
It hath seemed good to the Holy Ghost and to us to lay
no further burden upon you than these necessary things,

that you abstain from things sacrificed to idols and from
blood and from things strangled and from fornication."
Out of consideration for the Jewish Christians, Peter
had up to this time observed the Mosaic Law. Paul re
proved him, fearing that the pagan converts might be led
astray if the head of the Church continued to observe the

Law of Circumcision. As to the Law itself, both Apostles
were of one mind in regarding it as superseded by the
New Teaching of Christ.
In the years 50-53, St. Paul made his second mission
ary journey. It extended to Asia Minor, Macedonia,
Greece, where he tarried a year and a half at Corinth,
Ephesus and Antioch.
On his third missionary journey (53-57)* St. Paul
went to Asia Minor, remained over two years at Ephe
sus, and then visited Corinth, Macedonia, Miletus,
Caesarea and Jerusalem. Immediately upon his arrival
in Jerusalem, the Jews attempted to put him to death, but
the guard of the temple freed him. Having spent two
years in prison at Caesarea (57-59), St. Paul appealed
to Caesar and was sent to Rome, where he was imprisoned
for two more years (60-62). Having recovered his free
dom, he went to the far West (Spain), then to Asia
Minor, Macedonia and Crete. He was again imprisoned
and at last beheaded in Rome, on June 29th, of the year
67.
9. Missionary Labors of St. Peter. The early labors
of St. Peter in Palestine are recorded by his companion,
St. Luke, in the first twelve chapters of the Acts of the
Apostles. St. Luke afterwards became the companion
of St. Paul, and for this reason the subsequent labors of
St. Peter are not so well known as those of St. Paul.
Soon after receiving the centurion and his household into
the Church, Peter, the prince of the Apostles, presided as
bishop over a large congregation at Antioch,
where the
followers of Christ were first called
"
Christians." Later
on, we him as missionary traversing Pontus, Galatia,
see
of the
Cappadocia and other countries. In the beginning
HISTORICAL OUTLINE 9
reign of Claudius, about the year 42, he arrived at Rome

where he established a church and presided over it as
bishop.
In Rome, St. Mark, a companion of St. Peter, wrote the
second of the four Gospels and St. Peter approved it.
St. Peter then sent Mark to Alexandria to establish a
Christian church and govern it as bishop. The churches
of Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch and Alexandria justly trace
their origin to St. Peter, and are honored as patriarchal
sees. St. Peter was martyred at Rome, together with St.
Paul, June 29, 67. He was crucified, as Our Lord had

foretold.
10. St. Peter in Rome.
St. Peter had labored in
Rome during a visit previous to the last sojourn, which
ended with his death. This fact is proved :
1. By many documents of Christian antiquity:

(a.) The writings of Clement of Rome, Ignatius,
Papias, Irenseus, Cyprian, Epiphanius, Eusebius, Orosius
and Jerome.
(b.) The Liberian catalogue of popes, compiled about
the year 360.
(c.) The
ancient martyrologies which note a feast
established in honor of the chair of St. Peter which he
"
first used at Rome."
(d.) Suetonius, a pagan writer who tells

The works of
of the expulsion of the Jews from Rome by Claudius, be
" "
cause at the instigation of a certain Chrestus (Christ)

they created continual disturbances, thus proving that
there existed in Rome a Christian community as early as
the reign of Claudius (41-54), the time when Peter first
visited Rome.
2. By the Sacred Scriptures :
(a.) The first Epistle of Peter was written from a city

which was called Babylon. Now this cannot mean the
ancient Babylon on the Euphrates, which, according to
"
Pliny and Strabo, had at this time

become a great soli
tude." Peter did not extend his missionary labors so
St.
far as that Babylon, nor was there ever a Christian com

is a very natural
" "
munity there. Moreover, Babylon

for Rome. In this sense it was
figurative expression
understood by Papias, a disciple of the Apostles, as
Eusebius notes.
in Rome
(b.) That there was a Christian community
before the advent of St. Paul, is proved by St. Paul him
to see the Roman church, whose faith
"
self, for he longed

is spoken of throughout the world." Moreover the church
of Rome was already in a flourishing condition about the
he
year 57, when St. Paul wrote his Epistle although
himself had not, as yet, visited it.
2
Who founded the
Roman church, if it was not Peter? No other Apostle
has ever been mentioned as its founder.
3. By ancient church history. The date of St. Peter s
tradition (. e. during
sojourn in Rome, as established by
the time from his baptism of Cornelius to his imprison
ment Herod fits in well with the fact

Agrippa, 38-44)
by
that, during all thistime, we have no historical record of
8
Peter presence anywhere else.
s
in
St. Peter, of course, did not remain constantly
Rome. In the year 50 he presided at the Apostolic Coun
cilof Jerusalem, and he went also to Corinth, Antioch and
other places.
ii. The Other Apostles. Concerning the other
we know very little. St. James the elder suf-
Apostles
2 Romans 1-15. xv. 20-25.
i.
3 the unanimous testimony of the ancient Church, and

This
"
is
all pretended proofs to the contrary have

no foundation in his
tory." Dollinger, "The Church and Christendom."
HISTORICAL OUTLINE II
fered death about the year 42. St. James the younger,
firstbishop of Jerusalem, was stoned to death in 62. St.
John, the brother of James the elder, was imprisoned with

St. Peter in Jerusalem. Afterwards, while residing in
Ephesus, he governed the growing congregations of Asia
Minor, and gathered around him some distinguished dis
ciples, e. g., Ignatius and Polycarp. During the reign
of Domitian, he went to Rome, where he was thrown into
a cauldron of boiling oil. Having been miraculously pre
served, hewas banished to the island of Patmos, in the
Êgean Sea, where he wrote the Apocalypse, or Book of
Revelations. After the death of Domitian, in the year
96, he returned to Ephesus, and there wrote the fourth
Gospel to prove the divinity of Christ. His constant ser

mon was, Little children, love one another." He died
"
about the year 101.

For the rest we have to rely upon traditions. All
the Apostles, except St. John, suffered martyrdom. St.
Andrew preached the Gospel in Scythia (Southern Rus
sia), St. Thomas in Parthia, St. Bartholomew in Southern
Arabia (India), St. Philip in Phrygia. With regard to the
death of the Blessed Virgin, there are two traditions, the
first of which states that she died in Jerusalem, about the
year 45, surrounded by the Apostles ; the other, that she

accompanied St. John to Ephesus, where she died at a later
date.
Before the close of the first century, we find Chris
tian communities in Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia,
Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, Italy, Spain, Ethiopia
and Egypt. These communities included many persons
of education and good social position. That the new con
verts did not belong solely to the poor and illiterate class is
proved :
1. By the many martyrs in the highest stations of life,
e. g., Flavius Clemens, a cousin of Domitian.
2. By the rich contributions to the Church.
3. By the frequent refutations of the false systems of
pagan philosophy.
II. THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM
The Taking of the City. Deceived by false
12.
prophets and oppressed by the proconsul Gessius

Florus, the
Jews openly revolted against the imperial
government in the year 66. The Roman forces under
command of Vespasian, and later of Titus thereupon be
;
sieged the doomed city. 4 In obedience to the admonition

of Christ, the Christians departed from Jerusalem, after
having seen the wonderful signs foretold in the Gospel
and Jews from many towns and rural dis
fled to Pella.
trictshad flocked to the city for the celebration of Easter,

and famine reigned within its walls. Titus plundered the
city in the year 70; and the temple was burned to the
ground. Considerably more than a million Jews were
slain and 97,000 were carried into captivity.
; Among the
booty of the conquerors was the seven-branched candle
stick, which was taken to Rome and there remained until
the capture of that city by the Vandals in 455. To com
memorate the victory of Titus, a triumphal arch was
erected in Rome.
13. Effects of the Fall of Jerusalem.- The destruc
tion of the Holy City was a significant event in the his
tory of Christianity.
i. It was the fulfilment of the prophecy of Christ. A
parallel may be seen between the words of Christ foretell-
4Flavius Josephus, commander of the great fortress, Jotapata,
was taken prisoner. He became the companion of Titus and his
torian of the Jewish war.
There shall be then great

"
ing the ruin of Jerusalem :
tribulation such as hath not been from the beginning of

5
the world," and the words of the historian, Josephus, re
cording the event,

"
No
much, norcity ever suffered so
was there from the beginning of the world a generation so
fruitful in violence."
2. was a punishment of the Jews in answer to their

It
His blood be upon us and upon our children." a
"
challenge,
After the fall of Jerusalem, the Jewish nation was scat
tered through the world and remains to this day an elo
quent testimony to the divinity of Christ.
3. The Temple was to last until the coming of the
Messiah, and its destruction is a proof that he has already
come.
In the reign of Hadrian, about 135, the Jews, deluded
by a false prophet, Bar-Kochba, again rebelled. Jeru
salem was then totally destroyed by the Romans. Some
600,000 Jews perished and Palestine was devastated. This
of Jerusalem still further emphasized the
final destruction
distinctionbetween Christianity and Judaism. It now be

came clear that Christianity was not a Jewish sect, but a
world religion.
III. PERSECUTIONS
14. Causes. The general cause of the persecutions

was the opposition between the Kingdom of Christ and
"
the kingdom of the world Because you are not of the :
T
world . . . therefore the world hateth you."
The particular causes of the persecutions may be enu

merated as follows:
i. The pagans were irritated because their pride and
5 Matthew xxiv. 21.
6 Matthew xxvii. 25. T John xv. 19.
sensuality were severely condemned by the Christian re
ligion.
2. Pagan priests, soothsayers and merchants who had
lost their influence and profits, excited the masses against
the Christians.
3. The Roman statesmen, seeing the Christians refuse
to worship the national deities, proclaimed them enemies
of the state.
4. The Roman emperors became enraged because their
ancient rights were attacked, for they had been supreme
rulers in both religious and temporal matters.
5. The populace attributed every disaster of the state

to the anger of the gods, caused by the toleration of the
Christian religion; and the Jews promoted these preju
dices.
6. False reports concerning the religious practices of
the Christians charged them with atheism, with Thyestic
banquets, at which the flesh of children was eaten, and
with hatred of all men. 8
St. Augustine enumerates ten general persecutions,
the most cruel of which were the first, the seventh and
the tenth. They cover a period of nearly three centuries.
Those Christians who sealed their faith with their blood
were called martyrs (witnesses) and their number is
;
estimated at about eleven millions. Those who professed

their faith openly at the risk of property and life, with
9
out, however, suffering death, were called confessors.
8 Odium generis humani, Tacitus.

8
Those who renounced the faith received the name of lapsi
(apostates) ;and of them, some, who had denied the faith by
offering sacrifices to the gods, were known as sacrificati or thurifi-
cati (sacrificers, or offerers of incense) others, who had saved
;
themselves by falsely procuring testimonials that they had offered

sacrifice, were called libellatici (procurers of bills) ;others, who
15. The Persecutions. The First Persecution (64-
68) under Nero, was instigated by his wife, Poppaea.

It raged for the most part in and about Rome, for the
Christians were accused of having set the city on fire.

As Tacitus relates, they were torn into pieces by wild
beasts, drowned in the Tiber, covered with pitch to be
lighted and used as torches. Sts. Peter and Paul were
among the martyrs.
The Second Persecution (94-96) was under Domi-
tian. Moved by the fear of rival claimants to the throne,
he summoned before him the relatives of Christ. The
sight of their hands, hardened by labor, convinced him
that they were not dangerous to his supremacy.
The Third Persecution (98-117) was under Trajan.
Among the martyrs were Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem,
cousin of Our Lord, and Ignatius, bishop of Antioch,
whose seven letters, written on his way to martyrdom,
are still extant. Pliny the Younger has given a beautiful
description of the life of the Christians at this time.
The Fourth Persecution (160-180) was under Marcus
Aurelius. St. Justin was among the martyrs.
The Fifth Persecution (202-211) was under Septi-
mius Severus. St. Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, and Sts.
Felicitasand Perpetua suffered martyrdom.
The Sixth Persecution (235-238) was under Maxi-
min the Thracian.
The Seventh Persecution (249-251) was under De-
cius. It was especially directed against the bishops and
priests as a menace to the safety of the state; and

had registered their names in proof of their paganism, were called
acta facientes (the registered) and still others, who surrendered
;
the Sacred Scriptures to be burnt, were called traditores (trai

tors). The latter form of denial was especially common under
Diocletian.
l6 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
throughout the whole empire the most refined methods of

torture were employed. Among the martyrs were Sts.
Agatha, Apollonia and Pope Fabian. The persecution
continued under Callus and lasted until 253.
The Eighth Persecution (257-260) was under Va
lerian. Pope Sixtus II and his holy deacon Lawrence
were martyred.
The Ninth Persecution (275) was under Aurelian.
The Tenth Persecution (303-305) was under Dio
cletian. Four different edicts issued against the Chris
tians caused terrible scenes of bloodshed, and gave this
period the name of The Age of Martyrdom."
"
Eusebius
of Caesarea, an eye witness of the cruelties, writes :
"
The
executioners were weaned with slaughter, and their
*
swords blunted and broken. The hands of the martyrs
were filled with incense and held over fire, so as to force
them to offer sacrifice. Vinegar and salt were placed in
their eyes and rubbed into their wounds. Molten lead was
poured into their ears and mouths. Christians who pos
"
sessed the courage to endure such sufferings might easily

have conquered the pagans," writes Tertullian, were it
"
not more wicked to kill than to be killed." The Theban

Legion and its commander, St. Mauritius, together with
Sts. Sebastian, Agnes, Catherine, Lucy and Afra, suffered
martyrdom. The persecution continued under Galerius
until 311.
16. The Edict of Milan. In the year 313, the joint
emperors, Licinius and Constantine, issued at Milan an
edict of toleration allowing each individual to practise
"
whatever religion he professed." Constantine had

gained a signal victory over the usurper Maxentius at the
Milvian Bridge in 312. Having prayed to the God of
the Christians, he and his whole army beheld at midnight
a wonderful sign in the heavens with the inscription

" "
ev rouTw VLKO. In this conquer." Eusebius in his Life

"
of Constantine relates that the emperor himself told

this story. Constantine ordered the construction of a la-
barum, or imperial standard, bearing the monogram of

Christ :. In gratitude for the favor granted him,
Constantine proclaimed liberty of worship and soon after
wards decreed that the churches and other property which
had been confiscated should be returned to the Christians.
IV. PAGAN PHILOSOPHIES AND CHRISTIAN APOLOGISTS

17. Attacks by Philosophers. While the Roman
emperors were persecuting Christians with the sword,
pagan writers turned weapons of calumny and ridicule
against the Christian faith. Their object was twofold;
first, to excite the emperors and the populace against the
Christians; secondly, to prevent the pagans from enter

ing the Church. Among those who attacked Christianity
with shafts drawn from history and pagan philosophy
were the philosopher Celsus and his friend Lucian, the
satirist (about 170), Porphyrius (about 270), and the
Jewish writers of the Talmud (a book of Hebrew religious

and legal traditions, begun about the year 200).
18. Christian Apologists. The pagan charges were
refuted by the Christian apologists. They proved the
innocence of the Christians, the purity of their lives, and
the sublimity of their teaching; and refuted various base
pagan calumnies. From the miracles and prophecies, they
demonstrated the divine character of the Christian re
ligion. Some Christian writers made a direct attack upon
paganism, exposing its absurdities and contradictions, and
showing the folly of adoring idols.
The Emperors Hadrian, Antoninus and Marcus Au-
relius, in the years 117-180, were rather favorable to

Christianity, and at this time there flourished several
distinguished Christian apologists. The most renowned
were: Justin the Philosopher (who gained a martyr s
crown about the year 166), Irenaeus (whose refutation of
heresies was written about 180) Tertullian, Minucius
Felix, and, a little later, Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria
and Origen.
CHAPTER IV
LIFE OF THE CHURCH
I. HERESIES
x
19. Definition of Heresy. By heresy we understand
the rejection of a truth revealed by God and taught by
the Church as so revealed. Every wilful denial of a di
vinely revealed truth is, of course, a sin against the Holy
Ghost, for, since Christ commissioned the Church to define
with infallible certainty the doctrines of faith, the rejec
tion of any article of faith defined by the Church is an
attack upon the veracity of Christ. Conflicts with heresy
have been of great profit to the Church. They are the
means of bringing out more fully and demonstrating more
clearly the true doctrines. Thus, for example, the pro
found writings of St. Augustine were occasioned by the
errors of Pelagius.
20. Gnosticism. Gnosticism (literally "superior
broke out in the time of the Apostles.

knowledge"),
According to Origen, it arose among pagans who had
embraced Christianity, but were not content with its sim
ple faith and sought to introduce portions of Greek
philosophy, the doctrines of Zoroaster, and Buddhism.
The Gnostics taught dualism, namely that matter is
eternal; that it is the origin of and necessarily an
evil,
tagonistic to God; that a spirit, Demiurge, created the

world out of matter Eon," Jesus, had only a
"
; that the
1 " "
means "
a
Heresy literally choosing."
19
phantom body, and redeemed man only by communicating

to him a more perfect knowledge. These innovators
based their doctrines on distorted passages of Holy
Gnosticism was
"
Scripture and on secret traditions."
really a return to paganism. Some of its followers were
given to extreme asceticism, whereas others practised

every manner of debauchery. There existed more than
thirty systems of Gnosticism, chief amongst them being
those of Simon Magus, Valentinus, Saturninus, Basilides,
Marcion and Karpocrates. St. John, in his Gospel, and
Against Heresies," were the
"
St. Irenaeus, in his work,
principal adversaries of the Gnostics.

21. Manichaeism. Manichaeism is the Persian form
of Gnosticism and its author was Manichaeus, or
Manes. According to a tradition, he was flayed alive,
about the year 276, by order of the Persian King Veranes
I. His doctrine was a combination of Parseeism and
Gnosticism, and had little in common with Christianity,
but merely substituted Christian names for pagan names,
while retaining pagan ideas. Two eternal principles,
Light and Darkness, are said to be constantly at war with
each other. Man is supposed to consist of two elements,
mind and matter and the latter is the source of all evil.
;
Jesus, the Son of Eternal Light, assumed a phantom

body, and redeemed man by instructing him to alienate
himself from evil matter. His death on the cross was an
illusion. The "perfect" among the Manichaeans were
obliged to abstain from animal food and intoxicating
liquors; the killing of animals was prohibited to them;

they were enjoined not to perform manual labor; and
marriage was forbidden. The Manichaeans boasted out
wardly of their asceticism and superior knowledge, but
their vicious lives belied their professions. They based
LIFE OF THE CHURCH 21
on the pretended revelations of

"
their doctrine Manes,

the Paraclete," and on the Sacred Scriptures. Their
distinguished adversary, St. Augustine, wrote to them:
You, who believe what you please of the Gospel and
"
reject what you please, are believing yourself rather than

the Gospel."
22. Minor Sects. i. The Montanists were a sect of

rigorists 150 by Montanus, who
founded soon after
claimed to be the organ of the Holy Ghost. The re
nowned Tertullian was for a while a Montanist.
2. The Monarchians, who believed in only one Divine
person, were represented in Rome by Sabellius who was
excommunicated by Pope Callistus (217-222).
3. The
Novatians, or disciples of Novatian, were
opposed by Pope Cornelius (251-253). They practised
austerity and called themselves
"
Katharoi," i. e. the
"
Pure."
4. The Donatists, named after Donatus, one of their

leaders, originated in Carthage in 311. They first ap
peared as one of the two parties in a quarrel over an
episcopal election, and became so numerous that in 330
they were able to gather 270 bishops in council. Con-
stantine and Constans employed stern measures against
them, but without avail. Julian favored them. Optatus
of Mileve wrote their history; and St. Augustine pub
lished a number of writings against them. The Donatist
schism lasted until the conquest of Africa by the Sara
cens in the seventh century. Among the Donatist errors
was the doctrine that the validity of the sacraments de
pends on the spiritual condition of the person dispensing
them.
2
5. The Chiliasts taught that Christ would shortly re-
2 XfXtot
means a
"
thousand."
turn to earth and reign for a thousand years. This doc
trine originated from a misinterpretation of the Apo
8
calypse. It attracted some of the early writers of the
Church, but its progress was checked by the Roman priest
Caius and by the Catechetical School of Alexandria.
II. CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH
The Hierarchy. The essential constitution of

23.
the Church was given by Christ Himself when He in
stituted the hierarchy, which includes both bishops
and priests.
In the New Testament,
4
we find,on the one hand, ref
erences to
"
The Learning Church," the people and, on ;
the other hand, references to

"
The Teaching Church,"
that is, to bishops, priests, and deacons, who admonish,

instruct, guide and even punish, the lay members of the
5
society.
At first the titles of the various classes of superiors
were not so clearly distinguished as their duties. 8 Priests,
bishops, and Apostles were, all of them, called sometimes
" "
(overseers), and sometimes

" "
episkopoi presbuteroi
(elders) but there was a real difference of rank and
;
power, despite the interchange of titles.

24. Origin of the Hierarchy. The Apostles, in
structed by Christ, provided for a triple gradation of
3
Chapters XX and XXI.
4
6; Acts xiv. 22; Acts vii. 6.
II Tim. i.
5 See the excommunication of the

Corinthian, / Cor. v. 5; also
the punishment of Ananias and Saphira, Acts v., and of Simon
Magus, Acts viii.
6 Thus
nowadays a man may have an inexact title, such as
"professor," "rector" or "director," although the duties of his

office are perfectly well denned.
power, the apostolate (or episcopate), the presbyterate,

and the diaconate.
This is plain for,
i. Holy Scripture shows that the Apostles and their
successors, the bishops, performed functions not given
to priestsand deacons, who taught and baptized, but did
not ordain or confirm. 7
2. The early Christians adhered with such zeal to an
cient usages, that an innovation in the slightest detail
would have met with great opposition. It is therefore
absurd to presume that the priests and people of the en
tire Church would submit to any such usurpation as the
introduction of episcopal authority. And that there
should not remain even a single record of this, would be
utterly impossible.
3. We have catalogues of the lives of bishops reaching
back to the earliest ages and in no see do we find more
;
than one bishop, although frequently there are several

priests.
4. The early Fathers of the Church state in explicit
terms the institution of bishops by the Apostles, and com
ment upon their power and dignity. Clement of Rome,
who died about the year 100, says: "A
bishop has a
particular charge laid upon him and the
priest exercises
functions special to his office; the levite has his own
proper ministry, but laymen have to do with laws that
pertain to their own order." St. Ignatius (+ 107) writes
"
to the Christians of Smyrna :

Obey the bishop as Jesus
Christ, and the priests as the Apostles, and give honor
to the deacons as commanded by Polycarp (about God."
the master of his church." The

"
150) calls the bishop

Fathers of the second and third century lay particular
7 See / Tim. 2a and Acts
v. viii.
stress upon the superiority enjoyed by the bishops over

the priests.
The first bishops were appointed by the Apostles.
Later on the clergy chose the bishop from among them
selves, in the presence and with the consent of the peo
ple; because, as St. Paul says, the bishop must have a

8
good testimony. Priests and deacons were subordinate
to the bishop. As the labors of the deacons increased,
subdeacons, acolytes, exorcists, lectors and porters were
appointed to assist them. Pope Cornelius, writing about
the year 250, informs us, that the church of Rome had
46 priests, 7 deacons, 7 subdeacons, 42 acolytes and 52
exorcists, lectors and porters. The inferior offices were
a school of preparation for the priesthood. The care of
the sick and the instruction of women were committed to
the deaconesses, who were pious virgins and widows,
consecrated to God.
25. Celibacy. The practice of celibacy is founded
on the character of the Christian priesthood. The
Church demands the observance of clerical celibacy for
the following reasons:
i. The state of viriginity embraced out of love for
God is more perfect and more exalted than the married
state and therefore is the fitting state for priests who
offer the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass.
2. The unmarried man can give his life wholly to the
things of God. He alone enjoys the absolute independ-
8 1 Tim. iii. 7.
9
See the words of Christ," He, that can take it, let him take
Math. xix. 12. Also St. Paul s words
"
it." It is good for a :
man not to touch a woman but, if they do not contain them

. . .
selves, let them marry."

"
He that giveth his virgin in marriage,

doth well, and he that giveth her not doth better." / Cor. vii.
ence so necessary at times to the discharge of priestly

10
duties.
In the earliest days of the Church, pious priests and
laymen who voluntarily entered upon the practice of
celibacy, were held in highest esteem, as St. Justin ( +
1 66) bears witness. St. Ignatius (+ 107) had to warn
them not to exalt themselves over the married bishops.

" "
Celibates were chosen for the holy ministry in preference

to married men. Those who were married twice could
not enter the priesthood. 11
"
It behooveth a bishop . . .
to be the husband of one wife." No priest was allowed

to marry after and this is still the custom
his ordination ;
in the Oriental Church which possesses a married clergy.

Celibacy became an element in the very life of the
Primitive Church. We find it imposed on clerics by law,
in the year 255, at the second Synod of Carthage, and
in 305, at the renowned Synod of Elvira in Spain. In the
Western Church the discipline of celibacy finally became
universal but in the Eastern Church it never obtained the
;
force of law.
26. Unity of the Church. The union between the
churches of different cities developed very quickly.
Itwas promoted by :
i. The established forms of communications by which

one local church informed the others of important events
that had taken place, such as elections of bishops, here
excommunications, and the deaths of martyrs. We
sies,
have an instance of this in the letter of the church of
He that is without a wife is solicitous for the things that

10 "
belong to the Lord, how he may please God. But he that is with
a wife, is solicitous for the things of the world, how he may
please his wife, and he is divided." I Cor. vii. 32, 33.
11 / Tim. iii. 2.
Smyrna informing other churches of the martyrdom of

St. Polycarp.
2. The commendatory letters by which strangers were
introduced to churches where they were not known.
3. The dealings of the metropolitan with the suffragan
churches, and of the mother churches with the filiales,
or daughter churches.
12
4. The assembling of provincial synods, which oc
curred frequently after the year 250, and proved a pow
erful means of uniting the clergy and of combating her
esies and schisms.
5. Above all the universal recognition of the primacy
of the Bishop of Rome, the center of unity for the whole
Church.
27. Primacy of the Bishop of Rome. As the centre
of diocesan unity is the local bishop, so the center of
unity for the Universal Church is the
"
rock," upon
which the entire edifice is built, namely the pope, the

bishop of Rome. The prerogative of primacy over the
entire Church, possessed by St. Peter and by his succes
sors, the bishops of Rome, may be proven :
i. From many texts of the New Testament which

state :
(a) That Christ conferred upon Peter the primacy over

the other Apostles. 13
12Ecumenical synods, or councils, are those in which the

bishops of the whole inhabited world (Ofawfjdrf) are assembled;
and over which the pope presides either personally, or by a duly
authorized representative. Provincial councils are those in which
the bishops of a province assemble under the presidency of the
archbishop. Diocesan synods are those in which the priests of a
diocese meet under the presidency of their bishop.
13 See especially, Matt. xvi. and John xxi.
(b) That, after the ascension of Christ, Peter exer

14
cised authority over the other Apostles.
2. From history which shows that St. Peter s succes
sors were recognized as heads of the Universal Church:
(a) Pope St. Clement, about the year 96, gave a prac
tical example of the exercise of primacy, when, as head
of the Church, he terminated a dissension at Corinth.
He rebuked the Corinthians and refused to depose certain
good priests who had been complained of, thus clearly
implying his jurisdiction over the church of Corinth.
The Corinthians submitted to his decision obediently,
thereby acknowledging his primacy. Merely as bishop,
he would have had nothing to say in Corinth. Were
Clement not the supreme head of the Church, the Cor
inthians would never have referred the matter to Rome,
for the Apostle John was still living at Ephesus, so much
nearer at hand.
(b) Again in the second century, Pope Anicetus (157-
168) and Pope Victor I (190-202) decided for the whole
Church the controversy regarding the celebration of
Easter.
(c) In the third century Pope St. Stephen (+ 257), put
an end to the controversy regarding the validity of bap
tism conferred by heretics; and the bishops of Africa
and Asia Minor accepted his adverse judgment.
(d) The early Fathers of the Church bear frequent

witness to the primacy of the see of Rome, so, for in
stance, Sts. Ignatius, Irenaeus, and Cyprian. St. Igna

107) speaks of the church of Rome as presiding
"
tius (+
over all the churches." St. Irenseus (+202) says, With "
this church all the faithful must of necessity agree, on

account of its more powerful authority." St. Cyprian
14 See Acts i.-xv.
(+ 258) haspassages which go to prove the

many
supreme jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome. 15
(e) Even heretics, for example the Donatists, appealed

to the judgment of the Roman see, and by this act ac
knowledged its supreme authority.
(f ) The Emperor Aurelian (+ 275) was aware that the
Christians recognized the bishop of Rome as the head
of the Church. When Paul of Samosata insisted on
holding the see of Antioch, contrary to the will of the
bishops, theemperor forbade that any one who was not
recognized by the bishop of Rome should remain in the
see of Antioch.
We must not forget that the Church in the primitive
ages was so harmonious, and the individual pastors were
so dutiful and so richly endowed with special graces and
charismata, that the popes had little occasion to make
use of their authority. Moreover, persecutions often in
terfered with the freedom of the popes, so that we do not
find as many evidences of their authority as we might ex
pect.
III. THEOLOGY AND CATHOLIC PRACTICE

28. Ecclesiastical Writers. Very early the Church
commenced to develop her theology. At first she was
obliged to refute the assaults of pagan philosophers, then
the attacks of heretics, and finally she began to place be
fore the faithful the positive truth and beauty of the Chris
tian Revelation. The Fathers of the Church were the
foremost representatives of ecclesiastical science.
A distinction is made into three classes, Fathers,
Writers, and Doctors of the Church. The Fathers of the
15 Tertullian (-+-240), although a Montanist, calls the bishop
"
of Rome, the bishop of bishops."

Church possess four characteristics: (i) they wrote in

the early ages (antiquitas) ; (2) they correctly taught
the doctrines of the Church (doctrina orthodox a} ; (3)
they were renowned for their holiness (sanctitas vita}
and (4) they were approved by the Church (approbatio
ecclesus).
Ecclesiastical Writers are those who lack any of these
marks, Tertullian, Eusebius, Origen.

e. g.
Doctor, or Teacher of the Church (doctor ecclesvE),

is an honorary title conferred upon those writers who have
edified and strengthened the Church by eminent learn
ing.
The four great Fathers of the early Church in the East
are: Athanasius, St. Basil, St. Gregory Nazianzen,
St.
and St. John Chrysostom and in the West, St. Ambrose,
;
St. Augustine, St. Jerome, and St. Gregory the Great.
writings of the Apostolic Fathers, (the im

The
mediate disciples of the Apostles), are eight most
important historical documents, which appeared before
the year 168. They are the works of (i) Pope St.
Clement, of Rome; (2) Barnabas, companion of St.
Paul; (3) Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch; (4) the author
of the Epistle to Diognetus; (5) Hernias, author of
Shepherd"; (6) Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis:
"The
(7) Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna; (8) The Church of

Smyrna (namely, an epistle on the martyrdom of St.
16
Polycarp).
All the Apostolic Fathers wrote in Greek, at that time
the universal language. About the time of Tertullian
(200), Latin began to be the language of the Church.
16 The oldest of all the documents of this
period is the
or Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles, rediscovered at Constan
tinople in the year 1883.
The mostdistinguished writers of the Church, im

mediately after the Apostolic Fathers were :
i. The Greek writers, Irenaeus, disciple of Poly-

carp and Bishop of Lyons (+ 202), Clement of Alexan
dria, once a pagan philosopher (+ 217), and Origen,
"
the
17
father of Scriptural exegesis" (-f- 254).
2. The Latin writers, Tertullian, a priest of Carth
age (+ 240), Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage (+ 258), and
Lactantius, the "Christian Cicero" (+ 330).
The Catechetical School of Alexandria, an academy
of Christian philosophy, exercised a great influence over
the Church of the third century, chiefly through the writ
ings of Clement of Alexandria and of Origen.
29. Baptism and Confirmation. In the early ages of
Christianity, Baptism was usually administered by a
18
triple immersion of the body in water. In case of
necessity, especially with weak and infirm persons, it was
conferred by sprinkling or pouring the water. Great en
thusiasm and special gifts of grace supplied the place of a
long preparation but earnest faith and sincere sorrow for
;
sin were always required.

At a later period, adults who sought to be admitted
to baptism were thoroughly instructed and then tested
19
by time. They were called catechumens, and were di
vided into three classes :
1. "
The hearers," who were allowed to remain at the

service during the sermon and the reading of the Scrip
tures, and who continued in this class for three years.
17 " "
means
"
Exegesis interpretation."
18 The immersion symbolized burial and resurrection. See
Rom. vi. 3; Col. ii. 12.
19 "
from the Greek KarTjxei", to instruct.

"
Pupils
2. "
The kneelers," who remained after the sermon

to receive the imposition of hands.
3.
"
who were permitted to assist at

The standers,"
the whole Sacrifice of the Mass, but not to receive Holy

Communion.
Having spent three years of preparation with prayer
and fasting, the catechumen had to renounce Satan and to
make a profession of faith, before being baptized. He
then received the kiss of peace and was brought into the
the saints." 20
"
presence of the faithful,

The proper time for the administration of this sac
rament was the vigil of Easter (or of Pentecost). Or
dinarily the bishop was the
In case of necessity, minister.
baptism could be administered on any day of the week,

and by laymen. The present ceremonies of baptism orig
inated in Christian antiquity. The white garment is a
symbol of innocence salt, of wisdom the burning light,
; ;
a sign of faith that enlightens, of hope that aspires to

heaven and of love that warms. Previously to the third
century, infants were not baptized except in case of neces
sity. Sponsors were customary in the second century.
The practice of deferring the reception of baptism until
there was danger of death was disapproved by the Church.
The newly baptized persons wore their white garments
from Easter Saturday until the following Sunday,
White Sunday," at which time they received their first
"
Holy Communion.
In the ancient Church the sacrament of confirmation
was usually administered together with baptism. It
was conferred by the bishop. The rite consisted of the
20 All Christians were named because sanctified by
"saints,"
baptism and called to sanctity.

anointing with holy chrism and the laying on of hands,

as St. Cyprian (+ 258) bears witness.
30. Discipline of the Secret. The primitive Chris
tians, following the and His Apos example of Christ
21
tles, maintained a certain reserve in regard to the doc
trines of Christianity. They kept from the pagans and
catechumens the full knowledge of the sacred mysteries,
lest these mysteries might be exposed to ridicule and pro
fanation. This practice, called the discipline of the secret,

was observed with special care in regard to the Holy
22
Eucharist, which was represented in allegories, parables,
and symbols. One of the most famous symbols was the
"
fish," which stood for Christ because the initial letters

of the Greek word IX0YS (fish) suggested the acrostic
lyaovs Xptoros cov Yios 2u>T^p (Jesus Christ God s Son
Saviour).
The
early Fathers speak very carefully, using such
expressions as : shall be understood by the faithful,"
"I
My
"
meaning is clear to the initiated." This practice

explains the frequent occurrence of obscure passages.
It helped to cause the evil reports current among pagans
regarding supposed nefarious practices of the Christians,

such as :
"
They eat human flesh,"

"
They drink blood,"
a child and eat

"
They kill its flesh wrapped in bread."
Wrong as these reports were, they furnish an undeniable
proof of the antiquity of Holy Mass, and of the primitive

Christian faith in the real presence of Our Lord under
the form of bread. The catechumens were not instructed
in the sacred mysteries until after baptism, as St. Augus-
21 / Cor. iii. 2.
22 Eucharist means
"
thanksgiving," and refers to Our Lord s
giving of thanks at the Last Supper.

tine makes clear to us in his homily cited in the Roman

23
Breviary, on May third.
31. Mass in the Early Church. In the early Church,

Holy Mass was concluded with the agape or love-feast,
which was celebrated by the chanting of hymns, by
prayer and by the kiss of peace. Owing to the abuses
to which they gave occasion even in the days of the Apos
24
tles, from the celebration
these feasts were separated
of the Lord Supper, sand later were abolished entirely.
Mass Continu
"
Holy was celebrated in private houses.
ing daily with one accord in the Temple, and breaking

bread from house to house (Holy Communion), they took
their meat with gladness and simplicity of heart." And "
they were persevering in the doctrine of the Apostles and

in the communication of the breaking of the bread and
25
in prayers."
Many of the early Fathers testify to the faith of the

Christians in the true presence of Christ in the Holy
Eucharist. St. Ignatius (+ 107) accusing the Docetists,
them They abstain from the Eucharist and
"
says of :
refuse to join in prayer, because they do not agree with

us, that the Eucharist is the flesh of our Saviour, Jesus
28
Christ, the same who suffered for our sins."
In his Apology to the Emperor, Marcus Aurelius, St.

Justin Martyr (+ 166) gives an extensive description
which shows that the celebration of the Eucharist then
contained all the essential parts of our present Mass.
The reading of passages from the Prophets (Epistle), and
23 Feast of the Finding of the Holy Cross, Led. viii.
24 See / Cor. xi. Zi.
25 Acts ii.
26
Epistle to the Smyrnians.
the Apostles (Gospel) being ended, the bishop preaches.

This over and a prayer recited, bread and wine mixed
with water are brought to the bishop, who takes it, gives
glory and praise to the Father in the name of the Son
and of the Holy Ghost (Offertory), after which he gives
thanks
"
Gratias Agamus
("
in the Preface) and makes a
prayer, and the people answer Amen." The deacons

"
distribute the blessed bread and the blessed wine to all

the faithful present, then carry it to the absent (Com
This food we call the Eucharist, and no one
"
munion).
is permitted to partake of it unless he believes in the
truth of our doctrine, is baptized unto the remission of

sinsand regeneration, and lives as Christ has lived. For
we do not receive these things as ordinary food and or
dinary drink; but as our Lord Jesus Christ became man
and took upon Him flesh and blood for our redemption,
so also believe we, that the food blessed by the prayer
which contains His words (Consecration) has become
the flesh and blood of Jesus incarnate. For the Apostles
in their records called Gospels, transmitted to us the com
mand which Christ gave them when, after taking bread
and giving thanks, He blessed it and said Do this in :
commemoration of Me. "
The present Mass-prayers originated in the primitive

Church and the canon, except a few unessential addi
;
tions, is entirely of apostolic origin. Communion was

given under both kinds generally; but under one form
when administered at homes during persecution, and also
in the case of infants. The primitive Christians ap
proached Holy Communion regularly on Sundays, and
as often as they assisted at the Holy Sacrifice on other
days. Sinners were excluded excommunicated un
(" "),
til they had expiated their guilt by penance.

32. The Sacrament of Penance. Christ conferred on

the Apostles the power of forgiving and retaining
27
sins, and as the Apostles could not exercise this judi
cial pov/er, unless the sinner disclosed the state of his
conscience, the early Christians confessed their sins to

the Apostles. 28
Penitential confession of sin was so necessary a condi
tion of divine pardon that it has determined the popular
name of the sacrament of reconciliation in nearly all lan
guages.
20
A
was made between grievous
distinction
(mortal) and lesser (venial, i.e., more easily pardonable)

sins. To obtain pardon for mortal sin, confession was a
necessary condition. The confession might be I public :
in the church before the whole people; 2 semi-public be

fore the clergy and under the seal of confession; 3 pri
vate, as at present. The last was the common rule. The
Fathers of the Church frequently warned the faithful
against insincerity in confession. The public, or semi-
public, confession was enjoined as a penance, probably
after a private confession had been made and especially
in the case of public scandalous crimes, such as apostasy
from the faith, or murder. In the West it was abolished
by Leo III (+ 816).
In the third century the penitential discipline developed
into a graded system of four degrees, the highest three
corresponding to the three degrees of the catechumenate.
The penitents were divided into four classes: i. The "
weepers," who were excluded from all worship and who

27 "
Whose John
sins you shall forgive they are forgiven."
xx. 23.
28 See Acts xix. 18, Ef>.
St. James v. 16.
29 The Greek "0^0X67170-45" means the
"acknowledgement";
Latin "confessio," means "admission." The Latin form obtains
also in Italian, Spanish, French and English.
begged at the entrance of the church for the prayers of

the faithful passing in. 2. "
The who were

hearers,"
permitted to assist at Mass until the end of the sermon,

which was preached immediately after the Gospel. 3.
"
The kneelers," who knelt to receive the imposition of

hands. 80 4.
"
The standers," who were allowed to re

main during the whole Sacrifice of the Mass, but were
excluded from Holy Communion.
According to the grievousness of his sin, the penitent
had to pass through some or all of the stages of penitential
discipline. The duration of penance also was regulated
by the character of the offense. Twenty years was the
penance for murder, upwards of nine years for impurity,
a sentence for idolatry and apostasy. Those who
life
had repeatedly been guilty of the same sins were for

ever excluded from Holy Communion, although absolu
tion might be given them. The penitents were also sub
ject to many restrictions. They were barred from the
priesthood and they had to renounce all amusements, thus

;
giving a warning to others to avoid sin. The penance

was relaxed upon evidence of fervent sorrow, or in case
of illness, or upon the intercession of the martyrs. This
last was clearly equivalent to the granting of an indul
gence, that is, a remission of temporal punishment.

The
penitential term having expired,
solemn reconciliation
was effected through the bishop by the laying on of hands
and absolution.
33. Other Sacraments. Extreme unction was ad
ministered in the early Church as at present. This is
proved by the Fathers of the Church, who quote the
words
80 Some in this
penitents remained as long as twenty-five years
class.
of the Epistle of St. James in proof of the divine institu

any man sick among you ?
"
tion of this sacrament : Is

Let him bring in the priests of the Church, and let them
pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the
31
Lord."
The sacrament of holy orders was administered in

the time of the Apostles by the laying on of hands.
This is seen from St. Paul s words to Timothy
"
I ad :
monish thee that thou stir up the grace of God, which is

32
in thee by the imposition of my hands." The cere
monies accompanying the administration of this sacrament
are laid down in the Apostolic Constitutions, which were
compiled about the year 300, and were based upon still
older customs.
83
Marriage, according to the words of Christ and of
34
St. Paul was absolutely indissoluble. Neither of the
parties could ever contract a new marriage during the
life-time of the other. The marriage ceremony was per
formed by the bishop during the Sacrifice of the Mass.
Marriages between Christians and pagans were forbidden.
34. Religious Practices. The burial of the dead was
most reverent. The remains were not burned as was
the pagan practice, but buried in the ground according
to the custom of the Jews. This practice was based
"
upon the respect due to the body, the temple of the Holy
Ghost," which as the seed of immortality was committed
to the earth to rise immortal and impassible. 35 In Rome

31 v.
14.
82// Tim. i. 6.
83 Math. xix. Mark
6, x. 9-12, Luke xvi. 18.
8 *Rom. vii. 3 and / Cor. vii. 10-12.
88 1 Cor. xv. 42.
the catacombs were used as burial places. The cata

combs contain pictorial representations and inscrip
still
tions which prove the antiquity of many doctrines and

36
institutions of the Church.
The early Christians attested their faith in purgatory
by their prayers for the faithful departed. The Sacri
fice of the Mass was offered for the repose of the
dead on the third, seventh, and thirtieth day after

death, and also on the anniversary.
"
saysThe widow,"
should pray for the soul of her husband,

"
Tertullian,
implore his comfort and have the sacrifice offered up
for the repose of his soul on the anniversary of his
death."
We have many proofs that the saints were venerated

during the early ages of the Church. At the risk of
their lives, the Christians rescued from the pagans the
relics of the martyrs, deposited branches of palm in their
graves as symbols of victory, treasured up vials of their

blood, and celebrated the anniversary of their death as
their birthday in heaven under the name of natalitia.
They had recourse to the intercession of the saints and

paid honor to their relics.
37 "
confess Christ as theWe

Son of God," declare the Christians of Smyrna in the
letter on the martyrdom of their bishop, St. Polycarp,
and we love the martyrs as they deserve, because they
"
were His pupils and followers and gave proof of great

love for their Lord and King. We love them also be-
36 The catacombs which became so choked up as to be com
pletely lost sight of by the ninth century, were rediscovered acci
dentally in the year 1578.
37 This honor of course was
clearly distinct from adoration, the
honor due to God alone.
cause we desire to become their companions and fellow-

disciples."
The first Christians were much given to prayer, and this

brought them consolation and strength in seasons of per
secution. A high value was placed on the blessing of
bishops and priests. Frequent use was made of the sign
of the cross.
"
We sign our forehead with the sign of

the cross,when we depart from home and when we re
turn, when we put on our garments, when we go to bathe,
when we sit down to our meals, when we light our lights
and when we lie down or sit down." 38
From the time of the Apostles, Sunday (the day of the
Lord) was kept instead of the Sabbath. Wednesdays,
Fridays and Saturdays in each week were called
"
sta
tion days," 39 and on these days a fast was observed from
three o clock in the afternoon, in memory of Christ s pas
sion. It was called a half fast.
The most ancient Christian festivals were the
Nativity, Epiphany, Easter, Pentecost and Ascension.
In addition, each church celebrated the feasts of its mar
tyrs. The faithful prepared for the more solemn feasts
by observing the preceding day as a vigil with fasting.
The preparation for Easter consisted of a forty days fast,
after the example of Christ. Nothing was eaten until
after sundown, and then only dry bread and vegetables
were taken.
The early Christians were renowned for the purity of
their morals and their firm faith. They performed severe
penances, and underwent many voluntary fasts, often
38 De
Tertullian, Corona, iii.
39 "
To be on station was a military term, like to be on post,"

"
"
or on The Christians were on guard against the

"
" "
guard."
enemy of salvation.
eating nothing for forty consecutive hours. To their he

roic virtue, witness is borne by the records of the ascetics
and hermits, and above all by the martyrs. Another
quality was their heroic charity which caused the pagans
See how these Christians love one another."
"
to exclaim,
PERIOD II
FROM CONSTANTINE TO CHARLEMAGNE

(313-800): AGE OF THE FATHERS
CHAPTER V
HISTORICAL OUTLINE
35. Constantine the Great. The Emperor Constan-
tine (306-337), although brought up as a pagan, mani
fested a decided preference for the Christian religion.
His brother-in-law, Licinius, the co-emperor, favored pa
ganism. In the war between them, victory came to Con
stantine, and Licinius lost both his kingdom and his life
(324).
Having become sole ruler of the empire, Constantine,
with the encouragement of his Christian mother, St.
Helena, began gradually to eliminate paganism. Laws
were passed in favor of the Christians and important of
;
ficesgiven to them. At first the pagan religion was tol

erated but finally regulations prohibiting all immoral and
;
deceptive forms of worship were brought to bear upon the

pagans. Magnificent Christian churches, like the church
of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem and St. Peter s at
Rome, were erected; and the Christian religion spread
more and more. The sons of Constantine were instructed
in the Christian religion.
In the year 330, Constantine left Rome and moved
the seat of empire to Byzantium which received the
41
name of Constantinople. The removal of the imperial

government from Rome to the East enabled the pope to
act more freely, and in this respect it was a blessing,
but had also indirect evil effects, for:
it i. At Constan
tinople, theemperors were drawn into the controversies

of the Eastern Church and were led to interfere with
ecclesiastical rights. 2. They acquired the oriental spirit
of despotism. 3. The
courtier-bishops of Constantinople
originated many disputes with the pope and finally occa
sioned a schism.
Constantine postponed his baptism until his last ill
ness. He had many faults, and frequently meddled with
the rights of the Church. But he possessed great energy
and prudence and much nobility of soul. All in all, he was
a splendid ruler and is justly styled The Great."
"
36. The Sons of Constantine. After the death of

Constantine the Great, in A. D. 337, the empire was
divided among his three sons, Constantine II, Constans
and Constantius. Constantius finally became the sole
ruler (350-361), and through the influence of his Arian
wife, zealously promoted Arianism. For years Constan
tius was not a baptized Christian, but after his cousin,
Julian, had been proclaimed Caesar by the army, Constan

tius grew uneasy and received baptism. He then marched
against Julian, but died on the way, in the year 361.
37. Julian the Apostate. Julian the Apostate (361-
368), nephew of Constantine the Great, had been edu
cated at Athens, and his mind had been corrupted by
the pagan philosophers. At heart a pagan, he professed
great zeal for Christianity and received the order of lector
to please his cousin Constantius. He was not familiar
with the genuine form of Christianity, but only with the
distorted form presented by the Arians. As supreme
ruler of the empire he undertook to restore paganism by
introducing Christian features into the old idolatrous wor

ship. He attempted to fashion paganism in the likeness
of Christianity, by usinghymns and sermons at the serv
ices and by favoring works of charity. Against Chris
tianity he employed scorn, calumny and violence and he ;
forbade Christians to have schools of their own. But

paganism was dying, and although Julian began the re
building of the temple of Jerusalem, he could not com
1
plete it.
Julian died in a battle with the Persians at the age of

thirty-two. (+457) says his dying words
Theodoret
were :
"
Thou
hast conquered, Galilean O
After his fu !
"
tile attempts to restore the heathen religion, it gradually
disappeared from the cities. In the country places, how

ever, it persisted for generations and on this account was
"
called paganismus, or
"
religion of the peasants (pagani).

38. Progress of Christianity. Christianity was grad
ually gaining a foothold in all the countries. Outside
the Roman Empire the glad tidings of the Gospel had
been announced in Persia, Armenia, Southern Arabia, In
dia, China and Abyssinia. About the year 340 a violent
persecution, which lasted over one hundred years and al
most destroyed Christianity, broke out in Persia. The
historian Sozomen tells of 16,000 martyrs who perished
there. Christians who escaped death were compelled to
embrace the Nestorian heresy.
The Gospel had been preached in Armenia by St. Greg
ory the Illuminator (300 A. D.). In the time of St. Mes-
rop (441), the Armenian church was flourishing, but later
(491), it fell a prey to Monophysitism.
1
The miracles by which the work was prevented, are recorded
by the pagan historian, Ammianus Marcellinus.
Southern Arabia had received the light of the true faith

at an early period, but divided by heresies, it became Mo
hammedan. India and China contained various Nestorian
Christian congregations in the seventh century. Abyssinia
embraced Christianity in the time of Constantine, through
the efforts of two young slaves from Tyre, Frumentius
and Edesius but later it fell into Monophysitism.
;
Theodosius the Great and His Successors.

39. Theo-
dosius the Great (379-395), a brave general and able
ruler, further lessened the influence of paganism, by
refusing authority to the pagan priests, and
all civil
finally by prohibiting the pagan sacrifices. Before the

death of Theodosins, Christianity had become the official
religion of the Roman Empire; and paganism gradually
passed away. The state, however, was not yet thoroughly
penetrated by the spirit of Christianity. The Byzantine
conception still persisted, that is the idea that the ruler is
the absolute head of the state, restricted by neither divine
nor ecclesiastical law. Many of the Byzantine emperors
sought to be at the same time pope and emperor, just as
the Russian Czar is They defined articles of
to-day.
faith, protected heretics, made bishops into mere court of
ficers, and persecuted all who had the courage to resist.
This policy of ruling the church from the throne, called
Byzantinism, or Caesarism, is diametrically opposed

to the Christian conception of a sovereign who rules by
the grace of God and is the obedient son of the Church.
Thefifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries are
filledwith instances of imperial interference in the af
fairs of the church. Theodosius II (408-450), at first
favored, and later opposed, the Nestorians. Leo I (457-
474) took part in the Eutychian controversy, but fortu
nately opposed the heretics. Zeno (474-491 ) and Anasta-
sius (491-513) caused trouble between Constantinople

and Rome, and occasioned a schism that lasted for forty
years. Justinian (527-565) favored the Monophysites.
I
Justinian II(685-711) convoked the Second Trullan

Synod which in 692 declared the See of Constantinople
to be on an equality with that of Rome. Leo the Isaurian
(717-741) published an edict against images and thus
provoked the permanent separation of Italy from the Em
pire. The same was followed by his suc
fatal policy
cessor, Constantine Copronymus (741-775).

CHAPTER VI
LIFE OF THE CHURCH

I. HERESIES
40. General View. During the persecutions, heresy

could find chance to develop; but in time of peace
little
is began to thrive. At first the powers of darkness had

attacked the Church externally; later they attempted to
destroy her from within. This period is the age of the
great doctrinal controversies and of the great doctors of
the faith. It is the age in which the teachings of the
Church go through a process of organic development and,

by virtue of thorough definition and proof, become clearer
than before.
We may divide the chief heresies of the period into
three classes:
1
i. The heresies.
theological These concerned the
2
Blessed Trinity and were held by Arians, Semi-Arians
and Pneumatomachi.
2. The anthropological 3 heresies. These concerned
human nature and its relation to divine grace, and were
held by Pelagians, and Semi-Pelagians.
3. The Christological heresies. These concerned the
natures and person of Christ, and were held by Nestorians,
Monophysites and Monothelites.
1
Concerning God (9os).
2 Latin Tnnitas, from tri-unitas (triple unity).
3
Concerning man (wOpuTros) .
46
41. The Theological

Heresies, Arius (-f 336), a
priest of Alexandria, attacked the divinity of Christ,
the fundamental doctrine of Christianity.
He taught: i. That the Son of God is not eternal
and unchangeable, nor generated from the substance of
the Father, but created out of nothing, in time.
"
Once
there was a time when the Son was not."
2. That the Son is a creature of God and ;
is divine,
not by essence, but by grace ; not by nature, but by com
munication from the Father. Therefore, the Son cannot
properly be called God.
3. That the Son can sin.
42. The First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea. The

teaching of Arius having provoked much dispute, the
First Ecumenical Council was convoked by Constantine
at Nicaea, in Bithynia (A. D. 325), under the presi
dency of the papal legate, Hosius, and in the presence

of 318 bishops. The emperor, as honorary president,
greeted the bishops and then gave place to the presiding

prelate. Arius exposed his doctrine. He was refuted by
St. Athanasius and the council then proceeded to excom
;
municate Arius and his followers, including two bishops.

In its profession of faith, the council plainly affirmed the
true and full divinity of the Son of God, calling Him
homoousios* Pope Sylvester approved of the decisions of
the council; and Constantine embodied them in the laws
of the empire.
TheCatholic teaching was expressed in the formula
that,with relation to the Father, the Son is the "of
same substance," (homoousios). The Arian teaching

was mat, with relation to the Father, the Son is of dif-
"
4 In Greek, fyoowrios, or consubstantial, i. e.

"
of the same sub

stance."
fcrcnt substance" (anomoousios) hence Arians were

sometimes called Anomoians. As Eusebius, bishop of
Nicomedia, became one of their leaders, they also received
the name "
Eusebians."
43. Later Fortunes of the Arians. Later on, Con-

stantine favored the Arians; and the Catholics were
subjected to persecution. The emperor was actually ar
ranging the restoration of Arius, when the latter met with
a sudden death (336). Constantine died soon afterwards.
After the accession of Constantius, the Catholics
were harshly treated. St. Athanasius was exiled five dif
ferent times. The Arians were able to depose some of
the Catholic bishops and to substitute Arians in their
places; in many cases Catholic bishops were banished or
put to death. In Egypt the persecution was especially
cruel. During the years 356-359, the heresy seemed to
have triumphed Pope Liberius and many other bishops
;
were in exile and, St. Jerome says,

; the whole world
"
groaned at finding itself Arian."
Then came a division of the Arian party. They split

(Anomoians), who affirmed that the
into the strict Arians
Son is unlike (anomos) the Father, and the Semi-Arians
(Homoians), who affirmed that the Son is like (homoios)
the Father. With the division came a weakening of
strength. Popular clamor forced the restoration of
Liberius to his see; and after the death of Constantius in
361 Arianism steadily declined. Most of the Semi-Arians
returned to the Church. Among the Goths, the Arian
heresy persisted longer than elsewhere ; but finally, it died
out even among them.
Certain writers, including Sozomen and St. Jerome, de
Pope Liberius took place only
clared that the restoration of
after he had signed an Arian formula. About the ac-
curacy of this report historians are divided; but in any

event, there is no doubt of his having been put under
compulsion, and so no question of his prerogative of papal
infallibility.
The Macedonians named after their leader Bishop
Macedonius of Constantinople, who died in 362 denied
the divinity of the Third Person of the Blessed Trinity,
and on this account were called Pneumatomachi (enemies
of the spirit). They were condemned by the Second Ecu
menical Council of Constantinople (381), which added to
the Nicene Creed a phrase explicitly stating the divinity
te
of the Holy Spirit, et in Spiritum Sanctum Dominum et
vivificantem." At a later date, there was added to the

Creed another phrase which affirmed the procession of
the Holy Spirit from both the Father and the Son
"
Qui
ex Patre Filioque procedit." This addition first appears
at the Council of Toledo in Spain (589).
44. The Anthropological Heresies. It is the doctrine
of the Church that in order to secure eternal salvation
man needs the grace of God to begin, to continue, and to
complete the work of his sanctification. But man on his
part must co-operate with the grace of God. Thus good
works and eternal salvation proceed from the union of two
elements, the interior, supernatural grace of God and the
free will of man. Heresy would arise from an over
rating of either one of these elements at the cost of the
other: Thus i. Pelagianism was the over-esteem of hu
man freedom and the denial of divine grace. 2. Pre-
destinarianism was the over-esteem of divine grace and
the denial of man s freedom. 3. A false compromise was
made by the Semi-Pelagians, who laid too much stress on
liberty and too little on grace.
45. The Pelagians. Pelagius, a British monk, who
had grown up in the sheltered life of the cloister, went

to Rome about the year 400, and in his teaching ex
aggerated the power of human nature. He rejected
the doctrine of original sin and its effects, and asserted
that man could lead a sinless life and obtain eternal sal
vation, without Christ or His grace. This was a return
to paganism, and rendered Christ s redemption of men
superfluous.
Pelagianism was refuted by St. Augustine. He had
personally experienced its falsity in his early life, and
knew that he owed everything to grace. Pelagius, having
refused to retract his errors, was excommunicated by the
pope, and his doctrine was condemned by the Third Ecu
menical Council of Ephesus, A. D. 43 1. 5
46. The Semi-Pelagians. An important council, held
at Orange, in 529, condemned the Predestinarians, and
the Semi-Pelagians. These latter held a milder form of
Pelagianism. They maintained that man could at least
begin the work of justification without the grace of God,
and could persevere in justification once attained without
a special grace.
47. The Chris tological Heresies. The Church
teaches that Christ possesses two natures, the divine
and human, intimately and inseparably united in one
Person that the two natures are not mingled, nor ab
;
sorbed; and that there are two wills in Christ, the di

vine and the human. On account of the union of the
5 The
Predestinarians were at the opposite extreme to Pelagius.
They exaggerated the doctrines of St. Augustine, holding that
grace does everything, and that heaven depends upon grace alone ;
also that God from

eternity predestines the good to eternal life
and the wicked to eternal perdition, and that both are helpless to
alter this sentence.
6
Orange is near Avignon in France.
two natures in Christ, the attributes of both natures may

be predicated of the one Person, Christ ; and to do so has
always been the custom of the Church. So, for instance,
we always say The Son God has
"
of died for us." So

again, the Blessed Virgin Mary, being the Mother of
Mother of God."
"
Christ, has always been called the

The Church teaches that Christ possesses one Person
and two natures, and thus, Catholic theology is midway
between heretical extremes. Nestorius exaggerated
Christ s humanity, making it into a separate nature, and
therefore calling it an independent personality; whereas
Eutyches suppressed Christ s humanity, making it less than
a real nature. 7 The Church teaches that Christ s human
ity is a real, but not an independent, nature and there ;
fore is only a nature, not a personality. The two na-
NESTORIUS. CHURCH. EUTYCHES.

Two Persons One Person One Person
and and and
Two Natures. Two Natures. One Nature.
7
The Eutychians were called Monophysites, believers in one
"
Later on there arose also a sort of modified Mono

nature."
believers in one will."

"
physites, called Monothelites,

tures, divine and human, are possessed by the one Divine

Person, who is thus at the same time, God and Man.
48. The Nestorians. Nestorius, appointed patriarch

of Constantinople, in the year 428, objected to the title,
Mother of God," as applied to the Blessed Virgin.
"
He maintained that the Blessed Virgin had given birth

only to the man Jesus, in whom the Son of God, later on,
dwelt as in a temple ; that there are two persons in Christ
really distinct, the man Jesus and the Son of God; and
that it is only in appearance that Christ is One Person.
This doctrine destroys the whole economy of redemption,
for neither of the two persons would have been able to
fulfil the plan of redemption, not the Divine Person who
could neither suffer nor die, and not the human person
whose works could possess only a finite value.
The chief adversary of Nestorius was Cyril, bishop of
Alexandria (-f- 444). He defended Catholic truth
against the heresy, and regarding himself as bound by
"
the ancient ecclesiastical custom," appealed to the pope,

who condemned the false doctrine and excommunicated
Nestorius. The sentence of condemnation was reiterated
by 198 bishops assembled in the Third Ecumenical Coun
cil of Ephesus, A. D. 431. Nestorius died in exile. 8
49. Eutyches, abbot of a mon
The Monophysites.
astery in Constantinople, endeavoring to refute Nes
torius, went to the other extreme and taught that
Christ has but one real nature (Monophysitism). He
affirmed that, as there is but one Person in Christ, so also
there is but one nature, namely, the divine, which absorbs
the human nature as the ocean absorbs a drop of milk.
The principal adversaries of this heresy were Flavian,
patriarch of Constantinople, and Pope St. Leo I (440-
8 He still has followers in Persia.
461) who wrote

a dogmatic epistle to Flavian. In the
" "
Robber-Synod of Ephesus (449), the patriarch Flavian

and several leaders of the orthodox party were maltreated
and put to death. The Fourth Ecumenical Council of
Chalcedon (451) condemned Monophysitism. In defiance
of the council, the emperor and many cowardly Eastern
bishops continued to maintain the heresy. Monophysites
still Egypt (there called Copts), in Syria, and
exist in
in Armenia; and also in Mesopotamia, where they are
called Jacobites.
50. The Monothelites.

Heraclius, the emperor, and
Sergius, patriarch of Constantinople, sought to mediate
between the Monophysites and the Catholics, but made
the mistake of teaching that there is but one will in
Christ. This doctrine is another, though refined, form
of Monophysitism. Meeting with opposition to his teach
ing, Sergius, about 638, addressed a Pope Hon-

letter to
orius, asking him to let the controversy remain unsettled,

as it was but a war about words. In his reply, Honorius
expressly distinguished two natures in Christ, but wrote
some things that were obscure and easily misunderstood
about the relation of the divine will and the human will
in Christ. There is of course a sense in which oneness
of will might be attributed to Christ, namely, in the sense
that His human will was always conformed to the divine
will. And Honorius would be all the more apt to use
such a phrase, because apparently he was unaware that
Sergius had affirmed the oneness of Christ s will in the
sense of one faculty, or power of willing. The pope, not
having detected the error, failed to condemn the heresy
involved. But the popes who succeeded Honorius de
tected and censured Monothelitism and were persecuted
;
in consequence. In the year 680, the Sixth Ecumenical

Council was held at Constantinople, and the Monothelite
heresy was solemnly condemned.

51. Condemnation of Pope Honorius. The Council
of Constantinople also anathematized Pope Honorius.
Honorius was blamed for having favored Sergius and his
teachings. From this, the conclusion has sometimes been
drawn that Honorius did not possess the infallibility which
is claimed for the pope. But this conclusion is wrong;
because plain that Honorius did not err in a solemn
it is
definition of faith issued for the whole church, and it is
only in these definitions that papal infallibility is exer

cised. With regard to the charge that he personally be
lieved a heresy, we must remember: i. That two of the
most learned theologians of the time, Sophronius and
Maximus, considered Honorius as personally orthodox.
2. That the papal letter to Sergius failed to reject the
false doctrine and to define the true but did not explicitly
;
affirm a heresy. 3. The verdict of the Council of Con

stantinople possesses the force of an ecumenical council,
only insofar as approved by the pope and Pope Leo II ;
approved the condemnation of Honorius because he had

extinguished the flame of heretical doctrine from
"
not
the beginning, but rather had fanned it by his negligence."
II. CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH
52. Relation of the Church to the State. The inti
mate and the Church

relation existing between the State
was i. The Church
of great advantage to the latter:
obtained protection for her property and exemption from
taxation. 2. Pagan legislation was altered to conform
to church laws. 3. The Church obtained recognition of
9 Sometimes called the Trnllan

Synod from trullus, a vaulted
"
because it met in a vaulted chamber of the palace.

"
chamber ;
her own authority. 4. Civil jurisdiction was conferred

upon the bishops, and the right of asylum was given to
the Christian churches. 5. Sins against God, such as
heresy, blasphemy and witchcraft, were declared to be

civil crimes and were punished by the State. 6. The
Church acquired a beneficent influence upon civil society,

and by this influence prepared the world for social im
10
provements, such as the gradual abolition of slavery.
The great influence of the Church on civil authority was
also exercised in the protection of the poor, the prisoner
and the orphan. It was strictly forbidden to murder chil
dren, or to expose new-born infants to the danger of
death. Immoral theatricals and gladiatorial combats were
proscribed by law. In Rome the latter were abolished in
A. D.404 through the sentiment stirred up by the heroic
hermit Telemachus who threw himself into
sacrifice of the
the arena and was killed by the furious crowd. The
sacredness of marriage, the protection of women, and the
10 There exist about 400 synodal decrees and pontifical letters in
behalf of the slaves.
(a) The Church abrogated the right over life and death
claimed by the slave-owners.
(b) She prohibited the mutilation of slaves and the enslave
ment of free men.
(c) She safeguarded for the slaves the indissolubility of mar
riage and the inseparability of the family.
(d) She softened the lot of the slaves by impressing on masters
the law of Christian charity, and by teaching that the slave is his
master s brother, made in the image and likeness of the same God.
(e) She promulgated the principle that the emancipation of
slavesis most pleasing to God and thus developed the custom
;
of manumission at baptisms and at family feasts and by last

testaments.
(f) She ransomed as many slaves as possible, and even insti
tuted religious orders for that very purpose.
observance of church festivals were also regulated by
Christian principles.
The close alliance between the Church and the State had
its evil effects also: i. Many persons embraced Chris
tianityfrom selfish and worldly motives. 2. Many em

perors interfered with the rights of the Church.
53. The Development of the Primacy. When the
doctrines of the Church were attacked by heretics, the
popes showed themselves to be the centre of ecclesias
tical unity and sometimes were the only power that
withstood error. The logic of events more and more em
phasized the papal supremacy. Appeals were made to the
Bishop of Rome. Without his confirmation no conciliar
acts had any general binding force, and his judgment was
taken as final and unalterable. The Roman primacy is ex
plicitly stated by the Fathers of the Church St. Optatus :
of Mileve (+ 385?) calls the Apostolic See, cathe

" "
dra singularis, the unique see ; St. Augustine

(+ holds the culmen auctoritatis,
"
430) says that it the

summit of authority"; St. Ambrose (+ 397) in explain
ing Psalm XI says, Ubi Petrus, ibi Ecclesia, Where "
Peter is, there is the Church." Hence also the proverb

cited by St. Augustine, Roma locuta, causa finita,
"
Rome
has spoken, the case is Pope St. Gelasius I
decided."
(+ 496) says: Summa sedes a nemine judicatur, The "
supreme see is not subject to the judgment of

any one."
Distinguished Popes.
54. The most distinguished
popes of the epoch were St. Leo the Great and St. Greg
ory the Great.
St. Leo the Great reigned from 440 to 461. His ninety-
six sermons, still extant, and his 140 letters, prove both
his great learning and his zeal for the Church. In the
year 452, he preserved Rome from the invasion of the.
Huns under Attila; and in 455 he saved his flock from

the Vandals under Genseric. St. Leo was the uncom
promising foe of heresy, especially of Monophysitism.

St. Gregory the Great reigned from 59O-6O4. 11
55.The False Decretals. Year after year came

new evidences of the primacy possessed by the see
of Rome. The popes both authorized and supported the
missionaries who propagated the Christian faith through
out the world; and the missionaries were loyal servants
of the Holy See. It is sometimes absurdly asserted that
the power exercised by the popes in the sixth and seventh
centuries sprang largely from the so-called Isidorean De
cretals. These Decretals were calculated to advance the
power of bishops, rather than the power of the papacy.
They are made up partly of certain genuine laws of the
Church, and partly of other forged laws; and they were
not written by St. Isidore at all. He died in A. D. 636 ;
whereas the so-called Isidorean Decretals do not appear
until the middle of the ninth century.
History gradually revealed the perfection of the hier
archical organization. In the hierarchy: I. The pope is
the head of the entire Church. 2. The archbishop or

metropolitan, who may be also a patriarch or a primate, is
the head of an ecclesiastical province, which is composed
of several bishoprics. 3. The bishops who are heads of
dioceses are suffragans of the metropolitan and entitled to
vote in provincial councils. 4. Priests are the assistants
of the bishops in the care of souls. Deacons, sub-deacons
and inferior clerics assist the priests.
11 See paragraph 64.


56. Rise of Ecclesiastical Science. The appearance
of numerous heresies and schisms during this period,
A. D. 313 to 800, gave a great impulse to theological
activity. The champions of the Church in her conflicts
with heresy were the Church Fathers, who clearly and
beautifully taught the Catholic doctrines and by their
varied and deep learning, as well as by the purity of their
lives, edified and strengthened the Church for all time.
12
57. The Four Great Greek Fathers. Pre-eminent
in the Eastern Church were St. Athanasius, St. Basil
the Great, St. Gregory Nazianzen, and St. John Chry-
sostom.
St. Anthanasius, of Alexandria (296-373), while a
deacon, at the Council of Nicaea, opposed the Arians

with great learning and brilliant eloquence. 13 After
years of study and ascetical exercises under the direction
of St. Anthony, in the Theban desert, he was unanimously
chosen patriarch of Constantinople, where he became the
uncompromising antagonist of Arianism. Neither ban
ishment nor calumny could move the constancy of this
glorious defender of the faith ; and he spent nearly twenty
years of the forty-six years of his episcopacy in exile.
After many hardships and sufferings, he died a peaceful
death at Alexandria in the year 373. He was naturally
resolute and inflexible, yet kind and charitable. His writ
ings contain many treatises in defense of Catholic doc
trine, and a beautiful biography of St. Anthony.
12 Out of a vast number of holy and learned writers of this
epoch, we select eight, the four greatest of the Eastern, or Greek,

and the four greatest of the Western, or Latin, Church.
18 The Athanasian Creed was named after was
him, although it
not composed until the fifth century.

the Great.
58. St. Basil St. Basil the Great (329-
397, born at Csesarea, in Cappadocia) was the child of

wealthy and pious parents. His father, mother, grand
mother and three sisters are venerated as saints. St.
Basil received his training in the schools of Caesarea, Con
stantinople and Athens. In his youth he formed such an
intimate friendship with Gregory Nazianzen, that they
one soul in two bodies." They enter
"
were called
tained the same enthusiasm for all that was good, the
same love for God, and both were animated with the same
desire for perfection. Later St. Gregory of Nyssa,
brother of St. Basil, joined them. They were called the
"
three great Cappadocians."

Sts. Basil and Gregory, as young men, were models of
diligence and piety. They knew but two streets in Athens,
the one leading to the church and the other leading to
the college. Basil finally abandoned the world and re
nounced his splendid prospects. Having distributed his
wealth among the poor, he retired into solitude, where, in
union with Gregory Nazianzen, he devoted himself to
study and to prayer. At the earnest solicitation of his
bishop he gave himself to the Church (364), was or
dained priest, and afterwards became Bishop of Csesarea,
in 370. As bishop, he continued the ascetical practices of
the desert. He possessed but one garment and his daily ;
food consisted of bread and salt. When threatened with

heavy fines, banishment and death, he was able to answer
laughingly,
"
Is that all ?
"
He was the pillar of the

Church at Caesarea. His firmness and undaunted cour
age greatly impressed the Arian emperor, Valens, who
at length ceased to threaten the saint. Basil was the first
to draw up a code of rules for the religious life; and

these rules are still observed by many monks of the East,
as well as by the
"
community the Basilians."

called His
numerous writings contain many beautiful discourses and
letters. He died in 378.
Gregory Nazianzen.
59. St. St. Gregory, of Nazian-
zus in Cappadocia (329-390), was the friend of St.
Basil, and became bishop of a see now unknown.
When the Arians had gained control of the churches in
Constantinople, only one small chapel being left to the
Catholics, he was sent to that city to propagate the faith
(A. D. 379). By his persuasive eloquence, modest re

serve and ardent love for souls, he soon converted a great
number of heretics. On this account he had to endure
the violent hostility of the Arians, manifested by stone-
throwing and attempts at murder. He became bishop of

Constantinople, but abdicated this dignity when the Catho
lics had recovered their churches and after he had sum
moned the Second Ecumenical Council to meet at Con

stantinople. Gregory closed his active and useful life in
holy solitude, A. D. 390. His writings include 232 letters,
and more than 400 poems, all in classical language. Ow
he was styled The
"
ing to his doctrinal depth of thought,

Theologian."
60. St. John Chrysostom. St. John, surnamed Chry-
sostom, or "Golden Mouth" (347-407), was born at

Antioch. He was the most distinguished disciple of
the pagan rhetorician Libanius, but left the world and
practised great austerity in the desert. Having been or
dained priest in his native city, he undertook the office of
preaching. After having fled to the desert to avoid being
made a bishop, he was brought back by force and elevated
to the patriarchate of Constantinople (398). Conditions
in this city were deplorable. Schisms were rife, flattery
prevailed, and immorality was rampant at the imperial
LIFE OF THE CHURCH 6l
court, and even among the clergy. By frankness in de

nouncing the sins of all classes, he aroused the anger of
the vain Empress Eudoxia, and of others in high standing.
He was unjustly deposed by the courtier bishops and sent
into exile (404). After much patient suffering he died
"
in 407, exclaiming Praised be Jesus Christ for every

:
His
"
thing remains
! were brought in solemn procession
to Constantinople. His writings, of which the homilies
on the Sacred Scriptures and the twenty-one discourses
On the Statues are the most beautiful, were composed
" "
in classical language.
61. The Four Great
Latin Fathers. Pre-eminent in
the Western Church were St. Ambrose, St. Augustine,
St. Jerome and St. Gregory the Great.
i. St. (340-397), son of the Roman prefect
Ambrose
of Treves, became governor of Milan. While yet only a
catechumen, he was addressing the contesting parties in
an episcopal election, when a young child cried out:
"Ambrose for bishop." He was forthwith consecrated
against his will. In this exalted station he gave marked
proofs of apostolic zeal and firmness of character. He
distributed all his goods to the poor, and each day fasted
until evening. He
successfully opposed the Arians, who,
aided by the powerful influence of the Empress Justina,
endeavored to seize a church at Milan. He spent day and
night in the church with the people, singing psalms. His
sermons moved many and brought about the conversion of
St. Augustine. He excluded the Emperor Theodosius
from the church services and required him to do public
penance because Theodosius, enraged at the destruction
of his own statue, had caused the death of 7,000 inhabi
tants of Thessalonica. To the remonstrance of the em
peror, St. Ambrose replied:
"
If thou hast sinned with

David, also do penance with David." He composed the

beautiful hymns O lux beata Trinitas
:
"
Splendor !
" "
Deus Creator omnium,"

" "
paternae gloriae," Veni,

14
Redemptor Gentium." He died in 397, leaving many
valuable writings.
62. St. Jerome. St. Jerome (340-420), born at Stri-
don, in Dalmatia, undertook extensive travels in the

pursuit of knowledge. He sojourned for four years in
the Syrian desert, Chalcis, where he devoted himself to
the practice of penance and the study of Hebrew. At
the urgent request of Pope Damasus I, he revised, ac
cording to the original Hebrew text, the Itala, i. e., the
ancient Latin translation of Holy Scripture. His edition,
being universally adopted, was called Vulgata." He "
went to Bethlehem, where, for more than thirty years he

lived near the Grotto of the Nativity, and devoted his time
to the translation of the Old Testament from the He
brew. He
died in 420. His numerous works, especially
his beautiful letters, attest his great learning.
63. St.
Augustine. St. Augustine (354-430), the
greatest Doctor of the Church in any age, was born at
Tagaste, in Numidia. Endowed with extraordinary

talents, he went astray as a youth, and was captivated by
the heresy of the Manichseans, to which he adhered for
nine years. But this sect could neither satisfy his craving
for truth, nor give him peace of heart.
"
In his Confes
sions we find him beautifully expressing the sentiment
"
Thou hast made us for Thyself, O Lord, and our heart is

"
not at peace until it rests in Thee." He taught rhetoric

at Milan, and moved by curiosity was led to attend the
sermons of St. Ambrose. Grace and truth captivated his
heart. While walking in a garden, Augustine heard a
14 St. Ambrose is not the author of the
"
Te Deum."
miraculous voice saying Take and read." He opened

:
"
the Sacred Scriptures and found the passage especially ap

Let us walk honestly as in the day,
"
plicable to himself,
15
not in rioting nor in chambering." After many in
terior struggles, he was baptized by St. Ambrose, at the
age of thirty-three. His pious mother, St. Monica, had

unceasingly prayed for him, and St. Ambrose had con
soled her with the words,
"
child of so many tears can A

not be Augustine then gave up the world and
lost."
devoted himself to study, penance and prayer. He was

ordained priest and later on, in 395, was elevated to the
episcopal see of Hippo, now Bona, in Africa. From that
time his zealous labors extended to all classes, the clergy,
the poor, the widow and the orphan. He was distin
guished for the keenness of his mind, his clear logic and
his profound knowledge, and was able to triumph over the
Manichaeans, the Donatists and the Pelagians. Yet he

was calm, mild, humble and kind-hearted to his enemies.
Many of his 232 writings are still extant. His principal
City of God and the
" "
works are the

"
Confessions."
He died in the year 430.

64. Pope St. Gregory the Great. Pope St. Gregory
the Great (540-604) was born of an illustrious Roman
family. Having wealth and learning, he was appointed
praetor of Rome, an office which he soon abandoned to
give himself to God. He became a Benedictine monk,
then abbot, afterwards cardinal deacon and papal legate
to Constantinople ;
and finally, despite his protests, he was
unanimously chosen pope in 590. He was zealous, active,
prudent, humble, gentle and solicitous for the welfare of
the entire Church. He combated heresy, increased the
solemnity of divine worship, promoted the ecclesiastical
15 Rom. xiii. 13.
" "
Gregorian chant, established special schools for singers,

invented a system of musical notation, improved church
discipline, protected the oppressed against the arbitrary
rule of the imperial officers, and fought
against slavery.
He sent Augustine (of Canterbury) as missionary to Eng
land. Though feeble in health, he wrote many theological
works. At the same time he was careful of the revenues
of the Church, and supported convents,
orphanages, and
the schools for the poor. He was
obliged to take upon
himself almost the entire civil government of Rome, and in
this fact lay the He
"
beginning of the papal monarchy."

paid the costs of wars against the invading barbarians and
furnished grain to the devastated countries. He
gave an
example of humility to the bishops of Constantinople, who
sought the title of "Ecumenical Patriarch," by

calling
himself "Servant of the servants of God," a title re
tained by the popes to the present day.
Gregory died in
A. D. 604. His most important writings are his 840 let
ters.
In the course of time the
names of Pope St. Leo the
Great (+461) and
of St. Hilary of Poitiers, the Athan- "
asius of the West" (+ 366), were added to the list of

Church Fathers.
65. Churches and Their Ornaments. The Church
adapts both nature and art to the service of God. At
a very early period she created her own exclusive form of
18
architecture, the so-called basilica style. The ground
plan of the primitive churches was modeled after the
pagan basilicas, buildings erected for courts of justice
and public meeting-places. The plan was that of an ob
long quadrangle, running east and west, divided longitu
dinally into three sections by two rows of columns. On
16 "
Basilica
"
means a royal building.

the east was a semi-circular hall called the apsis, con

17
taining the bishop s throne and the altar.
The interior was adorned with frescoes and mosaics. 18
To avoid even the appearance of idolatry, no statues were
placed in the early churches; but there were many pic
torial representations from the Holy Scripture the Fall :
of Man, the Deluge, Abraham, Moses, David, Elias, Jonas,

Tobias, the Nativity, the Presentation in the Temple, the
Adoration of the Magi, the Miracle of Cana, the Resurrec
tion of Lazarus, pictures of Christ, the Blessed Virgin
and other saints, especially Sts. Peter and Paul. Among
all the pictorial representations, the most prominent was
the cross. 19 The pictures were chiefly symbolical, many
17 The
space south of the altar was for men of rank the
senatorium. The space north of the altar was for women of rank
the matronceum. Of the three sections, the southern was for
the men, the northern for women, and the middle contained near
its eastern end the choir. Two reading desks were close to the
choir. At the western end, a railing ran across the church and
beyond it A
was the narthex, for the penitents. forecourt, or
atrium containing the kantharos or fountain, was surrounded by a
row of columns. The roof was of wood and flat, light being
admitted at the sides. After bells began to be used, towers were
introduced, and at first they stood detached from the church.
Later the oblong quadrangle was cut near the apsis by a second
quadrangle running at right angles to the first, forming a transept,
and making the building cruciform. During the reign of Jus
tinian (527-565), the flat wooden roof gave place to the cupola,
producing what is called the Byzantine style. Besides the main
cupola, which was supported by four, or eight columns, there were
in some churches, other half cupolas.
18 from
"Mosaic" (relating to the muses, or highly
Moi5<reto5
artistic) was applied especially to pictures made from small

colored stones.
19 The
pagans knew this and mocked the cross. In 1856, an
excavation of the Palatine Hill unearthed an ancient caricature of
symbols being taken from the animal and the vegetable

kingdoms. Among them were the fish, lamb, dove, lion,
ram, the vine, the olive branch, and palms also the ring, ;
ark, anchor, lyre, etc.

66. Divine Worship. The ceremonies connected
with the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass were much the
same as to-day. To increase the solemnity of the service,
ecclesiastical chant was introduced,
St. Ambrose and St.
Gregory the Great being among its chief promotors. The

zeal of the faithful grew cold after persecution had ceased,
and the practice of daily Communion diminished, so that,
in A. D. 506,we find the Synod of Agde, in Gaul, obliging
the people to go to Holy Communion at least three times in
the year. The catechumenate remained practically un
changed, as did also the penitential discipline, although

primitive rigor was relaxed somewhat and public con
fession abolished. The veneration of the saints grew
steadily. The Blessed Virgin was portrayed in every
branch of and honored in paintings, poems and eulo
art,
gies. Greatly treasured were the relics of the martyrs.

The true cross was discovered by the Empress Helena in
326, and preserved until 1187, when it was seized by the
Saracens. Later on, it was restored, and was then divided
into parts. In the sixth century special vestments were
prescribed for priests while celebrating Holy Mass.
IV. MONASTICISM
67. The Rise of Monasticism. The essential ele

20
ments of monasticism, namely mortification, self-
denial and obedience, were recommended by Christ
a Christian before a cross, with the device, "Alexamenos adores
his God."
20 means a
"Monk" solitary.
LIFE OF THE CHURCH 6?
Himself. 21
We find three degrees in the development of
monasticism. The who
led a life of celibacy and
ascetics,
prayer in the midst of their families, were of the first

22
degree. To the second degree belonged the hermits, or
anchorites, who fled into the desert during the persecution
under Decius, and of whom St. Paul of Thebes was the
most illustrious example. The third degree, consisting of
those who lived in cloisters 23
was organized by St. An
thony, the "Father of Monasticism" (356).
The earliest colony of hermits was established in the
desert of Thebes,where St. Pachomius founded the first
monastery proper, which soon sheltered 3,000 monks.
They were united under a common rule, with a novitiate ;
and had hours for prayer and for labor, especially basket-
making. The superior was called abbot ("father").
The greatest founder of Monasticism in the East was
St. Basil the Great. He exacted poverty, chastity and,
above all, His rule prescribed meditation,
obedience.
study, labor, community prayers, common midnight devo
tions, and fasting on five days of each week. Monasti
cism was carried into the West by the exile, St. Athana-
sius. St. Martin of Tours and St. Ambrose were also
zealous promoters of the monastic life.
68. The Stylites. A
species of eremitical life in the
midst of the world was led by the Stylites, or
"
pillar
saints," who lived on a little platform at the top of a col
umn, praying and meditating, and sometimes preaching to

the people. The best known is Simeon Stylites who, in
the first half of the fifth century, lived on a column at
Antioch for thirty-seven years, eating only once a week.
21 Mark x. 21.
22 "
Hermit means a dweller in the wilderness.

"
23 "
means an enclosure.
"
Cloister
69. St. Benedict. Benedict (490-543), born at

St.
Nursia, in Umbria, organized monasticism in the West.

He fled from the corruption of Rome, where he was at
school, and went secretly to Subiaco, where, for three
years, he dwelt unknown to the world. His concealment
having been discovered, he was made abbot of a monas
tery. He established twelve monasteries, the most re
nowned of which is Monte Cassino. His rule insists es
pecially on obedience and a fixed abode. Manual labor,
observance of the canonical hours of prayer, study and
meditation followed one another in the routine. His dis
ciples lived in strict poverty and observed all simplicity
and moderation, as far as health allowed. Benedict died
in 543. His sister, St. Scholastica, was superior of a re
24
ligious community of nuns.
70. Services of Monasticism. Inestimable services
were rendered to the world at large by the monks, es
pecially by the Benedictines. Their first aim was per
sonal goodness, and their second, the service of other
people. Among their useful deeds we may mention these :
i. They cleared primeval forests, dug canals, laid out

roads, built bridges and transformed barren lands into
fertile fields.
2. They taught the young, imparting both religious

and secular education and giving instruction in the crafts.
3. They transcribed books, thereby preserving the in

tellectual treasures of pagan and Christian antiquity.
4. They developed science and art.
5. They performed works of charity towards the poor,
the sick and the traveler.
6. They propagated Christianity and strengthened
faith by the preaching of missions.
24 The word "
nun "
is of Egyptian origin and signifies a virgin.

7. They gave spiritual alms by prayer, and were gener

ous and devoted examples of self-denial and virtue. In
such lives we find the true solution of many social ques
tions.
In its flourishing period, the order of St. Benedict had
60,000 monasteries. It has given to the Church 30 popes,
200 cardinals, more than 4,000 bishops, 1,560 canonized

saints and over 1,500 distinguished writers.
The monks first introduced the tonsure, i. e., the practice
of shaving the head, and during the seventh century this
was adopted by the clergy generally. The Roman ton
sure differed from the Oriental. The western monks al
lowed a narrow crown of hair to remain in memory of
our Saviour s crown of thorns the Orientals shaved the
;
entire head.
7O A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
MAP II. MEDIEVAL CENTRAL EUROPE

CHAPTER VII
THE NEW NATIONS

I. GENERAL VIEW
71. Contrast with the Preceding Age, The new na

tions that entered the Church
in this period transferred
the scene of action to the West and to the North. Dur
ing Christian antiquity, the Church at first engaged in a
conflict with peoples already highly organized and civilized
and rich in literature, science and art; now the conflict
came with nations in the infancy of their civilization.
The civilization of to-day is due to the labors of the
Church among these Germanic tribes. The descent of
the barbarians upon the imperial provinces of Europe com
pletely destroyed the social and political life of the an

cient civilization. The Church alone remained unchanged.
Supplied with all the implements necessary to her mission
energy, strength and the spirit of sacrifice rich in the

culture of past empires and her own wealth of experience,
she subdued the conquerors and saved freedom, author
ity and government.
72. Work of the Church. The Church protected the
oppressed, the slaves and the poor; she opposed super
stition, bloodshed and feuds. The reward of her tender
solicitude was the love of the barbarians. In gratitude
they placed the pope at the head of the family of Chris
tian nations and made him the arbiter and guardian of
their rights. The authority exercised by the pope was of
great benefit to both kings and people. It was a safeguard
against the tyranny of rulers and the rebellion of subjects.
It restrained national hatred and selfishness, and enforced
the law of God.

The West flourished under the guidance of the
Church. Christianity sanctified the fresh vigor manifest
ing itself in the youthful literature, in the arts, especially
architecture, in scientific works and educational insti
tutions and freedom and morality.
in the cultivation of
During this same period, the Eastwas falling lower and

lower, destroyed by tyranny and by moral corruption.
II. ITALY (A. a 375~774)

The Conversion of the Goths. The Goths, dwell
73.
ing to the north and west of the Black Sea, were con
verted to Christianity by the Arian bishop, Ulfilas
(311-380). Ulfilas invented a Gothic alphabet and
translated nearly the whole Bible into the Gothic language.
The Arianism of the Goths played an important part in
church history, when they came into contact with the
Catholic peoples.
74. The Visigoths (378-410). -In 375 the Huns
crossed the Volga and, after subjugating the East
Goths (Ostrogoths), drove the West Goths (Visi
goths), across the Danube and into conflict with the
Roman outposts. The Visigoths won the battle of
Adrianople, killing the Emperor Valens, in 378, and then
entered the service of the empire. After the death of
Theodosius in 395, they marched through various prov
inces,under the leadership of their king, Alaric, and cap
tured Rome
in 410. Part of their forces went on as far
as Spain and expelled the Vandals from that country.
THE NEW NATIONS 73
75.The Ostrogoths (493-552). In 493, the Ostro

by Theodoric, occupied Italy and founded a
goths, led
kingdom which lasted until Justinian destroyed it in
552. Although Arians, the Ostrogoths were generally on
good terms with the Catholic inhabitants of Italy.
76. The Lombards (568-774). The Lombards, en
tering Italy from Pannonia about 568, under Alboin,
their king, put an end to the Byzantine supremacy, that
had just been re-established by Justinian. They
founded a kingdom at Pavia and two great duchies at
Spoleto and Benevento ;
and controlled most of the
peninsula for two centuries. The last Lombard king,
Desiderius, was crushed by Charlemagne, in 774. The
Lombards, part pagan and part Arian, caused great trouble
to the Church and to the Italian people.
III. SPAIN (407-711)
77. The Vandals (407-416) . The Vandals invaded

Spain in 407 but, having been expelled by the Visigoths
in 416, they seized Africa and established their capital
at Carthage. The Vandals were strong promoters of
Arianism, wherever they had the power. From Africa,
they invaded Italy under Genseric, in 445, and sacked
Rome. Their African kingdom was destroyed by Beli-
sarius, the general of Justinian, in 534.
78. The Visigoths (416-711). The Visigoths, who
expelled the Vandals from Spain, in 416, founded a
kingdom at Toledo which lasted until the Saracen in
vasion in 711. They were converted to Catholicity by
St. Leander and St. Isidore of Seville about the year 600.
The Spanish Church soon grew to be illustrious ; and the
councils held at Toledo in the sixth and seventh centuries
are famous in history.
Clennont <_ VT
V o Lyons
$\G<yfeva
Vienne -*
Valence
Alhi Ora
A .
MAP III. MEDIEVAL WESTERN EUROPE

THE NEW NATIONS 75
IV. FRANCE (407-814)

79. Conversion of the Franks. The Franks, a con
federation of West German tribes, entered Gaul about
407. They numbered but a few thousand at the time that
the Merovingian prince, Clovis, began his rule (481-511).
He united northern Gaul and central Germany into a
single Frankish kingdom, and having been baptized by

St. Remy, Archbishop of Rheims, in 496, established
Catholic Christianity throughout his dominions. The as
cendency of the Catholic Franks over the other barbarian
peoples put an end to Arianism. Clovis, who was called
and the most Christian king,"
" " "
a second Constantine
destroyed the Arian Visigoths in Gaul, and forced the
Burgundians to become Catholics.
80. Civilizing Influence of the Church. The Franks
were barbarians and during the sixth and seventh
still
centuries the Church encountered many obstacles in

her attempts to hold them up to Christian standards.
Ignorance and immorality among the clergy were cor
rected by various measures, notably by the institution of
"
canons," that is to say, clerics living under rule. Mon

asteries did much to promote science and religion. Grad
ually religion succeeded in sanctifying marriage and rais
ing the position of woman. The Church fostered the
spirit of union and of obedience to authority, provided
for the poor and helpless, softened the hardships of slav
ery, dignified labor, repressed bloodshed and superstition,
and restrained within narrower limits the practice of feuds
and of ordeals."
"
81. Rise of the Carolingians. In the eighth cen

tury, the (the family of Pepin and
Carolingians
Charles Martel) acquired the throne (752). They did
much to support the authority of the Church and to assist

the missionaries evangelizing the pagan tribes along the
eastern border, from Switzerland to Holland. Charle
magne (768-814) made the Catholic religion supreme
throughout namely in Gaul, in all that was
his empire,
then Germany, in the greater part of Italy and in part of
Spain.
V. THE BRITISH ISLES

82. England (314-803). Britain had early been
evangelized, and in 314 the Synod of Aries (in Gaul)
was attended by the bishops of York, London and Lin
coln. The Saxon invasion of 449 swept away all traces
of Christianity, except in some parts of Wales and Corn
wall. In 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine,
with forty monks to re-convert England. One after an
other, the kingdoms of the heptarchy received the Gospel
and, with the conversion of Sussex (685), the whole coun
try became again Catholic. The relation of England to
the Holy See is shown by the history of the dispute be
tween St. Wilfrid, bishop of York, and Theodore, the
Greek monk, whom Pope Vitalian appointed archbishop
of Canterbury in 669. Their first quarrel was settled by
appeal to a Roman council presided over by Pope St.
Agatho. Then, new differences having arisen, Wilfrid
went to Rome in 704, and was again justified. The Saxon
Bede of Jarrow (+ 735), Father of English Church His
tory, and Alcuin (+804), the tutor of Charlemagne,
were famous scholars. The papal supremacy was recog
nized by important synods, such as Whitby (664), Hert
ford (673), Hatfield (680), and Clovesho (747 and
803). King Oswy accepted the rulings of Rome
in 664;
Offa did the same in 787 and Egbert did the same in 803.
;
THE NEW NATIONS 77
83. Ireland (430-795) .Although early introduced

into Ireland, Christianity made little progress there
until the coming of Palladius, who was commissioned
by Pope Celestine, in 431, to preach the Gospel in Ire

land. He was soon followed by St. Patrick, a native of
Boulogne, in Picardy, then called Armorica. Sent by
Pope Celestine, he began the conversion of Ireland in 432,
and succeeded in converting practically the entire island
before his death in 461. The Irish Church flourished, and
many famous monasteries were founded in the sixth cen
tury, notably Clonfert by St. Brendan and Clonmacnoise
by St. Kieran. the seventh century paganism had
By
practically disappeared. Among the Irish missionaries
who carried the faith to other countries, were St. Columba
who founded lona in Scotland (563) ; St. Columban who
founded Luxueil Gaul and Bobbio in Italy; St. Gall
in
who in Switzerland founded the monastery that bears his
name. The Norwegian and Danish invasions beginning
about 795 destroyed many of the churches and monaster
ies in Ireland.
84. Scotland (412-802). About 412, the Christian

religion was introduced into Scotland by Abbot Ninian
of Britain. Irish missionaries in the sixth century spread
the through the country. St. Columba, having
faith
founded lona as his headquarters, in 563, soon converted
the northern part, organizing the Scottish church on quasi-
monastic lines. Dioceses were not formed until the
twelfth century. St. Keltigern was the apostle of the
region about Glasgow. In the eastern part, the faith was

preached by St. Cuthbert, who became bishop of Lindis-
farne in 684. The Scandinavian invasions, beginning
about the year 802, interrupted the development of the
Scottish church.
VI. GERMANY (685-755)

85. The Early Bishoprics. The early Christian bish
oprics of Speier, Mainz, Treves and Cologne were de
stroyed, together with the Roman colonies along the
Rhine, by the Teutonic invaders; but these invaders
were themselves converted by Christian missionaries in
the seventh and eighth centuries. Soon after the year
600, the Irish monks, Columban and Gall, preached in the
present Switzerland; and Killian evangelized Thuringia
in 685. The Anglo-Saxon monk, Willibrord, labored
among the Frisians of Holland for many years (690-739).
86. St. Boniface. Most successful of all these was
the
"
Apostle of Germany/
1
Boniface, originally named
Winifrid, an Anglo-Saxon monk, born in Devonshire,
who was commissioned to preach the faith in Germany
by Pope Gregory II in 719. Assisted and protected by
Charles Mattel, he evangelized Hesse, Thuringia, and
Bavaria (722-741) and also set the Church in good or
;
der among the Franks. He became archbishop of Mainz

in 732, and, having resigned his see to labor among the
savage Frisians of Holland, was martyred with fifty-two

companions near the present town of Dockum in 755.
VII. CHARLEMAGNE S EMPIRE
87. The Aim of Charlemagne. Charlemagne (711-
814) was master of all the countries that had formed
the empire of the West. His policy seems to have in
cluded three great aims :
1. To organize the Germanic tribes under his rule.

2. To establish a close alliance between the State and
the Church. 2
1M corresponds to
Boniface" Bonaventure
"
(Good Fortune).
"
2 He
used to say, I cannot believe that those who are dis
"
obedient to the Church will be loyal to the State."

THE NEW NATIONS 79
3. To secure for his people the double benefit of a

civilization both Christian and national.
Being desirous to continue the work of St. Boniface, he
endeavored to propagate Christianity among the Saxons,
who made frequent predatory inroads into the kingdom
of the Franks. This practice and their refusal to em
brace Christianity led to a war which lasted for a period
of thirty- three years. Their complete subjugation be
ing necessary to the security of the empire, Charlemagne
slew 4,500 of the insurgents near the river Aller. His
forcing the Saxons to embrace Christianity was a politi
cal measure disapproved of by the Church and especially
by His conduct towards
his distinguished friend, Alcuin.
the conquered Saxons was otherwise mild; he left them
their laws and liberties, and demanded no taxes from
them, except tithes for the support of churches and

schools.
Pope and Emperor,

88. Relations of On Christmas
Day (800) Pope Leo III bestowed on Charlemagne the
imperial crown and saluted him as Emperor of the
"
Romans." This act revived the Empire of the West,

which had been extinct since the time of Augustulus, who
died in 475. It was an empire which imposed upon the
emperor a twofold right and duty :
i. To spread the faith and protect the Church. How

well Charlemagne understood his duty is manifest from
the manner in which he inscribed his name Carolus :
"
Rex et Sanctae Apostolic Sedis in omnibus fidelissimus

" "
adjutor Charles, king and most faithful protector of

the Apostolic See in all things."/
2. To establish a universal Christian monarchy. As
the Church creates spiritual unity among the nations, so
should the emperor establish temporal unity, not by sub-
jugating individual princes and people, but by directing

the union of Christian states. For this reason the empire
after 962, was called the Holy Roman Ger
Empire of the
man nation. The relation between pope and emperor was
one of mutual support and dependence.
The pope was subject to the emperor as the supreme
temporal ruler. The emperor, as a member of the
Church, was subject to the pope, its head. They ex
changed mutual oaths of loyalty. There was no question
of vassalage.
Charlemagne pictured the world as a sort of ellipse with
two foci, the pope and the emperor. The emperor
pos
sessed the right of ratifying the papal election,
originally
for the purpose of securing real and to make sure
liberty
that at the election
everything had been carried out ac
cording to law. The privilege, of course, would easily
lead to interference with ecclesiastical
rights, just as the
union of the Church and the State readily occasions dis
putes, unless the rights on either side are very clearly
defined.
89. Education and the Arts. Charlemagne gath

ered around him distinguished men of letters. The
most eminent were: Flaccus Alcuin, who was noted as
orator, poet, philosopher and theologian and Paul Warne-
;
fried, called Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards.
Charlemagne issued capitularies, or imperial laws, regu

lating the cathedral and cloistral schools, and advanced
general education and clerical training. He founded a
school at his court to instruct every one from princes to
slaves. He promoted higher education in the monasteries,
as for instance at Corbie (to the care and
industry of
which we owe the preservation of the Annals of Tacitus),
THE NEW NATIONS 8l
at St. Gall, at Fulda, and at Reichenau. The curriculum

"
of these academies included the seven liberal arts,"
namely : the Trivium which embraces

grammar, dialectics
and rhetoric, and the Quadrivium which includes poetry
3
(with music), arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy.
Charlemagne fostered the development of the German
language, as well as music, painting and architecture, so
successfully, that the Franks were soon able to rival the
races who had inherited the old classical culture. He was
a man of great force, temperate and frugal in his diet.
One custom which throws light upon his character was his
habit of having the writings of the Fathers of the Church
read to him while he was dining. He was kind and af
fable. He died at the age of seventy-two and, in the
course of time, came to be venerated by some as a saint ;
but he was never canonized, except by the anti-pope

Paschal III, in A. D. 1165.
VIII. STATES OF THE CHURCH

90. The Beginnings of the Temporal Power. About
the year 756, the Prankish king, Pepin, bestowed upon
Pope Stephen II the Italian territory which the Lom
bards had taken from the Byzantine emperors and then
lost in battle with the Franks. This was the beginning
of papal sovereignty. True, Constantine had given the
pope possession of certain lands, but these, like the rest
of Italy, remained except for the period of the Gothic
kingdom under the sovereignty of the Byzantine em-
3 The numeration and
meanings of these branches can be easily
remembered by the following stanza : "Gramm. loquitur; Dia.
vera docet, Rhe. verba colerat, Mus. canit; Ar. numeral; Geo.
ponderat, Ast. colit astra."
peror, until they were seized by the Lombards in the

seventh and eighth centuries. 4 During all this time, how
ever, a succession of events, such as the iconoclastic dis
pute, the increase of taxation, and the imperial neglect of
Italy, tended to alienate West from East and to make the
pope the chief guardian of Italian interests. Pope Zach-
ary (741-752) discovered a powerful protector in the
Carlovingian, Pepin, and crowned him king of the Franks
a
in 752. Shortly afterwards, Pope Stephen II (752-757)
requested Pepin to give Italy the help against the Lom
bards which the Byzantine emperors had refused; and
Pepin promptly expelled the invaders from the stolen
territory and bestowed it upon the pope, as sovereign un
der a Prankish protectorate (756). The new papal ter
ritory included Ravenna and twenty-one other towns.
The Greek emperor put forward a claim to this territory,
as his by ancient right ; but Pepin replied that the Franks
had shed their blood for St. Peter, and not for the Greeks.
91. The Papal States. The validity of the donation
of Pepin can scarcely be questioned. The Lombards
had no title at all to the territory; and the Greeks had
renounced sovereignty by abandoning Italy to the foe.
Later on, the Lombards made several attempts to regain
their footing; but Charlemagne protected the pope and
even enlarged his domain.
4 The donation of sovereign rights to
story about Constantino s
the pope is a fable.

6 Sometimes reckoned as Stephen III.
CHAPTER VIII
THE EASTERN EMPIRE

I. MOHAMMEDANISM
92. Mohammed (570-632). In the eastern part of

the empire, the decline of the Church was hastened
by
the attacks of the Mohammedans, as well as
by the tend
ency of the emperors to interfere. Before the appearance
of Mohammed, paganism prevailed in Arabia; and the
national sanctuary at Mecca contained 360 idols.
Mohammed was born at Mecca in the year 570. As
a youth, he was subject to epileptic fits. illiter
Although
ate and poor, he was of pleasing appearance. Having
passed a long and mysterious retreat in a cave near
Mecca, he began to preach religion, declaring that he had
received from God, through the angel Gabriel, the commis
sion to re-establish the religion of Abraham, i. e.
Islam,
or submission to God. At first he met with
great oppo
sition. A tumult at Mecca compelled him to flee to
Medina, in 622. This event is called the Hejira, or
Flight, and this date is the beginning of the Moham
medan era. Mohammed then declared that the new re
ligion was to be established
by the sword. His disciples
acknowledged him as their temporal and spiritual ruler.
They soon began to ravage the country and forced first
Mecca and then all Arabia into subjection. Mohammed
died of poison in A. D. 632. His successors, the caliphs,
continued his work.
83
Mohammedanism, being well adapted to the passions

and temperaments of the Arabs, spread rapidly into
Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Persia, Sicily, and Spain, and

also into North Africa, where it completely destroyed
the once flourishing Church. In Spain the Moham
medans won a great battle near Xeres de la Frontera
(711), but in 732 they received a check from Charles

Martel in a battle near Tours in France. Constantinople
"
was twice threatened, but escaped by using Greek Fire."
93. Character and Doctrine of Mohammed. The

character of Mohammed presents striking contrasts.
He was ardent and enthusiastic and had some lofty aims,
while at the same time he manifested low selfishness,
duplicity and perfidy. At first he appeared to be a fa
he was evidently an impostor. The doc
natic, but later
trine of Islam is contained in the Koran, collected by
Abubakir, father-in-law of Mohammed. It is a mixture

of Parseeism, Judaism and Christianity. The prophet
upheld the unity of God, God is God, and Mohammed
"
is His prophet." He taught fatalism, and denied free

will, redemption, justification and grace. He promised
his followers a sensual paradise. The precepts of Mo
hammed extend only to exterior actions. They prescribe
prayer, fasting, abstinence from wine, alms, pilgrimages
to Mecca, and warfare with unbelievers; but they per
mit polygamy and revenge by blood. Pictures of living
"
beings are prohibited and are replaced by arabesques."
Friday is the day set apart for religious service.
II. ICONOCLASM
94. Leo the Isaurian. The Emperor Leo III, the

Isaurian, desirous to further the conversion of the Jews
and Mohammedans, forbade the veneration of images
THE EASTERN EMPIRE 85
in 726. Many costly libraries, monasteries and sacred

vessels were demolished and churches were robbed of
their treasures of art. Bishops and monks who defended
the veneration of images were abused, persecuted or mur
dered (A. D. 730-780). More than 300 bishops, creatures
of the emperor, and too cowardly to oppose him, assented
to his peremptory edicts. The greater number of the
monks remained faithful.
95. The Seventh Ecumenical Council. St. John
Damascene (+ 749) was the chief defender of the doc
trines of the Church; and the Seventh Ecumenical
Council (787) defined the true doctrine. The Church
made a clear distinction between adoration, due to God
alone, and the veneration due to the saints. The Seventh
Ecumenical Council of Nicaea insisted on this distinction.
The Empress Irene (797-802) favored the true doctrine,
and ended the warfare; but the controversy broke out
again in the year 815 and caused another violent perse
cution which lasted till A. D. 842, making many
martyrs.
SECOND EPOCH: THE MIDDLE AGES
(800-1517)
PERIOD I
FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO GREGORY VII

(800-1073)
DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEMPORAL
POWER OF THE POPES
CHAPTER IX
HISTORICAL OUTLINE
96. Decline of the Western Empire. Under the suc
cessors of Charlemagne, the Western Empire began to
decline. The German princes were so much occupied at
home that Italy was negbcted. One of the most dis
tinguished popes of this period was Nicholas I (858-867),
"
who, like a second Elias," engaged in a fierce conflict

with immoral princes and unworthy prelates. He de
fended the indissolubility of marriage against Lothaire
II,king of Lorraine, who had put away his lawful wife,
Theutberga, and married Waldrada. Nicholas also en
forced his authority against the schismatical Photius, and
labored with great zeal for the progress of the Church in
Bulgaria.
There exists a foolish fable about the papal throne hav
ing been occupied by a woman,
"
Pope Joan," in the years

855-858. It is a story which first appeared in the thir-
86
teenth century, four hundred years after the alleged fact.

Moreover, we have the testimony of contemporary writers,
such as Hincmar of Rheims, that Pope Leo IV, who died
in 855, was succeeded by Benedict III in the same year.
Further we have documents and coins issued under Bene
dict III, and dated in the year 855.
97. ReligiousDecay. The tenth century witnessed
a sad condition of things in Rome and throughout
Christendom generally. The inroads of Slavs, Saracens
and Normans, the constant feuds of Christian princes,
the seizing of ecclesiastical property, and the intruding of
unworthy men into benefices and positions of authority,
brought about decline of monastic discipline and corrup
tion of the hierarchy. The Roman factions disposed of
the papacy as the pretorians of old had disposed of the
imperial throne. At one time two notorious women,
Theodora and Marozia, seemed influential enough to ele
vate, remove, and even murder, popes at will. Several
vicious men occupied the papal throne, notably John XII
(955-964), elected at the age of eighteen, and Benedict
IX (1032-1044), elected at the age of twelve. John XII,
who had been called Octavian, was the first pope to as
sume a new name on his election and in ;
the eleventh cen
tury this custom became general.

The conduct of John XII was such that he was
finally deposed by the emperor, Otto the Great (936-
973) wn placed Leo VIII on the papal throne. But
the Roman factions soon gained control again and to ;
wards the end of the tenth century the Crescentian family

practically owned the papacy. Their rule was ended by
the interference of the emperor, Otto III (983-1002),
who appointed the first German pope, Gregory V. (996-
999), and then the first French pope, Sylvester II (999-
1003). Sylvester, previously known as Gerbert, pos

sessed the reputation of being the most learned man of
1
his time.
Otto s interference gave but a temporary relief, how
ever, for after the downfall of the Crescentians, the con
trol of Rome was soon taken over by the family of the
Counts of Tusculum. During the years 1012-1024, the
papal throne was occupied by the two brothers, and then
by the nephew, of Count Alberic, namely, Benedict VIII,
John XIX, and Benedict IX. All of them were laymen
at the time they were chosen to be popes. The wicked
Benedict IX was succeeded by two rival claimants to the
papacy, Sylvester III and Gregory VI, both of whom were

deposed in 1045 by the Council of Sutri, with the help
of the emperor, Henry III (1039-1046). From 1046-
1058, there was a succession of five. German popes, Clem
ent II, Damasus II, St. Leo IX, Victor II, and Stephen
IX. It was under Leo IX, that the monk Hildebrand
came into power, as the pope s strongest supporter in the
movement for the reform of the Church.
The Tusculan family again began to interfere in papal
elections, after the death of Stephen IX in 1058, with the
result that Nicholas II (1058-1061) issued a decree regu
lating the method of papal elections in the future.
98. Methodof Papal Elections. To avoid a repeti
tion of the bribery and disorders, which had occurred
in recent elections, Nicholas II (1058-1061) issued a
-
decree giving the cardinals the sole right to elect the
1 in fact, that he had the name of being a magician.
So learned,
2 The of cardinal was originally given to priests stationed
title
at the principal churches of Rome, who formed, as it were, the

senate of the pope. Sixtus V(1586) fixed the number at seventy,
namely: six cardinal bishops, fifty cardinal priests and fourteen
cardinal deacons.
pope, although the election was to be confirmed by the

emperor. Nicholas also concluded a treaty with the Nor
mans, destroyed the undue influence of the nobility of
Rome, improved public morals, and advanced distin
guished men, such as Hildebrand, Peter Damian and St.
Anselm of Canterbury.
99. Relation of Church and State. The conditions
of the Middle Ages were entirely different from those
of our own time. To form a correct idea of the Middle
Ages, it is necessary to note certain principles governing
the relation between popes and princes I. The mediaeval
:
world was Christian and Catholic ; and all emperors and

kings were subject to the laws of the Church. 2. Spir
itual authority was recognized as superior to temporal au
thority, and of a higher order, because immediately from

God; and civil rulers, as Christians, were subject to the
jurisdiction of the Church. 3. The excommunicated were
incapable of reigning; and rebels against civil authority

were placed under the ban of excommunication. 4. The
king was elected by the people to protect the weak, support
the faith, and uphold the laws of God and man. If he
deviated from the faith, or countenanced schism, or op
posed God s law, he forfeited his office, ipso facto, and his
subjects were absolved from their obligation of allegiance
which was conditioned by his fidelity to religion. Hence
the oath of fealty was conditional. 5. By the agreement
of nations and princes, the pope, as the supreme judge of
Christendom, pronounced the sentence of excommunica
tion on princes violating the conditions of their election.
The papal interdict was a barrier against the despotism
of rulers and against the rebellion of subjects. To ex
plain the close alliance of the Church and the State,
mediaeval writers use certain analogies such as: the two
eyes, thetwo swords, 3 body and soul, the sun and moon.
loo. Propagation of Christianity. The conversion
of the Swedes and Danes was begun by St. Ansgar
(865), the "Apostle of the North," a monk of New
Corbie. was completed by King Canute the Great of
It
Denmark (1014-1035). The Normans embraced Chris

tianity in the tenth century; so also the inhabitants of
Iceland and Greenland, and of Vinland on the continent
of America. The plague unfortunately destroyed Chris
country in 1410; and all knowledge
tianity in the latter
of the western continent vanished from Europe. The
Slavs living along the Danube were converted by the
Greek priests, Cyril and Methodius (860).
Sts. The
Poles, the Russians, the Bohemians and the Magyars
were converted in the tenth century. King Stephen, the
Saint (1038), christianized Hungary. The Slavic tribes
called Wends, living in Lusatia, for a long time opposed
Christianity, but were converted by the year 1000.

In England the Danish invaders began to destroy
Christianity; but the Treaty of Wedmore (878), which
divided the country between Alfred and the Danish king,
Guthrum, bound the latter to become a Christian. Un
der King Edgar (959-975), St. Dunstan, Archbishop of
Canterbury (4-988), promoted both the political and the
religious development of the kingdom. In 1013, England
was temporarily under the rule of the heathen Sweyn,
King of Denmark but his son, Canute, became a fervent
;
Christian and visited Pope John XIX in 1027. After the

Conquest, William I (1066-1087), although he refused to
take the oath of feudal fealty to Gregory VII, supported
the learned Italian Lan franc, Archbishop of Canter
bury (+ 1089), in reorganizing the English church.
s Luke XXII.
CHAPTER X
LIFE OF THE CHURCH
101. The Greek Schism. As Ignatius, the saintly pa
triarch of Constantinople, insisted on censuring the
vices of the eastern court, he was deposed by the em
peror, Michael III,
"
The Drunkard," in 857 ; and Pho-

tius, a learned, but unscrupulous, layman, was ap
pointed to the patriarchal throne. Pope Nicholas I ex
communicated Photius and supported Ignatius. To main
tain his position, Photius had recourse to intrigue. He
brought the entire Eastern Church into the conflict and
aroused the old jealousy of Constantinople against Rome.
He encouraged the aversion of the Greeks for the Holy
See, by invoking their pride, which had so often been
wounded in the refutation of Oriental heresies. Photius
opposed the pope and denied the Roman primacy, but soon
afterwards a change of rulers ended the schism and the ;
Eighth Ecumenical Council of Constantinople (869), de

clared for the primacy of the Roman pontiff.
The schism was renewed in 1054 by the patriarch,
Michael Cerularius, who began with
puerile objections
against the Roman practices of shaving, of omitting
Alleluia in Lent, and of fasting on Saturday. The
breach resulted in the complete separation of the East
ern Church from Rome, which has lasted even to the pres
ent day.
102. Other Controversies. The controversy on pre-
91
destination was revived by Gottschalk, a monk of Fulda

(868). His errors were condemned by the Church.
A controversy on the real presence of Christ in the
Holy Eucharist, was occasioned by the writings of Ber-
engarius, canon of Tours, about 1050. His errors were
condemned by the Church and he died repentant in 1088.
:
103. Theology and Catholic Practice. This period

represents striking contrasts. On the one hand, we be
hold actual barbarism and, on the other, proofs of learn
ing and of tender piety. Many saints, especially among
the bishops, illumined this period of church history. The
veneration of the Blessed Virgin increased to an extraor
dinary degree. In her honor were composed the beauti
Salve Regina," Ave Maris Stella," Alma
" " "
ful hymns:
Redemptoris Mater." The office of the Blessed Virgin

was introduced by St. Peter Damian. Confraternities for
the relief of the souls in purgatory were established. All
Souls Day was first celebrated at Cluny in 998. Pious
and learned men, like St. Dunstan of Canterbury,
Peter Damian, Cardinal Hildebrand and the Pataria (a
union of pious laymen) vigorously combated sin and vice.
The Truce of God was established limiting feuds to a
certain part of the week. The interdict was placed upon
princes who refused to do penance or to render satisfac
tion for their crimes.
Through the influence of the monks of Cluny, where

Gregory VII received his ecclesiastical training, monas
tic discipline was reformed; and indeed every measure
of reform was either originated, or supported, by these

monks. The care bestowed upon science during this
period is evidenced by the many learned scholars of the
time. Among them we find Einhard, biographer of
Charlemagne, John Scotus Erigena, Rabanus Maurus,

Strabo, Paschasius Radbertus, Lanfranc and the nun

Hrswitha. Guido of Arezzo invented the modern sys
tem of notation in music. Architecture showed the intro
duction of the Roman
Painting and the plastic
style.
1
arts developed and beautiful mosaics and miniatures
were produced.
derived from
"
1 "
Miniature
"
is minium," i. e. red lead, the

source of the coloring usually employed.
PERIOD II
FROM GREGORY VII TO BONIFACE VIII

(1073-1303)
FLOURISHING PERIOD OF THE PAPACY
CHAPTER XI
HISTORICAL OUTLINE
I. THE INVESTITURE CONFLICT
104. General View. This period shows the organiz
ing of Western Europe into one great Christian family.
Whatever civilization and mental culture the nations ac
quired, they owed to the Church. She was the center of
their unity, temporal and spiritual. We
see the influence
of the papacy producing marvelous results. It
originated
the Crusades, founded universites, developed
jurispru
dence, systematized scholastic and mystic theology, en
couraged the growth of art, gave rise to national con
sciousness and to a true national poetry and diffused a
spirit of Christian brotherliness. Priest, knight and citi
zen worked side by side politics, science and art, and the
;
whole of life generally, were permeated with religion.

Men were filled with aspirations for holiness and for lib
erty, and of both these the Church was the best protector.
The ruling principle was Observe God s law and oppose
"
all injustice." Hence the Church was in constant strug-

94
gle with the imperial power, when it became the oppres

sor, instead of the protector, of men s rights and lib
erties. The strong insistence on the supremacy of the
spiritual over the temporal authority, was a duty con
stantly forced upon the Church by the peculiar circum
stances of her position.
105. Gregory VII (1073-1085). As Cardinal Hilde-
brand, Gregory had held responsible positions under
five popes; and upon the death of Alexander II, the
unanimous voice of clergy and people called him to the
papal throne. At the time of his election conditions were
deplorable. The emperors had made good political use of
their right of choosing bishops and had been more care
;
ful to select men friendly to themselves than men who

were spiritual minded and fit to govern the Church. From
the first this invasion of ecclesiastical territory had been
unfortunate; eventually, it became intolerable. The em
peror took it on himself, not only to make his own ar
bitrary selection of bishops but even to invest them with
;
the insignia of their office, the ring and the crosier. This
right of investiture enabled princes to force unworthy
men, stained with simony and concubinage, upon the
Church. As long as such arbitrary power lasted, no
hope for reform could be entertained. Hence when Greg
ory commenced his great work of restoring the liberties
of the Church and of reforming the clergy, it was at the
right of investiture that he first struck. No one knew
better than the pope what a gigantic struggle he would be
obliged to undertake in order to free the Church from the

evils that beset her.
1 06. The Struggle with Henry IV. Gregory began
the attack at once and, in the very year of his accession,
wrote to Henry IV (1056-1106), the dissolute emperor
of Germany, advising him to amend his life. At the

first Lenten Synod (1074), Gregory restored the ancient
laws of the Church against simony and concubinage, and
forbade the people to assist at the services of lawless
clerics. Thus he made the people the co-executors of
ecclesiastical law. The guilty clergy offered the most
determined opposition. Bishops who undertook to force
the decrees were threatened with death. Slander and
hatred assailed the pope, but he, seeing that legislation
did not suffice, determined to proceed to more drastic
measures. The situation was critical, for simony was
widespread. The majority of the bishops appointed by
Henry were associated in the emperor s shameful deeds.

Bishoprics had been sold to the highest bidders and the
episcopal buyers then sold off the parishes to obtain
the price. Gregory excommunicated Henry s simoniacal
counselors, and published a law prohibiting lay investi
ture.
Victory over the Saxons made the emperor too ar

rogant to listen to the pope. Henry treated Gregory s
laws with contempt, deposed bishops as he pleased, appro
priated church goods and bestowed upon his concubines
precious stones stolen from the churches. He assembled
the venal bishops at Worms for the purposes of deposing
the pope and announced the sentence of deposition in a
letter addressed to The False Monk Hildebrand."
"
Gregory resolved upon severer measures and, at the

Lenten Synod of 1076, pronounced sentence of excom
munication against the emperor. By this act, Henry,
though not deposed, was, according to the Germanic law,
rendered incompetent to govern. Even the friends of
Henry now abandoned him. Gregory, solicitous for the
emperor s temporal and spiritual welfare, prevailed upon
the princes, then assembled at Tribur (1076), not to pro

ceed as yet to elect a new sovereign.
Seeing that he could conciliate the pope more read
ily than the electors, Henry clad in a penitential garb,
went in winter to Canossa, where the pope was then
staying, and prayed to be absolved from the ban of ex
communication (1077). After three-day s penance, ab
solution was given him. The scene at Canossa has been
greatly exaggerated. True the winter was exceptionally
cold, and Henry with his companions stood in the open air
for three days; but during the night they retired to an
inn, where food and drink was given them. Their peni
tentialgarb was worn over other clothing. Henry was
not forced to do this; it was his own way of prevailing
upon the pope to reinstate him and thus preventing the
princes from electing another emperor. That the pope
ordered Henry as an ordeal to receive the Holy Eucharist
is a fable.
107. Henry s Treachery and Death. Soon after

wards Henry broke his promises and united with the
enemies of the pope. Thereupon the princes declared
him deposed and elected Rudolph, Duke of Suabia. The
pope again excommunicated him, but Henry disregarded
the act of the pope, and appointed an anti-pope, Clement
III, thus causing a schism (1080). Among other out
rages, the emperor besieged Rome, and set fire to St. Pet
er s. Gregory, having been rescued by Robert Guiscard,
Duke of Normandy, went to Salerno, where he died in
His last words were: I have loved justice and
"
1085.
hated iniquity therefore I die in exile."
;
Gregory s character was truly great. He was noble,

magnanimous and gentle, though inflexible when bent on
doing good. John von Mueller says of him
"
Gregory
:
had the courage of a hero, the prudence of a senator, the

zeal of a prophet."
The schism originated by Henry lasted until the

death of the anti-pope Clement in noo. Henry died in
1106, without having been reconciled to the Church. His
son and successor, Henry V (1106-1125), was even more
troublesome than his father. He marched across the
Alps and made Pope Paschal a prisoner.
108. Concordat of Worms. Paschal II (1199-1118)
continued the fight against lay investiture, and King
Henry I of England, after a long struggle with Anselm,
Archbishop of Canterbury, relinquished the right of
investiture (1106, A. D.). After years of contention, the
emperor, too, finally made
a compromise with Pope Calix-
tus II, in the Concordat of Worms (1122). This con
cordat was ratified in 1123 by the Ninth Ecumenical Coun
cil (I Lateran), the first general council ever held in the
West. A few years later, under Innocent II (1130-1143),

was held the Tenth Ecumenical Council (II Lateran)
which published a sentence of excommunication against
King Roger of Sicily for supporting the anti-pope Anacle-
tus II, elected on the same day as Innocent II.
II. THE POPES AND THE RULERS
109. Frederick Barbarossa, From the accession of

Frederick I (Barbarossa), in 1152, until the death of
his grandson, Frederick II, in 1250, the Hohenstaufens
were in constant struggle with the papacy. Immedi
ately after the election of the English pope, Adrian IV
(1154-1159), Frederick opposed him. Adrian was deter
mined to maintain the supremacy of the papal office, and
Frederick to rule in the spirit of a Byzantine despot. The
emperor s idea of his own position may be gathered from
the fact that the jurists of Bologna addressed to him such

Thy will is law," What pleases the prince
" "
phrases as,
has the force of law."
Pope Alexander III (1159-1181) was opposed by an

anti-pope, Victor, who received the support of Fred
erick. In a struggle between the emperor and the Lom
bard cities, Alexander allied himself with the latter; and
when Milan was destroyed by the imperial armies, the
pope was forced to take refuge in France. Later he re
turned to Rome and, in 1165, deposed Frederick for hav
ing plundered churches and convents. In 1177 a recon
ciliation was effected between the pope and the emperor.
The schism caused by the anti-pope was settled by the
Eleventh Ecumenical Council (III Lateran) in 1179.
Frederick led an immense army, estimated at 100,000 men,
on the Third Crusade, but was drowned while in Asia
Minor, in 1190. He was succeeded by his son, Henry VI
(1190-1197).
no. Martyrdom of Thomas a Becket. Alexander
IIIcame into conflict also with Henry II of England,
who renewed the old claim, which his father had re
linquished, namely, the royal right to restrict clerical

immunities. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas
a Becket, was so firm in his resistance to the royal policy
that he was assassinated by friends of the king (1170).
For this the king was forced to do penance before being
reconciled with the Church.
in. New Difficulties with the Emperor. Urban III
(1185-1187) was forced to yield to Frederick in the mat

ter of appointing the emperor s nominee to be Archbishop
of Treves.
Celestine III (1191-1198) had difficulties with the Em
peror Henry VI (1190-1197), who imprisoned the Cru-
100 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH,
sader King Richard the Lion Hearted, of England, on his

return journey from Palestine. But Henry showed con
siderable zeal in promoting the Crusades, and died at peace
with the pope, in 1197. His death was followed by civil
war between two claimants to the German throne, Philip
of Suabia and Otto of Brunswick.
112. Innocent III, Innocent III (1198-1216), a man
of extraordinary power, who was elected pope despite
his own protest, immediately set about the reformation
of the papal court. He succeeded in limiting extrava
gances and improving the financial system.

He aimed
to render the Holy See more independent by strengthen
ing the temporal sovereignty; and
he required both the
prefect of Rome, representing the emperor, and the sena
pay homage to the pope.
tors, representing the citizens, to
In 1 201, Innocent intervened between Philip and Otto, the
two claimants to the German throne, and favored Otto ;
but, after Otto had broken faith and confiscated

church
of excommuni
property, Innocent pronounced sentence
cation against him (1210), and prepared to bestow the
crown on Frederick II, the son of Henry VI.
Innocent III exercised a masterful influence through
out Christendom. He inspired both the Fourth Crusade
which founded the Latin Kingdom at Constantinople
in
(1204), and the war which ended Saracen supremacy
Spain (1212). In 1 2 10, he excommunicated King Philip
of France for having repudiated his lawful wife. When
King John of England refused to accept Stephen Langton,
the papal nominee to the see of Canterbury, Innocent
laid thewhole country under interdict, and, in 1212, ex
communicated and deposed the king. John finally sub
mitted and, in the presence of the papal legate Pandulph,
made England a fief to the Holy See. The pope sided
HISTORICAL OUTLINE IOI
against the barons, and condemned the Magna Charta

which they had wrung from the king (1215).
In 1215, Innocent III convoked the Twelfth Ecumeni
cal Council (IV Lateran), the most important council
of the Middle Ages. It passed many decrees of reform,
imposed the precept of annual communion, defined the

doctrine of confession, and, for the first time, made official
use of the word

"
transubstantiation."
Innocent called upon France to suppress the Albigensian

heresy in the south of France, wfrere the papal legate had
been assassinated in 1208. Simon de Montfort responded,
and led the French armies in a campaign which turned
into a cruel war of conquest.
113. Last of the Hohenstaufens. Frederick II, son
of Henry VI, and ward of Innocent III, was crowned
emperor in 1220 by Honorius III (1216-1227). He
vowed to undertake a crusade but, with first one excuse
and then another, kept deferring it for more than twelve
years. Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241) threatened the
emperor with excommunication for delay in carrying out
his vow and finally did excommunicate him, after he had
;
seized upon the island of Sardinia, a papal fief. Fred

erick s quarrel with Pope Innocent IV (1243-1254) be
came so serious, that in 1245 the Thirteenth Ecumenical
Council (I Lyons) tried the case of the pope against the
emperor, and decided that the emperor should be de
posed and that Germany should choose a new king. A
number of the German princes elected a new king; and
a crusade was preached against Frederick, who was ac
cused of being at heart an infidel. Frederick II died in
1250, having received absolution from the Archbishop of
Palermo. His son Conrad, and another son, Manfred,
continued the w*ar until defeated at Benevento in 1268.
A few years later, Manfred s nephew, Conradin, the last

of the Hohenstaufens, was executed at Naples.
114. From Gregory X to Boniface VIII. Under
Gregory X
(1271-1276), the Fourteenth Ecumenical
Council (II Lyons), in 1274, effected a temporary re
union of the Greeks with the Holy See but the schism ;
was renewed in 1282. St. Thomas Aquinas died on the

way to attend this council, and St. Bonaventure died dur
ing its sessions. After the fall of the Hohenstaufens, the
emperors gave trouble to the Church; but French
little
influence over the papacy soon became a source of danger.

Martin IV (1281-1285) a Frenchman, and his successor,
Honorius IV (1285-1287), vainly tried to restore the
French control over Sicily which had fallen into the hands
of the Spanish after the revolution begun at the Sicilian
Vespers (1282).
115. Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair. Boniface
VIII (1294-1303), the most famous jurist of his day,
came into conflict with the French king, Philip the Fair,
who was systematically appropriating church property.
In the Bull Clericis laicos (1296), Pope Boniface forbade
princes to impose any tax upon clerics without the con
sent of the Holy See. A little later, when opposed by.
the Colonna family, he commanded a crusade to be
preached against them, and destroyed their castle of
Palestrina (1298). In 1302, he issued the Bull Ausculta
fill, summoning the French king to be present at a synod
which was to undertake measures of reform and the pres

ervation of the freedom of the Church. The king s chan
cellor,Peter de Flotte, substituted in place of this Bull a
1
forgery, Deiim time, which claimed that the king was sub-
1 The Deum time was declared spurious both by Boniface him
self and by the cardinals. Neither Boniface, nor any other pope,
ject to the pope even in temporal matters, and thus

aroused the French nation against Boniface who
vainly
endeavored to explain his position in the Bull Unam Sane-
tarn (1302). Boniface was preparing to excommunicate
the king when Sciarra Colonna and the new French
chancellor, William of Nogaret, attacked him in his palace
at Anagni and took him prisoner. The pope died a few
days later.
His successor, Benedict XI (1303-1304), tried to con

ciliate both the French and the Italians.
III. THE CRUSADES

116. Causes. After the example of St. Helena,
mother of Constantine the Great, many Christians vis-
isted the sacred palaces of Palestine. These visitors
were subjected to severe hardships and trials
by the Turks
who, in the year 1072, abused and murdered pilgrims, and
has ever assumed such authority as it claims. Pius
IX, in a brief,
dated March 2, 1875, approved the
following declaration of the
German episcopate, The full sovereignty of princes in the
"
politi
cal field is never questioned." On the same point, Leo XIII af
firmed (29 June, 1881): "The Church
recognizes and declares
that secular affairs belong to the civil
power which is sovereign in
its own order; but with regard to those things which
belong to
both the secular and the ecclesiastical
forum, the Church desires
to preserve harmonious relations between the two powers, so as
to avoid strife fatal to both."
It is true that in the Unam
Sanctam, published by Pope Boni
face in 1302, far reaching powers are attributed to the
papacy;
and this was quite in accord with the view prevalent in the Middle
Ages. But this is not intended to be a dogmatic definition valid
for all time. The dogmatic definition contained in the Bull
is the
doctrine necessarily held by every
Catholic, namely, that by
divine law all men are subject to the
jurisdiction of St. Peter
and his successors, the Roman Pontiffs.
ended by plundering the Holy Places. The object of the

Crusades was: i. To secure protection for the Chris
tians. 2. To rescue the sacred places and guard them
against profanation and destruction. 3. To repel the
Saracens, who threatened Christian Europe. The idea of

the Crusades originated with the popes who directed them
and furnished, from the revenues of the Church, the nec
essary means. The popes also granted remission of ec
clesiastical penalties to all who engaged in the religious
expeditions.
117. The Crusades.
The First Crusade (1096-1099)
was set on foot by Pope Urban II. At the Synod of
Clermont, the multitude, whose enthusiasm had already
been aroused by Peter the Hermit, in one voice cried out,
God wills
"
The army, under Godfrey de Bouillon

it."
and other gallant princes, numbered from 300,000 to 500,-

ooo men. On July 15, 1099, they took Jerusalem and
proclaimed Godfrey king.
Later on, six other Crusades were organized for the
deliverance of the Holy Land.
The Second Crusade (1147-1149) was undertaken by
Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, moved
of Clairvaux.
by the soul-stirring words of St. Bernard
but failed.
They made an attempt to take Damascus,
The Third Crusade (1189-1192), was brought about by
the unfortunate battle near Tiberias in 1187, in which
killed or imprisoned. Saladin
50,000 crusaders had been
the
having conquered Jerusalem and seized Holy Cross,
the Crusaders headed by Frederick I, Philip Augustus
of France, and Richard the Lion Hearted, of England,
took Acre and obtained freedom for the pilgrims.
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was chiefly composed
of French nobility, and resulted in the founding of the
HISTORICAL OUTLINE IO5
Latin Empire of Constantinople (1204-1261). The Chil

dren s Crusade (1212), sent 40,000 children forth to con
quer the Holy Land.

The Fifth Crusade (1228-1229), under the leadership
of Frederick II, ended in disaster.
The Sixth Crusade (1248-1254), wasled by Louis IX,
of France, who
took Damietta in Egypt. Soon afterwards
Louis was taken prisoner and compelled to leave the ter
ritory.
The Seventh Crusade (1270), was also under the lead
ership of St. Louis. It was worse than vain, and all the
previously conquered territory, including Acre, fell again

into the hands of the Mohammedans.
118. Results. Although the Crusades did not obtain
the object for which they were organized, still they
were among the most useful events of the Middle Ages.
I. They demonstrated the victory of Christianity over
sensual man and gave to this period an ideal and religious
tone. 2. They secured Europe against the power of Mo
hammedanism. 3. They stimulated intellectual develop

ment in art, in geography, and in physical science, and
especially in Greek and Arabian literature. 4. They fos
tered the religious spirit of knighthood, which flourished
greatly about the year noo. 5. They promoted the spirit
of unity among the nations of Europe, and revived Chris
tian faith and charity, so that this period was fruitful in
rich endowments, religious orders, etc. They also pro
moted unity by strengthening the influence of the Church
and of the Holy See. 6. They gave rise to independent
municipalities, developed citizenship and served to lessen
vassalage and to weaken the system of feudalism. 7.
They gave a new impulse to manufacture and commerce,
and occasioned the flourishing conditions of the Italian re-
IO6 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
publics. 8. Many of the separated Greeks returned to

union with the pope, and a new and vigorous life was
given to missionary labors in the East.
IV. RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF KNIGHTS
119. Origins of the Orders. The institution of
knighthood owed origin to the warfare with unbe

its
lievers. Its constitution combined the essential elements
of both the military and the monastic life and prescribed

a fourth vow, namely, to wage war against unbelievers.
The members of the order were divided into three classes :
priests, for the care of souls knights, for combat and for
;
the defense of pilgrims ; serving-brothers, for the service

of the sick. The knights were governed by a grand
master.
i. The Knights of St. John the Baptist, or Hospitalers,
founded at Jerusalem, in 1048, for the care of the sick, be
came a military order in 1118. They wore a black mantle
ornamented with a white cross. After the loss of Pales
tine, they were assigned a residence, first in Rhodes
(1310), and later in the island of Malta (1530), where

they received the name of Knights of Malta. Napoleon
I took Malta from them in 1798.
2. The Knights of the Temple, or Templars, so called

from their residence on the site of the Temple of Solomon,
were founded by the French about the year 1118. Their
habit was a white mantle ornamented with a red cross.
This order was abolished in 1312.
3. The order of Teutonic Knights was established by
the Germans, during the siege of Acre (1190). Their
habit was a white mantle ornamented with a black cross.
In 1226 these knights were assigned the duty of protecting
the Christians against the pagan Prussians. They made
HISTORICAL OUTLINE IO?
their headquarters at Marienburg in 1309, and later at
Konigsberg; but in 1522 their grand master, Albrecht of

Brandenburg, became a Lutheran and seized their prop
erty.
120. Influence of Knighthood. i. The
military or
ders inspired the nobility with Christian sentiments of
faith and honor and of obligation towards the oppressed
and towards religion. The conferring of arms on a knight
was accompanied by religious ceremonies. 2. What the
Olympic and Isthmian games were of old to Greece,
chivalry became to the Middle Ages. 3. In the twelfth
century the knights were animated a

by spirit of religious
idealism. But later on, corruption crept in and spiritual
ardor gave place to rudeness, brute force and love of
booty.
CHAPTER XII
LIFE OF THE CHURCH

I. HERESIES
121. Fanatical Sects. This period was prolific in

fanatical sects which opposed all visible ecclesiastical
organization, destroyed churches and monasteries,

abused priests and often practised shameful excesses.
Prominent among these sects were the Waldenses who
derived their origin from the layman, Peter Waldo of
Lyons (1170). They professed a wish to revive the
apostolic life, and rejected nearly the entire existing sys
tem of the Church. A revival of ancient Manichaeism oc
curred in the sect of the Albigenses (of Albi, in France).
The doctrines of these fanatics contained all the es
sential elements of Manichaeism. The "
perfect
"
re
ceived the consolamentum, a spiritual baptism and the ;
sign of the highest perfection was the endura, i. e.,

death by starvation. They practised excesses and de
fended lying and hypocrisy. Whenever able, they com
mitted deeds of violence, destroying churches and mon
asteries. These crimes compelled both the Church and
the civil power to employ severe measures against them.
122. Character of Mediaeval Heresies. The Church
condemned illegal violence and forcible conversion as
a remedy for heresy, and desired only to guard the
faithful against perversion. The sects of the Middle
108
LIFE OF THE CHURCH IOO,
Ages, especially the Albigenses, were equally dangerous

to theChurch and the State. The III Council of Lateran
in 1179 affirmed that they practised inhuman cruelties,
sparing neither widows nor orphans, neither age nor sex.
Like the pagans of old, they destroyed and annihilated
everything, and the civil power was compelled to use
Those sects," says
"
rigorous measures against them.

"
the great historian, Dollinger, that called forth the severe

and pitiless mediaeval legislation against heretics and that
had to be repressed with bloodshed, were the Socialists
and Communists of the age. They attacked marriage, the
family and the right of property. Had they succeeded in
their efforts, the result would have been a universal revo
lution, a return to barbarism and pagan lawlessness."
The character of these sectaries forced the bloody Al-
bigensian wars, which gave occasion to great cruelty on
both sides, although the Church not only did not favor
this cruelty, but opposed it with all the means at her com
mand.
123. The To avoid arbitrary measures
Inquisition.
against heretics, the Third and Fourth Lateran Coun
cils, in 1179 and 1215, organized a systematic method of
legal investigation, the Inquisition, which began its
work after the Synod of Toulouse (I22Q). 1 In the year
1232, the Dominicans were given charge of the Inquisition.
They, as experts, investigated the circumstances of each
case and decided if the charge of heresy was, or was not,
justified. They had no power to punish. Their decisions
were passed over to the civil authority for final revision.
The civil enactments of the Middle Ages against heretics
were very severe and included confiscation, banishment,

torture and death. The impious Frederick II added the
1 In Germany the Inquisition was very soon abolisked (1233).
penalty of death by fire, not because of his zeal for religion,

but for political reasons.
124. Historical Estimate of the Inquisition. From
our present viewpoint, certain extreme measures do not
seem reasonable, since they so easily lead to hypocrisy
and to the simulation of orthodoxy but to judge cor
;
rectly of the Inquisition and its method of dealing with

heretics, we should carefully note the following facts :
1. In the Middle Ages the Church and the State were

intimately united. In the public mind, heresy was equally
dangerous to both. Heretics perpetrated deeds of shame
and violence, feigned Catholicity and upheld lying; hence
it was necessary to guard carefully against them.
2. The prevailing ideas as to the way to obtain religious
unity were not the same formerly as now. In England,

for example, even as late as the sixteenth and seven
teenth centuries, Protestants fiercely persecuted and tor
tured Catholics. Luther, Melanchthon, Calvin and other
reformers explicitly approved of capital punishment for
heretics. Calvin even wrote a special work in defence
of the principle: Jure gladii hareticos esse coercendos
"
Heretics are to be compelled by the sword." The

Protestant principle cujus rcgio, ejus religio
"
He
who rules the region, dictates its religion,"
would jus
tify the Inquisition.
3.The Middle Ages generally used very severe pun
ishments. Torture was employed by the civil courts of
every state and it continued in vogue in Germany even
during the eighteenth century. Austria used it as late as
1840.
of
4. The Inquisition also dealt with persons guilty
immorality and heinous crimes which, even in our day, are
LIFE OF THE CHURCH III
punished by imprisonment and death. Indeed, the word

was sometimes used to signify immorality."
" " "
heresy
5. The number punished by the Inquisition has been
enormously exaggerated. In Rome the death penalty was

rarely inflicted on heretics, and excesses committed by the
Inquisitors in any country were condemned.
6. The Spanish Inquisition, and the Inquisition in Ven
ice and other countries, were chiefly civil tribunals, not

identified with the ecclesiastical Inquisition. Their ex
cesses cannot be charged against the Church authorities.
125. The Spanish Inquisition. The Inquisition es

tablished in Spain, in 1481, by Ferdinand and Isabella,
professed to aim at the discovery of disguised Jews
and Mohammedans but ; its secret political purpose was
to check the power of the nobility. Religious conditions
were in sore need of supervision, for many unbelievers
had succeeded in becoming priests and even bishops and ;
in the year 1497, a thousand Franciscan monks showed
by accepting Mohammedanism rather than

their true spirit
submit to certain ecclesiastical reforms. This condition
of affairs suggested the need of an Inquisition and the
tribunal when established also directed its activity against
murder, immoral practices, smuggling, usury and other
offences. The king appointed the Grand Inquisitor, and
the other officers, and also signed the decrees and penal ;
ties were inflicted in his name. The Inquisition was so

busy with extending the royal power and lessening the
independence of the clergy and the nobility that it was
often censured by popes and bishops. The king some
times went to great lengths in utilising the powers of the
Inquisition against obnoxious prelates or nobles who were
not subject to the jurisdiction of other tribunals. On one
occasion, the pope had great difficulty in rescuing Cardinal

Bartholomew Caranza, Primate of Toledo, from the hands
of the Inquisitors.
The Holy See frequently exercised its power against
the Spanish Inquisition. In 1519, Leo X excommuni
cated all the Inquisitors of Toledo. Ranke, Leo, Guizot
and other non-Catholic historians recognize that the Span
ish Inquisition became a purely political institution. Its
most zealous advocates were certainly men who made
themselves odious to the Church and fostered the absolu
tism of the crown. The number of their victims, how
ever, has been greatly exaggerated. Nearly 99 per cent,
of those classed as being sent to the Auto da Fe, had
merely to perform some works of penance, and to wear
the sanbenito, or blessed penitential garb, during the abso
lution.
Persecution of the Jews was often occasioned by their
usury and other crimes, but it was never approved by
the Church. On the contrary, Popes Innocent III,
Clement VI and Paul II, as well as many bishops, pro
Jews and strictly prohibited their compulsory
tected the
conversion.
II. MONASTICISM
126. Rise of the New Orders. The reforming influ
ence of monastic ideals was felt throughout the world.
When excessive wealth, together with a disregard of the
letter spirit of their rule, caused many of the early
or the
orders to decline, new congregations arose with primi
tive fervor and purity. Not a few excellent congre
gations were established on the rule of St. Benedict :
i. The Congregation of Cluny, founded near Macon in

LIFE OF THE CHURCH 1 13
910, and having under its authority more than 2,000

monasteries, observed the Benedictine rule strictly and
took part in all ecclesiastical reforms.
2. The Cistercian Order, so called from the valley of
Citeaux, near Dijon, followed the primitive rule of St.
Benedict (1098). This order owed much to St. Bernard,
who founded a new house at Clairvaux, or Clear Valley
(1115), which became a model of monastic life. The
celebrated statesman andmonk, Suger, reformed the Cis
tercian monastery of St. Denys (1127), taking for his
model the renowned Clairveaux. To the Cistercian Or
der we are largely indebted for the conversion of the
Slavic and Germanic races in northern Europe.
3. The Carthusians were founded by St. Bruno in 1084.
Moved by the wicked life of his companions, he retired to
the desolate valley of La Chartreuse, near the city of
Grenoble, where he laid the foundation of his order. Its
rules were severe in the extreme, and prescribed absti
nence from flesh meat, and other mortifications as well as
a perpetual silence broken only by the greeting: "Me
mento mori" ("Be mindful of death"). The monks
cultivated the soil, transcribed books and distinguished
themselves in learned pursuits.
Many other religious confraternities were established
during this period. I. The Premonstratensians, founded
by St. Norbert at Premontre, near Rheims, converted the
Wends. 2. The Beguines, and other associations of pious
seculars, led a religious life and devoted themselves to
the care of the sick. 3. The Trinitarians and others de
voted themselves to the ransoming of Christian captives.
127. St. Dominic. St. Dominic (1170-1221), born of
a noble family of Castile, was distinguished in his early
youth by piety and love of study. Having been ordained

priest, he accompanied his bishop on a missionary journey
and had great success.
In order to convert souls by apostolic preaching,
Dominic founded the order of Friars Preachers, in 1215 ;
and later they were called after their founder, Domini

cans. Though the order exacted great poverty, and the
members lived on alms, it spread with great rapidity and
numbered about 7,000 in the year 1250.
128. St. Francis. St. Francis, son of a merchant of
Assisi, was a lively and pleasure-loving youth, yet so

charitable that he displeased his father by his generosity.
Made serious by illness and confinement, he took up a life
of solitude and prayer, and despite general mockery, gave
back all his possessions to his father and lived on alms,
serving the sick and poor.
Inspired by a sermon on the text Do not possess
"
gold nor silver," Francis founded a community of men

to practice apostolic poverty and to preach penance,
and Innocent III, in 1210, moved by a dream, bestowed
approval on the order which soon numbered five thou
sand brothers. Francis was of a deeply poetical nature,
as may be seen from his famous Canticle and from his
affectionate intimacy with nature. He possessed a soul
at once great and childlike in its simplicity. In the year
1224, on Mount Alverno, he received the Stigmata, or
bodily marks of the Five Wounds of Our Lord. Two
years later, in his forty-fifth year, he died, after great
suffering, on the bare ground of the Church of the Porti-
uncula, at Assisi. He had himself carried there when
so that he might give the spirit of life back to
"
dying,
God on the spot where he had received the spirit of
Grace." He did not wish to die in a bed when his Savior
had died on the cross. Within two years he was canon

ized a saint (1228).
The canon, Antony of Padua, who joined the followers
of St. Francis, became a famous preacher and teacher.
On account of their great humility, the members of St.
Francis order were called the
" "
Little Brethren or
"
Friars Minor." Later many pious virgins associated

themselves with St. Clare of Assisi, pupil of St. Francis,
for the purpose of leading a religious life. St. Francis
gave them a rule and they became the Second Order of

Franciscans. They are now called Poor Clares."
"
In the course of time, there was founded a Third Order

of Saint Francis for persons, who, though living in the
world, desired to follow the spirit of this rule. The
Third Order has given many saints to the Church and has
been frequently recommended by the popes, notably by
Leo XIII.
129. Spread of the Mendicant Orders. Owing to the
political and religious conditions of the
age, the mendi
cant orders spread with wonderful rapidity, and a noble
emulation in holiness arose between them. Their pov
"
erty partly appeased the critics of a wealthy Church."

A number of members of each order were appointed
teachers in the universities. By their constitution, which
prescribed poverty for the whole order as well as for the
individual members, the mendicants were better protected
against pride and wealth than the earlier orders. They
kept close to the people, and overcame many fanatical
heretics by means of their evident sincerity and stern
renunciation. They acquired great renown in the art
of caring for souls and in the instruction of the common
people.
At the head of each monastery was a guardian or
Il6 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
prior. For each province a provincial was appointed;

and the government of the whole order was vested in the
3
general. General chapters were held every three years.

130. The Universities. The Pontificate of Gregory
VII (1073-1085), gave a new and vigorous impulse to
the progress of learning. Many cathedral and cloister
schools were transformed into universities. These insti
tutions of learning were established under the supervision
of the popes who incorporated ecclesiastical benefices for
their maintenance and conferred privileges upon profes
sors and students, dispensing religious from the obliga
tion to attend choir, and founding scholarships for poor
students. The and maintenance of these
origin institu
tions of learning was exclusively due to the clergy.

These universities flourished while they were under the
influence of the Church. Later on, when the State as
sumed control, they declined. The curriculum of studies
embraced theology, philosophy, jurisprudence and medi
cine.
131. Theology. Mediaeval theology included scho

lasticism and mysticism. Scholasticism, or the doctrine
of the schools, endeavored to show the reasonableness of
faith by dialectics, i. e. by strict logical deductions after
the manner of Aristotle. At first its success was mar
velous, but in later times dialectics degenerated into use
less subtleties. Mysticism endeavored, by plunging the
2 The favorite site of various religious houses is alluded to in
the following verses :
Bernardus voiles
"
monies Benedictus amabat,

Oppida Franciscus magnas Ignatius urbes."
Bernard loved the valleys, Benedict, the mountains,

"
Francis, the villages, Ignatius, the large cities."

soul into divine things, to steep it in the eternal truths

so as to fill it with love of God rather than with mere cold
intellectual knowledge of Him. Mysticism here and there
degenerated into fanaticism. To avoid degenerating,
mysticism and scholasticism should supplement each
other; and this rule was generally observed by the most
renowned theologians of the Middle Ages.
Following the example of John Damascene, the scholas
tics discussed and defended the whole of Christian dogma.
The most distinguished scholastics of this period were:
St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury (+ 1109), "the
Father of Scholasticism"; Peter Lombard (+1164),
who was called Magister Sententiarum," and whose
"
formed the principal book of the Middle

" "
Sentences
3
Ages; Alexander of Hales (+1245); the two great
Dominicans, Albertus Magnus (+ 1280) and his distin
guished pupil, Thomas Aquinas (+ 1274) and ;

the Fran
4
ciscan, Duns Scotus (+ I3o8). No less distinguished
by their piety and learning were Sts. Bernard (-(- 1153)

and Bonaventure (+ 1274).
132. Doctors of the Church. Of the above, the fol
lowing were placed among the Doctors of the Church:
i. St. Anselm (+ 1109), Abbot of Bee, in Nor
mandy, later Archbishop of Canterbury, was a cham
pion of the ideas of Gregory VII. He was a successful

defender of the liberties of the Church in England, and
suffered persecution. He was the author of the pro
found work Cur Deus Homo Why God Became
" " "
Man," and of the ontological argument.

2. St. Bernard of Clairvaux (+ 1153), one of the
3
Hales is in
Gloucestershire, England.
4 The followers of
the last named teacher were called Scotists,
as the followers of Aquinas were called Thomists.
Il8 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
most extraordinary men was a monk and a

of his time,
master of the spiritual life. Renowned is his daily ques
tion put to ad quid venisti?
himself :
Bernarde,
"Bernard, why come hast thou
hither?" This saint
preached the Second Crusade, was the most famous apos
tle of his day and took part in every important event.
He communicated his ardent love of God to all who even

approached him. Endowed with rare eloquence, he be
came the arbiter of nations, the peacemaker between
princes and people, the opponent of heresy and vice. He
performed many miracles, and boldly and frankly remon
strated with both princes and popes, notably with Pope
Eugene III, who had been a monk of Clairvaux, and

pupil of St. Bernard. His zeal for the veneration of the
Blessed Virgin and her Divine Child was expressed in
numerous eulogies and pious hymns, the most noted of
5
which
"
is Jesu Dulcis Memoria."
3. St. Thomas, of Aquino, near Naples (+ 1274), a

pupil of Albertus Magnus, was renowned for his pro
found knowledge, as well as for his humility and piety.
Contrary to the wishes of his parents, he entered the Or
der of St. Dominic, at Naples. He taught in Cologne,
Paris and Rome, and became known as Doctor Angelicas,
or Angelic Doctor." He persistently refused to receive
"
any ecclesiastical dignity and continued to make his stud

ies before his crucifix. His most famous work is the
"
Summa
Theologica." He composed many touching
prayers, wrote the Office of Corpus Christi, and is
"
the author of various hymns, e. g. Pange Lingua,"

"
Sacris Solemniis,"
"
Verbum Supernum,"
"
Adoro Te
5 The Memorare," is not by St. Bernard, but

"
celebrated prayer
by Claude Bernard, a French priest (-f- 1641).
LIFE OF THE CHURCH
Devote,"
"
Lauda Sion Salvatorem." He died on his way

to the Council of Lyons, 1274.
4. St. Bonaventure, of Bagnorea, near Viterbo

1274), endowed with supernatural wisdom and an
(-J-
ardent love of God, was called Doctor Seraphicus, or
"
Seraphic Doctor." He was a member of the Order of

St. Francis. He
acquired great fame as a mystical
writer, and became general of the order and cardinal of
the Church. His most famous work is the
"
Brevilo-
quium." He
died during the sessions of the Council of
Lyons (1274), having just succeeded in effecting a recon
ciliation of the Greeks to the Church. The pope and
nearly the entire council followed his body to the grave.
133. Religious Art. The most beautiful of the
Church hymns were composed during this period.
"
Among them were the soul stirring Dies by Irse,"
Thomas of Celano the pathetic Stabat Mater Dolo- ;

"
"
rosa,"by Jacopone da Todi the touching Jesu Dulcis ;
Memoria," by St. Bernard the Lauda Sion Salvato ;

"
rem," by St. Thomas Aquinas the Veni Sancte Spiri- ;

"
tus,"(Anon.) and many hymns composed by St. Francis

and his disciples, glowing with divine love. To these
were added numerous beautiful hymns in the German
tongue, chanted by the people during the public services
of the Church. 6 The greatest production of all, however,
and a fine summary of mediaeval knowledge, was the
Commedia of Dante (+ 1321)- Also
" "
Divina notable
by Wolfram von Eschenbach.

" "
is Parsifal
Architecture Made Splendid Progress. In the con
struction of churches the Germanic, or Gothic, style
7
replaced the Roman. The pointed arch exerted less
6
The authorship of the best of them is not known.
7
With the Gothic style was introduced the use of stained glass.
I2O A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
pressure than the round arch upon the walls, thus making
feasible the erection of higher structures with thinner
walls and larger windows. Full of light and aspiring, the
Gothic style best expresses the spirit of Christianity soar
ing Godward. A new impulse came to the art of painting
also; and Boniface VIII summoned Giotto (+ 1336) to
Rome to adorn St. Peter s.
134. Religious Practices. The Fourth Council of
Lateran (1215) ordained that every Christian should,
at least once a year, approach Holy Communion during
Easter time, and, if a sinner, should confess his sins. 8
The ancient penitential discipline was at this time steadily
passing into disuse. The penalties imposed were milder,
such as prayer, fasting, alms-deeds, pilgrimages, partici
pation in the Crusades, and only rarely public penance.
The Flagellants, or Scourgers, degenerated to such an
extent that their were prohibited by the
processions
Church. Indulgences, especially in view of the Crusades,
became more frequent. The conditions necessary for
gaining an indulgence were the state of sanctifying
grace (implying a contrite confession), and the perform
ance of some pious and, at times, public work, such as
the building of bridges and monasteries. Alexander of
Hales (+ J245) gave a sound explanation of indul
gences, as a gift drawn from the superabundant merits
of Christ and His saints. The popes severely condemned
certain abuses connected with the promulgation of indul
gences.
8 This has been mistaken as the introduction of auricular con
fession but, as we saw in section 32, confession really existed
from the beginning. The decree of the Council concerning annual
Communion lightened the earlier law which required communion
three times a year.
* In the year 1248, an indulgence was granted to those who aided
in building the cathedral of Cologne.
This period produced some excellent preachers. The

Franciscan, Berthold of Ratisbon (1210-1272), addressed
immense audiences, and was the most renowned preacher
of the day.
The devotional life of the people was rich and varied.
The veneration of the Blessed Virgin continued to spread,
as we learn from the introduction of feasts and the prac
tice of pilgrimages. The breviary, or divine office, was
in general use about 1300. The Biblia Pauperum," or
"
Bible of the Poor, containing wood-cuts of the principal

events of sacred history, was widely circulated in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It was introduced to
supply Biblical instruction to those who were unable to

obtain, or perhaps unable to read, a manuscript copy of
the Bible. The entire public worship of the Church was
carried on in a dramatic way, calculated to impress and
instruct the unlettered masses. There were frequent
pageants and passion plays. The people of the day loved
to contemplate works of art, and to hear sermons and
stories; and, being unable to read, they retained these

things in memory far better than we do. The Church,
while opposed to excesses and abuses, permitted all inno
cent gayety and amusement. Taken as a whole, the age
was on the one side, much
rich in contrasts, exhibiting
vice, degeneracy and barbarism, and on the other, sublime
virtues, profound erudition, true Christian morality and
ardent charity.
PERIOD III
FROM BONIFACE VIII TO LUTHER
DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER

CHAPTER XIII
HISTORICAL OUTLINE
I. THE POPES AT AVIGNON
135. French Popes. Clement V (1305-1314), the sec

ond successor of Boniface VIII, was elected through
French influence. The new pope acceded to the wishes
of the French court and took up his residence at Avignon,
thereby beginning the seventy years of residence in
France, often designated as the Babylonian captivity.
The popes dependence on France alienated the other
nations; and at the same time the papal court fell into
great financial difficulties.The French king, Philip IV,
eager to set a brand upon the memory of Boniface VIII,
urged Clement V to summon a general council and the ;
pope convoked the Fifteenth Ecumenical Council of

Vienne in 1311. The council declared the charges against
Boniface to be unfounded and his memory free from the
stain of heresy.
For seventy years (1309-1378), the papal court con
tinued to reside in Avignon. Seven popes reigned dur
ing this period : Clement V, John XXII, Benedict XII,
Clement VI, Innocent VI, Urban and Gregory XL
V
Urged by many princes and churchmen, and influenced
122
greatly by the pleadings of St. Catherine of Siena, Greg

ory XI (1370-1378) finally returned to Rome where he
soon died.
The Knights Templars. It was owing to the
136.
influence of Philip IV that Pope Clement V suppressed
the Templars in 1312. The terrible charges made
against the order, as a whole, are certainly baseless. The
true motive for suppressing the knights was Philip s
hatred of them, largely due to the fact, that in his contest
with Boniface VIII, they had sided with the pope against
himself. Another motive was his greedy desire to seize
the vast possessions of the knights in France, contrary
to the promise he had made to hand the property over
to theKnights of St. John. The grand master, John of
Molay, and 54 knights were burned alive in Paris
(1314), protesting their innocence.
II. THE GREAT WESTERN SCHISM

137. Rival Popes. When the cardinals in Rome met
to name a successor to Gregory XI, a large mob gath
ered outside the conclave and demanded the election
ofan Italian. The cardinals selected an Italian, Urban
VI (1378-1389). Soon afterward, displeased by his im
perious ways, they assembled again and elected a French
man as pope, claiming that their liberty had been inter
fered with at the previous election. The French pope,
Clement VII (1378-1389), took up his residence at Avig
non and for forty years the Church was divided into two
;
hostile camps. Urban was succeeded by Boniface IX

(1389-1404), then by Innocent VII (1404-1406), then
by Gregory XII (1406-1415). Clement VII was suc
ceeded by Benedict XIII (1394-1424). So great was the
confusion that saints and theologians were to be found on
either side.
In 1409, a council met at Pisa to adjust the schism,

but only made matters worse than before. After hav
ing attempted to depose both Gregory XII and Benedict
XIII, the Council of Pisa proceeded to elect a third pope,
Alexander V (1409-1410), who was soon succeeded by
John XXIII (1410-1415).
138. The Council of Constance. Matters became so
desperate that, in 1414, the Emperor Sigismund con
voked the Council of Constance for the purpose of end
ing the schism. In its fourth session, the council de
clared itself superior to the pope. In the twelfth session
(May, 1415), the council decreed the deposition of John
XXIII; and in the fourteenth session (June, 1415), Greg
ory XII resigned the papacy, after having given his recog
nition to the Council of Constance as the Sixteenth Ecu
menical Council. Benedict XIII refused to abdicate; and
in 1417, he was deposed by the council which then pro
ceeded to elect a new pope, Martin V (1417-1431).
Martin V never expressed any opinion about the acts
of the council as a whole; but in its last session (1418),
he gave his approval to all that had been decided in
matters of faith, conciliariter. 1 The decrees of the
earlier sessions cannot be regarded as the official teaching
of the Church.
VIEW OF THE SCHISM
1 i. in the form proper for a council.

e.,
III. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH

ECUMENICAL COUNCILS
139. The Council of Basle-Florence. The desire
to reform the Church induced Pope Eugene IV (1431-
1447) to convoke a council at Basle. To facilitate the
negotiations between the Greek and Latin churches, the
council was soon transferred to Ferrara, and then to
Florence. Some prelates remained at Basle and at
tempted to continue the council. They reaffirmed the de
crees of Constance which asserted that the council is
superior to the pope; and they elected an anti-pope at a

session at which only seven bishops were present.
The lawful continuation of the council at Florence ef
fected very little matter of reform, but succeeded
in the
in reuniting the Greeks with Rome (1439). The Greek
delegates accepted the doctrine of the Roman primacy.
Their action caused bickering in Constantinople but the ;
Turks put an end the quarrel by taking the city

to
(1453). The first sessions of the Council of Basle (as

far as recognized by the pope) and the sessions of the
Council of Florence (the continuation of Basle), taken
together, form the Seventeenth Ecumenical Council
(1431-1439).
140. Alexander VI and Savonarola. Rodrigo Bor
gia, elected to the papal throne under the name of
Alexander VI (1492-1503), possessed a vigorous in
tellect, but was more a worldly than a spiritual prince.
Though the faults charged against him have been

greatly exaggerated, he was certainly an unworthy suc
cessor of Peter. However, he accomplished some valu
able public service. He regulated the missionary work
in the New World, exercised a severe consorship regard-
ing vicious publications, subdued the rebellious nobles

within the States of the Church, reformed jurisprudence,
labored in the interest of peace and security, and pro
moted commerce. He died of a malignant fever (1503),
not of poison, as has been asserted. In him was seen the
verification of the divine promise that hell shall not pre
vail against the Church, for despite his personal unworthi-
ness, he never led the Church into error. On the con

trary, he published a number of very useful laws and
regulations.
Jerome Savonarola, a Dominican of Florence, a
vehement preacher of penance, having entered the field
of politics and promoted a democratic agitation, was
finally imprisoned, handed over to the secular authori
ties, and burned at the stake (1498). Savonarola was
in no sense a forerunner of Luther. He was of irre
proachable purity and, in matters of faith, a thorough
Catholic. But he was eccentric and fanatical; and he
obeyed the inspiration of his own visions, rather than the
voice of his lawful superiors.
The representatives of the Church in this period, es
pecially the Dominican missionaries, opposed with all
their might the practice of enslaving the negro and In
dian natives of the newly discovered countries, and re
fused the sacraments to slave-traders but they could not
;
succeed in preventing this abuse. Cardinal Ximenes, re

gent of Spain, entirely prohibited the importation of ne
groes into that country.
141. The Fifth Lateran Council. At the earnest so
licitation of the princes, Pope Julius II (1503-1513), an
able ruler and a great soldier, convoked the Eighteenth
Ecumenical Council (V Lateran, 1512). Its main
objects were to reform the Church and to organize cru-
sades against the Turks. Leo X

(1513-1521) continued
the council up to 1517.
The numerous decrees of the various councils were of
little avail. The ancient laws had been wholesome
enough the ;
evil lay in their non-observance. The weak
ness visible in the papacy pervaded the whole Church. A
revolutionary movement was in process and could no
longer be suppressed. It was only by a painful operation
that the germs of disease could be eliminated and the

health of the Church restored.
IV. CHURCH AND STATE

142. Encroachments of the State. During these
years, the relation between the Church and the State
was gradually changing. The State undertook to termi
nate former subjection to the Church, trespassing
its
more and more on the spiritual domain. It claimed the
right to interfere with ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and to

appropriate the revenues of the Church; and it even in
truded into purely spiritual offices. John Nepomucene,
in 1393, gained a martyr crown
s for refusing to violate
the seal of the confessional. Wenzel of Bohemia, son of
Charles IV, and king of Germany, 1378-1400, ordered the
saint to be drowned in the Moldavia, because he would
not reveal the confession of the queen.
143. The Spread of Discontent. The Great Western
Schism was a terrible misfortune.
Every claimant to
the papacy sought to increase the number of his follow
ers by generous grants of privileges and concessions.
Thus authority was weakened and the seeds of rebellion
were fostered.
The contest of Philip IV against Boniface VIII caused a
spirit of disloyalty to spread among the French and the
;
Avignon residence affected the other nations unfavorably.

The princes of Germany, striving for both civil and ec
independence, gladly fomented popular oppo
clesiastical
Church. In 1327, Pope John XXII excom
sition to the
municated Louis of Bavaria, and refused to recognize his
claim to the imperial crown. The German princes met at
Rense (1338), and denied the right of the pope to inter
fere in the imperial election. Louis died in 1347; and his
successor, Charles IV, who was acknowledged by Pope
Innocent VI, in 1355, issued the famous Golden Bull
(1356), making the election of the emperor dependent
simply on the majority vote of the electors, and excluding
all foreign interference.
Owing to the papal claim to name successors for vacant
benefices, numerous complaints were raised against the
Holy See. Further, the heavy ecclesiastical taxes became

2
a fruitful source of discontent. In this respect too, the
residence at Avignon was a misfortune for the Church,
because, being deprived of the revenues of the States of
the Church, the popes were obliged to place heavier bur
dens upon the faithful.
The general discontent was promoted by bad princes,
like Frederick II and Philip IV, who plundered churches
and appropriated their revenues. Also some of the min
nesingers, for instance, Walther von der Wogelweide,
spread a bad spirit among the people.
2
_ However, the prevalent system of filling ecclesiastical benefices
had some advantages, for it counteracted the spirit of caste and
the ambition prevailing in many monasteries and prebends that
were inclined to grant admission only to the nobility. It also
often tended to encourage learning and virtue and to discourage
worldliness. The tribute paid to the Holy See went for the sup
port of the Crusades, for the foundation and maintenance of the
higher institutions of learning, and for objects of general good.
HISTORICAL OUTLINE I2Q
V. THE NEW WORLD

144. Missionary Labors. The discovery of America
(1492), by Christopher Columbus, opened a new field
for the missionary activity of the Church. Pope Alex
ander VI commissioned Ferdinand the Catholic to have
Christianity introduced into the New World. The first
missionaries were chiefly Franciscans and Dominicans.
Their labors were in a great measure frustrated by the
avarice and cruelty of the Spanish settlers, who com
pelled the natives to work as slaves.
145. Defense of the Indians. The missionaries de
nounced the enslavement of the Indians as a violation
of their natural rights and of the laws of Christianity.
For a while, negroes were brought from Africa to re
place the Indian slaves; but Cardinal Ximenes, regent
of Spain after the death of Ferdinand, forbade this
practice. The Dominican, Bartholomew de las Casas,
wished to have the negroes who were slaves employed
in the heavier labors of the colonies, instead of the
weaker Indians. For this reason he has been unjustly
accused of introducing the slave-trade, whereas he was
the true apostle of the Indians, and the staunch defender
of their personal freedom. He crossed the ocean six
teen times in his efforts to defend their rights against
Europeans who alleged that Indians were but irrational
beasts and born to slavery.
Pope Paul III (1534-1540), in a Bull issued in 1537,
vindicated the liberty of the Indians and maintained
that they belong to the human race and are heirs to the
natural rights of man. The decrees of this Bull were
frequently renewed by succeeding popes and the example
;
of the popes was followed by the kings of Spain.

The various religious orders sent many missionaries

into thenew countries; and these missionaries were
true friends of the persecuted natives. They compiled
grammars, dictionaries, and religious books; and suc
ceeded in winning many of the most savage tribes to the
Christian faith. The Franciscans were at work before
1500, and the Dominicans soon after. The Jesuits began
to arrive in 1549; and their martyrs in Spanish America
numbered more than seventy. Before the year 1600,
there had been founded thirty-two dioceses and four hun
dred monasteries in Latin America.
CHAPTER XIV
LIFE OF THE CHURCH
I. HERESIES
146. John Wiclif

John Wiclif, born in the village of
.
Wiclif, England (1324), denounced the custom of pay

ing Peter s Pence to the Holy See. He gained the favor
of the king and was appointed professor of divinity at
Oxford, where he openly taught pantheism and numerous
other errors. 1 It was not long until Wiclif s adherents
excited the peasants to insurrection, for which they were
condemned and punished by the king and the parliament.
147. John Hus. John Hus, an enthusiastic Bohe
mian patriot, and a professor at the university of
Prague, became an ardent defender of the errors of
Wiclif. He stirred up animosity between the Czechs and
the Germans; and the Germans were deprived of their
standing at the university. Twenty thousand students left
Prague and the university lost its rank. Hus publicly de
fended the doctrines of Wiclif. denounced ecclesiasti He
cal censures, and brought upon himself the excommunica-
1 His doctrine may be summarized as follows "
Every being :
is God "
Evil springs from necessity

"
Sin is not detrimental

" "
to the predestined who are forced by God to sin

" "
Scientific
institutions and religious orders are diabolical in their origin
"
"
The Bible is the only source of faith

"
Temporal and spiritual

"
rulers, who have fallen into mortal sin, no longer possess author
ity
" "
The pope is Antichrist " "
Christ is only morally present

in the Holy Eucharist" "Auricular confession is unnecessary."
131
tion of the pope. Despite his suspension, he continued to
2
preach against the Church, while his adherents engaged
in deeds of violence. Hus was obliged to admit before
the council that he had advised his followers to use force
of arms against
"
the enemies of truth." Like Wiclif he ,
flattered the masses and excited them to persecute priests

and monks.
Hus appealed to an ecumenical council, declaring his
willingness to prove the truth of his doctrines, in ac
cordance with the decrees and canons of the holy fa
thers, or else to suffer death. He requested only a safe-
conduct and, having obtained a passport from Sigismund
I, went to Constance to be tried. John XXIII absolved
him from the ban of excommunication, on condition that
he should not preach or celebrate Mass. Having dis
regarded this prohibition, Hus was imprisoned in a Do
minican monastery. 3 During his trial before the council,
he acknowledged some of the propositions taken from his
writings, but others he repudiated.
When the council condemned his errors, Hus refused
to retract. He was
deprived of his ecclesiastical dignity
and handed over to the secular authority for punishment.
2 Hus
taught: i "From eternity God has predestined some
men to eternal damnation without regard to their merits; and

neither sacraments nor the practice of virtues will avail them."
Priests must preach, despite the censure of the Church, and
"
2
must disregard the pope s prohibition." 3" If the clergy abuse
their temporal goods, secular princes may confiscate these, since
all things belong to the just, as the Apostle (i Cor. iii. 22) says:
All things are yours 4 "Any temporal ruler, prelate, or
."
bishop, in a state of sin, must lay down his office." 5 What "
ever a sinner does is a sin."

3 The stories about
"
the dungeon
"
are fables. Hus himself in

a confidential letter wrote: "All the clerics and guards of the
prison treat me very kindly."
Having been denounced as a heretic and rebel, he was

condemned by Ludwig, the Count Palatinate, to die at
the stake according to the established law (1415). His
friend, Jerome of Prague, who had abused and murdered
monks, underwent the same punishment the following
year.
148. The Hussite War. After the death of Hus,
the formidable Hussite War broke out (1419-1436).
A great number of Bohemian nobles, desiring the posses
sions of the Church, joined the Czech party and com
mitted shameful atrocities. Senators were thrown out of
the windows to be caught upon spear points, churches
were plundered, priests persecuted, whole towns burned
down, and thousands murdered. Finally a treaty was
concluded, and as a concession to the popular demand,
the Calixtines * were permitted by Rome to receive Holy
Communion under both species.
149. The Execution of Hus.- The punishment of Hus
was no violation of the imperial letter of safe-conduct.
i. The letter was addressed to all officials, even to
toll and tax collectors, but not to the members of the
council. The wording
of the letter granted only pro
tection against unlawful violence and exemption from
tolls, and requested aid to further him on his journey in
matters pertaining to speed and safety; but it contained
no instruction to the council. It was nothing more or
less than a passport, not exempting its holder from the
authority of the lawful judge, to whom, indeed, he was
practically being sent by his sovereign, the Emperor Sigis-
mund. 2. While still in Prague, Hus himself showed
4 From calix, "chalice," because they demanded Holy Com
munion under both kinds. They were also called Utraquists, from
sub utraque specie, "
under both kinds."

that he had no intention of claiming any exemption from

punishment, on the strength of his letter. On the con
if found guilty, to suf
trary, he declared his willingness,
fer death by fire (Ignis incendio emendare), on the
condition that his adversaries should suffer a like punish
ment he was found innocent. At a later period,
in case
in Constance,when he found that his excuses could not
free him from prison, he wrote to friends that the letter
of safe-conduct was being violated. 3. Contemporaries
saw no violation of the letter in the arrest and imprison
ment of Hus. That a safe-conduct was generally not
intended to exempt from lawful authority may be seen
from the fact that the anti-pope, John XXIII, though in
possession of a letter of safe-conduct from the emperor
and the city of Constance, was imprisoned and deposed
by the Council of Constance.
8
4. The emperor himself
had no intention of protecting Hus from the sentence to
be passed by lawful judges, but spoke thus: Hus has "
received a safe-conduct and a promise of a public hearing.

Let him be given a calm public trial, and the royal promise
will have been kept. But if he obstinately persists in his
heresy, the emperor will be the first to light the fire."
Hus had nothing to say against this conception of the let

ter; on the contrary, he expressed his thanks. 5. The
emperor, even had he desired to do so, possessed neither
the right nor the power, to protect Hus against the au
thority of the council. Hus was subject to the council,
5 Even thefriends of Hus expressly declared: "Si convictus
"
debeat id juxta decisioncm concilii emendare" If

fuerit . . .
convicted he ought to suffer the penalty decreed by the council."

Their only complaint was of his arrest before the public trial. But
this arrestwas entirely justified, because Hus had disregarded his
suspension, continued to preach his errors and to say Mass,
and
probably made an attempt to escape.
both as a priest and because he himself had appealed to

its authority.
We should not forget that the proceedings against Hus
were conducted by the anti-pope, John XXIII, and by the
unlawful Council of Constance. And as for the asser
tion that the council declared it is lawful to break faith
with heretics, that story rests upon two documents, one of
which is an eighteenth century forgery, and the other a
private resolution, or scheme, which was never even sub
mitted to the council.
The Protestant historian, Leo, passes this judgment:
"
To call theproceeding a violation of a safe-conduct is

to stultify all authority."
II. THEOLOGY AND CATHOLIC PRACTICE

150. Ecclesiastical Science. In the year 1517, Eu
rope possessed more than one hundred universities,
forty-five of which had existed since the year 1400.
Germany possessed twenty. The attendance, when com
pared to that of the present time, seems almost incredible.
The University of Prague had over 30,000 students and
700 professors; and many institutions had over 20,000
pupils. In the year 1905, the twenty-one universities of
Germany, taken together, held about 40,000 students.
Scholasticism, with some teachers, degenerated into a
mass of useless subtleness ;
but the better masters of this
system taught the principles of St. Thomas, whose works
were printed more than two hundred times in the fifteenth
century, each edition containing from 300 to 1,000 copies.
The principal representatives of mysticism were:
Master Eckhart (1329) the two Dominicans, John Tau-
;
ler (+ 1429) and Henry Suso (+ 1365) and John ;
Gerson (+ 1429). "The Imitation of Christ," probably

written by Thomas a Kempis (+ 1471), was republished

fifty-nine times before the year 1500. Among the dis
tinguished saints of the period were the holy virgins, Sts.
Mechtilde, Gertrude, Catherine of Siena, and Hildegarde.
The study of Greek and Hebrew was zealously pursued at
the universities. About the year 1522, the great Complu-
tensian Polyglot Bible was published at Alcala, by a
group of scholars who had been brought together for the
the great Spanish cardinal, Ximenes.
work by
Among the most absurd Protestant errors is the no
tion that the Bible in the vernacular was not allowed.
The whole Bible existed in English long before Wiclif
was born (1324). Before the year of Luther s outbreak
(1517), there were fourteen complete editions of the
Bible in the High German, and four in the Low German,
dialect, together with numerous German editions of sep
arate parts. In addition to these, there were ninety-eight
complete Latin editions, all published before the time of
Luther. In the various European languages there ex
isted many pre-Lutheran translations of the Bible, for
instance, in Italian (Venice, 1471), French (Paris, 1487)*

Spanish (Valencia, 1478), and Dutch (Delft, 1475).
A
cen
complete Swedish edition existed in the fifteenth
tury. Janssen reports that despite the enormous number
of books that have been lost, we know of 22,000 works
published between the years 1450 and 1500
3 striking
evidence of the intellectual activity of the time.

Tauler, Suso and Geiler were famous preachers Sebas ;
"
Ship of Fools castigated the vices

"
tian Brant in his

of the age; Nicholas of Cusa (+1464), a universal
genius, was an energetic ecclesiastical reformer, who en-
"
8 Alcala
"
in Latin.
is Complutum
countered great opposition from princes and dissolute

monasteries.
Many books of devotion and instruction were
printed, such as Bibles of the Poor, pictorial catechisms,
and manuals of confession. Of the sermon books con
taining Sunday Epistles and Gospels, together with pray
ers, a hundred editions antedate Luther. The doctrine
of penance and of indulgence was set forth clearly and
precisely in books of instruction; and particular stress
was laid on the need of true, interior sorrow. From
1470-1518, more thanthirty collections of German hymns
were published, a sufficient proof that the German folk
song was cultivated before the appearance of Luther.
151. Humanism. In mediaeval times, little attention
had been paid to classical, or humanistic studies, as
more emphasis was placed upon solidity of matter than
upon beauty of form. Men did not love or treasure
foreign works as much as they did their own vigorous
national literatureembodying the healthy, lively spirit of
their own race.was only in the fifteenth century, after
It
the decline of Germany had begun, that the classical

studies cultivated by the humanists came to the fore.
This event was occasioned largely by intercourse with the
East during the negotiations for the union of the Greek
and Latin churches and then, later, by the coming of the
Greek refugees, who fled west after the conquest of
Constantinople (1453). Classical studies (called hu
manities) and the promoters of classical studies (human
ists), were encouraged by churchmen; and the movement
exercised a refining influence upon literature, especially
upon ecclesiastical Latin.
But far greater was the evil influence of exaggerated
humanism, which developed an extreme and ridiculous
preference for everything classical. German surnames

were translated into Greek and Latin. 7 A tendency to
overrate pagan philosophy placed the works of Plato and
Aristotle on the same level with the Bible. Scholasticism,
even when profound, was scorned as inelegant; and a
false enthusiasm for pagan ideas, combined with con
tempt for the Church, together with a tendency to indif-

ferentism, frivolity, and obscenity prevailed. Many hu
manists ridiculed priests and monks, and even mocked the
saints. Ulrich von Hutten sang in classical Latin of the
immorality which later caused his death in 1523. Side
by side with the revival of classical letters, went the re
turn to pagan forms of art.
"
The Renaissance "
was
the name given to this movement.
We distinguish two periods of humanism. i. The
older, Christian humanism, was represented by Agricola,
Reuchlin, Trithemius, Sebastian Brant, and their less
worthy fellow, the famous Erasmus. 2. The later
pagan period was represented by humanists who used
their talents and linguistic accomplishments in favor of
irreligion and schism, and against God and the Church.

They were men of ignoble character, without faith or
morality, servile flatterers, and shameless calumniators.
Their pagan humanism soon gained preponderance. Its
"
Del Principe
"
spirit may be seen in the of Nicholas

Macchiavelli (+ 1530), and in The Letters of Obscure "
Men" (1514-1517), written by Hutten and others,

ridiculing the authority of the Church and paving the
way for schism.
152. Christian Art. Striking proof of the deep re
ligious feeling of the Middle Ages was given by the
many eminent works of religious art. Numerous en-
7 Christ was alluded to as Minerva a Jovis
"
capite orta."
dowments and bequests were made to churches and clois

ters, and this fact occasioned the splendid decoration of
churches and chapels. Magnificent altars, tabernacles,
sculptures, chalices, monstrances, missals, paintings, vest
ments, and especially stained glass windows beautified
the sacred edifices.
Bramante and Michael Angelo were distinguished as
architects; the former began, and the latter completed,
St. Peter s in Rome. This age was the heyday of sculp
ture and especially in Germany of wood carving and
ivory carving. Veit Stoss and Adam KrafTt in Niirn-
berg, and Syrlin in Ulm, were among the most famous
wood carvers; and Peter Vischer of Niirnberg was the
great brass-worker. Italy was the birth-place of the
plastic arts. Michael Angelo Buonarotti (+ 1564)
gained fame as painter, architect and sculptor. The art
of painting attained great heights. The Dominican, John
da Fiesole (+ 1455), and Leonardo da Vinci (+ 1519)
belonged to the school of Florence; Raphael of Sanzio
(+ 1520) to the school of Umbria Correggio (+ 1534)
;
and Titian (+ 1576) to the Venetian school. To the

Netherland school belonged Hubert (+ 1426) and John
(+ 1440) Van Eyck who invented the mixing of colors
with oil; to the Swabian
Martin Schon (-f 1499)
school,
and the two Holbeins, Hans the elder (+1501) and
Hans the younger (+ 1543) and to the Prankish school,
;
the celebrated Albrecht Diirer (+ 1528). Perfection in

making wood-cuts helped to popularize works of art,
many of which, made by now unknown masters, served to
teach and edify the faithful, as for instance, the famous
The Dance of Death."
"
allegory,
153. The Religious Life. During mediaeval times,
the public worship of the Church was carried out with
great solemnity and splendor.. The Holy Rosary and

The Way of the Cross were favorite devotions; and the
Angelus bell was introduced everywhere. The jubilee
was first established by Boniface VIII in 1300; and the
interval between one jubilee and another was gradually
reduced to twenty-five years. The religious dramas, the
Christmas and Passion plays, and others, representing the
life of Christ, of the Blessed Virgin and of the saints,
representations of the Last Judgment, and of the coming
of Antichrist, were closely connected with the public
worship of the Church and proved a means of religious
education for the masses. An instance still extant is the
Passion Play of Oberammergau.
The art of printing exercised a great influence upon
the life of the Church. The clergy, finding in it a valu
able auxiliary to their missionary labors, made every ef
fort to promote its development. The Church also
granted indulgences to aid in its progress. The Bible was
the book printed by Gutenberg (1450). Italy
first es
pecially Rome and

Venice published excellent editions
of the Bible and of the church Fathers. The people soon
learned to read and to derive great benefit from good
books.
In some quarters loyalty decayed. The exile at
Avignon weakened the authority of the Church. The
forty years schism led to heavy church taxes and helped
the diffusion of liberalisticprinciples opposed to the
primacy. The mistakes and faults of several popes,
many priests and bishops, who were
the dissolute life of
rather princes than shepherds, the frequent violations of
the law of celibacy, the worldliness of many religious,
the custom of appointing lay noblemen to ecclesiastical
benefices, all these things laid strong foundations for

opposition to the Church.
The Church convened many synods to correct the
evils. In Germany alone, there were more than one hun
dred diocesan synods from 1451 to 1515. A
great num
ber of learned and exemplary bishops and priests edified
the people by their teachings and their example. The
clergy displayed great zeal for science they promoted the
;
study of the humanities and the art of printing; they or

ganized scientific associations and intellectual activities.
Great care was bestowed upon the office of preach
ing, asmay be seen by the abundant homiletic litera
ture handed down to us. The formulas for the exami
nation of conscience contained questions regarding attend
ance at sermons. In almost every city, benefices were set
apart for preachers. We find rebukes addressed to peo
ple who
kept running lightly from sermon to sermon.
Books of sermons still extant prove that the sermons were
not shallow trifles, but profound discourses. The Bible
was the principal source from which sermons were drawn.
All these facts prove that the preaching of the Word of
God was by no means neglected before the appearance of
Martin Luther.
The and civil authority neces
decline of spiritual
sarily occasioned great looseness and immorality
among the people. The predatory expeditions of the
knights led to constant feuds, to the burning of villages,
to the murdering of women and children.
Luxury and
wealth were followed by extravagance and immodesty in
dress usury and greed became rampant.
; The later hu
manists diffused obscene literature which undermined
both religion and morality. Numerous forms of super-
stition introduced by the Arabs of Spain led to the cul

tivation of the black art and then to trials for witchcraft.
These were often conducted with ignorance and
trials
cruelty. Pope Alexander IV (1254-1261) forbade the

inquisitors to take cognizance of witchcraft and later the
;
Church succeeded in replacing the arbitrary inhuman

treatment of suspected persons with regular legal forms.
Despite the widespread decay, religion had still a
strong hold on the masses. This was shown by pil
grimages, by many pious associations and confraternities,

by striking evidences of sincere penance and conversion,
by numerous charitable institutions, by religious endow
ments and bequests, by the zealous performance of good
works, by the charitable support of the poor; moreover,
by the fearlessness with which sin and vice were reproved
in prince or peasant. Every rank of life was infused with
the spirit of religion. The guilds and fraternities of
craftsmen, the theatrical entertainments, the popular
amusements, bore a religious stamp.
all
These facts, as well as the words of contemporary

writers, disprove the assertion that the entire German
clergy before Luther were samples of ignorance and
moral depravity. A severe critic of the German clergy,
John Wimpheling, wrote God knows I am acquainted
:
"
with many, yea, with innumerable clergy in the six Rhen

ish dioceses who are pure in morals and thoroughly
equipped with the knowledge proper to their office. I
know not merely a few, but many, I repeat it, many

prelates, canons, and vicars, of unblemished life, filled
with piety, humility and generosity toward the poor."
THIRD EPOCH: MODERN TIMES
(1517-1914)
PERIOD I
FROM LUTHER S REVOLT TO THE FRENCH

REVOLUTION
(1517-1789)
POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS

DISTURBANCES
CHAPTER XV
GENERAL VIEW
154. Tendencies of the Later Middle Ages. At the
opening of the Middle Ages the Church had begun her
work among the savage warring hordes that were then
destroying the old civilization; and within a few cen
turies she had transformed Europe into a group of
Christian nations containing the promise of splendid
moral and mental development. Toward the close of
the Middle Ages, however, there appeared indications of
an approaching storm; and now at the beginning of the
third epoch of church history, the storm bursts in the
form of the Protestant revolt. Among all classes of the
people there had spread a spirit of opposition to spiritual
and temporal authority secular princes resisted both pope
;
and emperor; rulers encroached upon the old liberties of

the people; covetous men sought to obtain possession
143
of church property for themselves. The art of printing,

fruitful of so much good, produced also great evil, and
familiarized the multitude with immoral writings and with
satires upon authority and religion. The younger hu
manists revived pagan ideas, and aroused an enthusiasm
for false liberty. The discovery of new countries upset
old social institutions, removed the restraints of custom,
and fomented the passion for adventure and booty. Dis
content, general restlessness, contempt of authority, scorn
for the traditional science and the ancient faith, all fore
told a coming revolution.
155. The Religious Crisis. The Church was weak
ened from within by dissensions among the different
national elements. The Great Western Schism had de
veloped antagonisms which dealt religion an almost fatal
blow. Education, art, law, became first alien, and then
hostile, to the Church. The whole world seemed ready to
burst into flame, and Luther applied the torch. Only
the divine vitality of the Church prevented her total de
struction. Quickened by God s power, however, she was
enabled to win back healthy life in the Counter-Reforma
tion.
156. Effects of Protestantism. As time went on and

Protestantism developed the logical consequences of its
destructive principles, religious conditions became ap

palling. The rejection of ecclesiastical authority led step
by step to indifTerentism, scepticism, and neo-paganism,
The civil power favored an absolutism which fettered re
ligion fatally. Expelled from the schools, the Church be
came helpless to train new generations in the way of faith
and virtue. But the rulers who discredited the authority
of religion, were the first to suffer; for the revolutionary
tendency which they had fostered against the Church
GENERAL VIEW 145
crushed their own dynasties. Wonderfully enough, amid

the universal process of dissolution, the Church began
to revive again and, in the latter part of this period, she
;
again strikingly manifested the indefectibility which had

I am with
"
been assured her in the promise of Christ,

thee all days, even to the consummation of the world."
CHAPTER XVI
PROTESTANTISM
I. LUTHER S OUTBREAK
157. Luther s Youth. In 1483 Martin Luther, the

son of a poor miner, was born at Eisleben, in Saxony.
Against his father s wish, he entered the novitiate of the
Augustinians at Erfurt, in 1505, impelled to take this
step by his morbid fears, rather than by spontaneous
inclination. After a brief novitiate, he was ordained
priest in 1507, and the next year was made a pro
fessor of philosophy in the new university of Wittenberg.
He went to Rome in 1510, became a doctor of theology
in 1512,and then returning to Wittenberg, began to teach
Sacred Scripture, making a special study of the epistles of
St. Paul.
Driven nearly to madness by his excessive scrupu
losity, he was for a while tempted to despair. Then,
suffering a reaction, he went to the other extreme and
took refuge in the thought that all striving after holiness
is worse than useless by reason of original sin, and that
Christ demands of us nothing but faith alone. These

false doctrines drawn from his misinterpretation of cer
tain passages of St. Paul s, were plainly affirmed by
Luther as early as 1516, and even at that time attracted
unfavorable criticism. In the same year, he publicly de
fended the thesis that the human will without grace is not
146
PROTESTANTISM 147
free but enslaved. In 1520 he gave clear expression to

the logical conclusion of his system in the words, "A
Christian who believes, cannot even if he should so wish,
lose his soul by any sin however great since no sin, but
;
1
unbelief, can damn him."
158. Luther and Tetzel, Pope Julius II (1503-1513)

had begun the building of the new church of Saint
Peter in 1506; and in 1517, Leo X (1513-1512) granted
an indulgence on the usual conditions of contrition
and confession to all persons contributing to this un
dertaking. The Dominican, John Tetzel, was commis

sioned to publish the indulgence and came for this pur
pose to the little town of Jiiterbog, near Wittenberg.
There was a long-standing hostility between the strictly
scholastic Dominicans and the more humanistic Augus-
tinians; and when the people of Wittenberg began to
flock to Tetzel s sermons, Luther and his friends under
took to discredit Tetzel and his mission.
On All Hallow s Eve, 1517, Luther affixed ninety-
five theses to the door of the university church of
Wittenberg, denying that indulgences are of any avail

to the souls in purgatory, and contradicting many other
received teachings of the Church. Immediately there
was widespread excitement and Luther became the center
of a theological storm. The language of the ninety-five
theses would indicate that Luther misinterpreted the na
ture of indulgences. Be that as it may, he was somewhat
alarmed at the violence of the discussion he had raised
and sent letters of explanation to the Archbishop of Mainz
1 There had been other instances of inaccurate teaching and of
public opposition to the authority of the Church before the out

break of Luther. John of Wessel, professor of Holy Scripture
at Erfurt, ridiculed indulgences, the veneration of the saints, fast
ing, tradition, and especially church authority.
PROTESTANTISM 149
and the Bishop of Brandenburg. But not even in these

letters did he make clear his attitude with regard to in
2
dulgences.
The Protestant, Plank, says that Luther s zeal against
the abuse of indulgences was very plainly due to his wish
to spoil the market for them in his own neighborhood.
The outbreak was not really due to the tone of Tetzel s
3
preaching. Nor was it due to the depravity of the
Church. Rather it was forced by the logic of events, be
ginning with Luther s statement in 1516 of the doctrine of
justificationby faith alone, without need of confession,

contrition, indulgence, or good works. Having long de
nied the Church s teaching in his heart, Luther, after his
public stand in the ninety-five theses, was forced further
and further in his opposition by the logical connection of
Catholic doctrines. 4
2
He "
Seeing that many people of Wittenberg were

writes :
running after indulgences to Juterbog and Zerbst and seeing that,

as surely as I have been redeemed by my Lord Christ, I did
not know what an indulgence might be nor did anybody else
I began gently to preach that it would be better to do the surer
things than to seek to gain an indulgence."

3 As Luther
himself admitted, later on, when he wrote to con
sole Tetzel during the latter s illness :
"
He should not blame him

self, for the affair did not begin on his account."
*Constant misrepresentation has made Tetzel into a mere cari
cature. On his person has been hung every story and every jest
ever invented about fallen priests even stories known centuries
before his birth, such as the old tale of Parson Amis. On the
3
other hand, honest investigations (such as Tetzel by Paulus,
"
Mainz, 1899; and "Tetzel und Luther" by Grone, 1860) have

shown :
i. That, as a priest, Tetzel was morally irreproachable, and

the charges of misconduct made against him are absolutely with
out foundation.
2. That, although he was too much like a huckster, in his
ISO A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
II. PROGRESS OF PROTESTANTISM IN GERMANY

Tetzel replied to Lu
159. Luther s Supporters.
ther s attack with counter-theses, defending the Catho
lic doctrine of indulgences; and the controversy spread.
Luther found many allies, especially among the humanists,

and powerful protectors among the princes, notably the
elector of Saxony. His own provincial, John von Stau-
method of recommending the indulgence, all the stories about

of his
his avarice and his lying were invented by the malice
enemies.
3. That according to documents still extant and even accord
ing to Protestant writers who quote
from his sermons, Tetzel
his instructions and insisted above all on the necessity of
obeyed
a confession and true repentance as conditions of gaining
good
the indulgence," Whoso wishes to gain the indulgence
must fast
the day before confession and receive Holy Communion
the day
after." Know
"
that all who confess, and mark this well, being

to the counsel of the confessor, may
penitent, give alms, according
are these passages from the
gain the indulgence." Very different
indulgence of
"
indulgence of all sins and the

"
"
fables about the

future sins." It is not according to each single sin, but according
to his means, that each one is asked to contribute.
The instruction to confessors ordains that No one should
"
4.
be allowed to depart without every grace, since it is not the build
of Christians which is to
ing expenses but rather the sanctification
be mainly sought after." Those, therefore, who have no money,
the
should make up a contribution of prayer and fasting, since
"
of heaven is not more open to the rich than to the poor."

kingdom
The poor can, by prayer and petition, secure
the same treasures
"
until the
of grace for themselves and for the dead." It is not
"
year 1717 that we find the first

mention of the so-called sin-tax,"
and
announcing that for several ducats a man can make good any
with contradictions.
every sin. The story, be it noted, is filled
5. That Tetzel was a thoroughly scientific man, as may be seen
of
from the writings in which he clearly explains the nature
indulgence.
6. That Tetzel did not burn Luther s theses, nor threaten him
PROTESTANTISM 151
pitz,and George Burckard, the court chaplain of the

Palatinate, came to his assistance. He had also many
adversaries; and it is utterly false that the rapid spread
of his errors was due to the fact that no one of
weight
and deep learning opposed him. He was answered, and
in a measure excellently answered,
by Tetzel, Prierias,
Eck, Emser, Hochstraten, Cochlaus, Wimpina, Dieten-
berger, Wicelius, Cajetan, Thomas Murner and others.
But he had become so permeated with his own ideas that
itwas impossible to change his views. His doctrine was
from God
"
and he despised his opponents as ignorant

"
and worthless men. 5

with death at the stake, nor abuse him. On the contrary, he
answered Luther furious attacks in a quiet, reasonable way, as
s
may be seen by the counter-theses still extant.

" "
7. That nearly all the stories of Tetzel s vice and misconduct

proceed from his bitterest enemies and cannot, therefore, be ac
cepted as credible and trustworthy accounts. Most of them, as his
very enemies attest, rely merely upon hearsay. Tetzel s superiors
and other contemporaries bear outspoken witness that the evil
stories about him were calumnies, and give evidence for him :
Lord be merciful to Luther in regard to what he is

"
May the
doing and has done to the Reverend Father, Master John Tetzel,
who has defended and does not cease to defend the authority of
the Holy See even to his own cost. I know of no one who has
done and suffered and is still suffering so much for the honor of
the Apostolic See. But every street corner is re-echoing the
countless lying calumnies showered upon him." From the letter
of Hermann Rab, Dominican Provincial of Saxony, to Miltitz,
3 Jan., 1519. See Paulus account of the misunderstanding of the
"
phrase indulgences without contrition."

5
Even of the universities of Paris and Louvain he spoke con
I have from God all that I teach and that they
"
temptuously.
"
deny." Let us hold to this, that an indulgence is not what the

pope declares it ;
and if an angel from heaven says otherwise, he is
not to be believed." Such was the substance of the blunt answers

which he gave his adversaries, one and all.
160. Break with the Church. Pope Leo s attention

had now been drawn to the situation in Germany, and
Luther was given the alternative of retracting, or of
presenting himself for trial at Rome. The intervention
of the elector of Saxony, however, induced the pope to
send Cardinal Cajetan to Germany to investigate the case,
and Luther was summoned to Augsburg in the autumn
of 1518. Dissatisfied with the judgment of Cajetan, Lu
ther announced his appeal from Leo ill informed to
"
Leo better informed

"
; and a few days later appealed to

a future general council. Still solicitous to avoid trouble,
as far as possible, Leo published a bull on indulgences,
giving the Catholic doctrine, but avoiding mention of Lu

ther s name.
Excitement was greatly increased by the Leipzig
Disputation of 1519, between Eck, a professor of In-
golstadt, and Carlstadt, Luther s teacher and defender.
Luther himself took part in the dispute, and denied that
the primacy was of divine institution and that general
councils were infallible. 7 The following year he published
6 It is Rome belittled the whole affair as a
quite false that
monks quarrel. On
February 3, 1518, within three months of the
publication of Luther s theses, the pope wrote to the general of
the Augustinians that Luther would have to be excommunicated,
if he could not be restrained. But Luther misled the pope by
humble letters. He wrote to Leo, Most Holy Father, prostrate
"
at thy feet, I bring thee all that I am and all that I have. Give
give death, cast me out, as may please thee. I shall recognize

life,
thy voice as the voice of Christ who lives in thee and speaks
through thee." (May 30, 1518). The Pope wrote to the elector of
Saxony not to support Luther, lest present and future genera
"
tions should say that a most dangerous error had been upheld by
this distinguished court."
7In March, 1519, he wrote to the pope protesting that he had

never wished to impugn the authority of the Holy See, which was
PROTESTANTISM 153
three writings, an appeal,

"
To the Christian Nobles of

the German stirring up the princes against the
Nation,"
a
Church; book, On the
"
Babylonian Captivity," rejecting

the Sacrifice of the Mass and all the sacraments except
baptism and the Eucharist; and a summary of his own
teachings under the title, Of Christian Liberty." This
"
last he sent to Pope Leo, together with a flattering per
sonal letter.
In 1520, Rome Exsurge Do-
published the bull
"
mine," condemning Luther s teaching and demanding

retraction under threat of excommunication, inside of
sixty days. Luther replied with the pamphlet,
"
Against
a damned obsti
"
the Bull of called the pope

Antichrist,"
nate heretic," and publicly burned the bull at Wittenberg,

with the words,
"
As thou hast troubled the saints of the

Lord, so may the everlasting fire trouble and consume
thee."
161. Diet of Worms. Luther was summoned before

the imperial diet held at Worms in 1521, and, after
having been ordered to retract, was allowed a day
for deliberation. This interval gave him an opportunity
to communicate with the nobles gathered together at the
diet and many of them urged him to stand firm, promis
ing him their protection. Within a short distance of the

city were encamped the four hundred knights of Franz
von Sickingen and Ulrich von Hutten, revolutionary free
booters, very anxious for an opportunity to plunder the
wealthy churches and ready to ûrn against Luther if he
for him "above Heaven and on earth," excepting
all things in
Christ Luther s shown by the fact that ten days
vacillation is
after this humble protestation, he wrote to the elector of Saxony
that he did not know whether the Pope was Antichrist himself, or
his apostle.
showed any sign of retreat. 8 The emperor had but a

small guard and menacing letters found their way even
;
into the imperial chambers. Luther accepted the offer

of the nobles and made answer to the diet that he would
not retract. 9 The ban of the empire was placed upon
him; but his friends promptly carried him to Wartburg
castle. Now for the first time did the affair of Luther
"
assume the gigantic proportions of a revolution big

10
enough to lift the church doors from their hinges."
At the Wartburg Luther translated the Scriptures in
accord with his system and then affirmed that he had
been the first to pull the Bible out from under the
"
bed," a statement roundly contradicted by Zwingli

and others. his stay at the
Wartburg, his fol
During
lowers spread the report that he had been murdered by
Catholics. After ten months he returned to Wittenberg
to quell disturbances that had arisen there and was suc ;
cessful in driving out Carlstadt who had put himself at

the head of a number of fanatics. More and more, the
religious divisions were assuming a political character;
and the diets held at Niirnberg in 1522 and 1524 were un
able to effect anything in the way of peace. The emperor
was fighting against the Turks, and at the same time had
to deal with the armies of France and with his own dis
loyalGerman princes.
162. The Peasants War. The next complication
8 In
1524 Thomas Miinzer reproached Luther with having won
the support of the nobles by holding out the hope that they could
appropriate the wealth of the Church, Hadst thou flinched at
"
Worms, the nobles would have strangled thee."

8Recent investigations have thrown serious doubt on the ac
count which represents Luther as saying, Here I stand I can "
do naught else."
10 Paulsen.
PROTESTANTISM 155
was the disastrous rebellion of the German peasants

against their rulers. The people had been aroused by
"
and interpreting
"
Luther s
writing, evangelical liberty
according to their own taste, decided to abolish taxes and
thrones. Inhuman outrages were perpetrated; the most
splendid churches, monasteries and works of art were de

stroyed and all Germany seemed about to become a mass
;
of ruins. The peasants appealed to Luther for support,

and wishing to antagonize neither the
he, in perplexity,
nobles nor the people, exhorted both sides to make peace.
After the battle of Frankenhausen, where the peasants
were defeated with a loss of 100,000, Luther wrote his
Against the Blundering and Murdering Peas
"
pamphlet,
ants," advising their suppression.
163. The New Religion. Church affairs now began
to be organized on an entirely new basis. Instead of
the old popular control, there was introduced the rule of
the nobility. In many places laws were passed to pro
hibit the saying of Mass. Albrecht von Brandenburg,
grand master of the Teutonic Order of Knights, adopted
the new doctrines, seized the lands of his order in Prussia,
and forced the Catholic knights to return to Mergentheim.
Philip, landgrave of Hesse, also changed faith and many ;
other rulers followed. The Lutheran princes then assem

bled, and drew up the treaty of Torgau, thus formally
dividing the empire into a Catholic and a Lutheran camp
(1526). Luther s marriage with Katherine von Bora, a
runaway Cistercian nun, took place in 1525, and drew
upon him severe censures, especially from Melanch-
thon.
164. The Two Diets of Speier. At the
diet of Speier
in 1526, the Lutheran princes took advantage of the
Turkish War to extort further concessions from the
emperor. They succeeded

in obtaining the right of re
forming (that of adopting the new religion), and in

is
establishing the principle of territorialism which made

the church of each region subject to the ruler. Matters
were further complicated by the quarrel between the
emperor and Pope Clement VII (1523-1534), which led
to the storming and plundering of the undefended city
of Rome by a German army, largely composed of Luther
ans and under the command of the constable of Bour
bon (1527).
At the diet of Speier, in 1529, the Catholics attempted
to enact a law that at least the saying and hearing of Mass
must be allowed, even in the reformed " "
districts ;
but
the Lutheran princes
" "
protested against this, thus gain

ing the name of "
Protestants."
"
165. The Diet

of Augsburg. At the diet of Augs
burg (1530) the Protestant princes presented a confes
sion of faith, the so-called
"
Confessio Augustana,"
composed by Melanchthon. The Catholics issued a con
futation, in reply to which Melanchthon composed his
Apologia for the Augsburg Confession." The final de
"
cree of the diet forbade any further innovation in re

ligious matters and admonished all to return to the unity
of the Church.
1 66. The Schmalkaldic League. The Lutheran
princes, to protect their own claims, formed the so-
called Schmalkaldic League in 1531. They had the
secret aid of Denmark, England and France against the
emperor, who was being severely pressed by the Turks.
11 It time that Luther composed his work, De
was about this
"
Servo which he denied the freedom of the will, com

Arbitrio," in
paring man to a horse ridden now by God and now by the devn ;
and saying that it is God who works in us both good and evil.
PROTESTANTISM 157
Luther said,
"
To fight against the Turks is to resist the

will of Driven to extremes by the war with the
God."
Turks and frightened by the foreign alliance, Charles V

at last formally recognized Protestantism in the religious
peace of Niirnberg (1532). He promised to discon

tinue law-suits regarding sequestered church property,
all
a great injustice to Catholics, whose church property

was subject to arbitrary seizure.
167. The Protestant Use of Force. During the em

peror s absence at the Turkish War, the Protestant
princes propagated their new religion by force, and it
made rapid progress. In Naumburg, a Protestant
preacher was substituted for the lawful bishop, and the
district was made Protestant. The count of Braunsch
weig- Wolf enbiittel was expelled by the Schmalkaldic
leaders, and his territory forcibly protestanized. The
same thing occurred at Hildesheim ; and to some extent in
Cologne as well. The Catholics also sustained great losses

by the death of several Catholic princes, whose Protes
tant successors introduced the new doctrines and excluded
Catholicism even from Catholic episcopal sees.
Finally the Council of Trent (1545-1563) was con
vened. It was promptly repudiated by the Protestants
as not really a free assembly. Luther gave vent to his
vehement hatred of the council in a writing, The Papacy
"
and Lucas Cranach added a

"
Instituted by the Devil ;
caricature.
1 68. The Schmalkaldic War. The Schmalkaldic
princes gathered an army of 40,000 men; but in 1547,
they were defeated at Miihlberg by the emperor who
captured Philip of Hesse and John Frederick, elector of
Saxony. Charles treated his enemies with great leni
ency and in an attempt to please both parties, composed
a religious compromise, called the Interim, which, as a

matter of fact, satisfied neither side (1548).
Moritz of Saxony, turning traitor to his country and
to his personal benefactor, the emperor, concluded an al
liance with France, promising the French king
money and
assistance in the invasion of Germany, in return for the
gift of Metz, Toul, Verdun, and Cambrai, to be held as

hereditary possessions independently of the emperor.
The Princes of Hesse, Mecklenberg, and Brandenberg
joined Moritz. The allies were successful; and Moritz
all but captured the emperor.
Finally peace was made in
the treaty of Passau (1552), which secured the freedom
of Philip and John Frederick of Saxony, and the accept
ance of the existing conditions. Moritz obtained Metz
and the other coveted territories.
169. The Peace of Augsburg. In 1555 the Religious
Peace of Augsburg was concluded. The chief points of
agreement were as follows:
i. In each territory, religious freedom should be en
joyed by foreigners, but not by the inhabitants ("Re
ligion goes with government"). Peace was to prevail
between Catholics and Lutherans; but Zwinglians were
excluded.
2. When a spiritual ruler passed over to Protestant
12
ism, he was to resign his benefices and offices.
3. The Protestants were to retain ecclesiastical goods

already seized.
170. Last Days of Luther. Luther s last days were
filled with bitterness. The princes who had appropri
ated church property, ruled in bureaucratic fashion, leav
ing the preachers to starve. Discord prevailed among the
12 This was known as
"
the ecclesiastical reservation," and was

not wholly accepted by the Protestants.
PROTESTANTISM 159
various Lutheran parties. Luther s irritability was com

plained of, even by Melanchthon, who said :
"
The servi
tude I have borne has been almost Luther
disgraceful."
lamented the misconduct of his followers 13 and admitted ;
that he himself was not without fear and remorse.
Shortly before his death, he turned his hatred against

the Jews, insisting that they should be banished. He
died in 1546, probably of apoplexy, at Eisleben.
171. Luther s Teaching. His teaching rests on the
fundamental error that faith alone makes man just and
merits beatitude. 14 According to him human nature was
totallycorrupted by original sin. Justification is only
something imputed to man, that is to say, God imputes
the merits of Christ to the sinner as the sinner s own.
The sinner s attempted good works, especially fasting and
mortification, are not only needless, but sinful. Indul
gences, purgatory, and veneration of saints were of course
rejected; and the only two sacraments retained (baptism
and the Lord s Supper) were shorn of their importance,
as they became mere signs, not causes, of sanctification.
Holy Mass and transubstantiation were entirely rejected;
and, in the Lord s Supper, Christ was regarded as pres
ent, only at the moment of communion, by impanation,
"
that is, in, with and under the bread." Since all souls
13 "
I should be glad to eat beggar s bread, were I but once out

of this Sodom," he said, referring to Wittenberg. In every
"
land, we
get our preachers from the dregs and leavings of the
pope." Most of our pupils are Epicureans our nobles, burghers
"
and peasants are Sadducees." The Gospel has only put the "
peasants beyond restraint. They fear neither hell, nor purgatory,

but say, I believe, and therefore I shall be saved. "
14 He added the word " "
alone to verse 28 in the third chapter

of the Epistle to the Romans, For we account a
"
man to be
justified by faith, without the works of the law."
are to be united with Christ immediately by faith, there

is no need of a church or of priests other than the in
visible church and the ministers of the Word of God,

i.e., the preachers. Tradition, which would have contra
dicted his innovations, and the teaching office of the
Church, Luther repudiated entirely. The Bible is the sole
source of faith and each man is to examine and interpret
it in his own sense, said Luther.
The were Wittenberg,
chief centers of Protestantism
Strassburg, Niirnberg, Magdeburg, Frankfort-on-Main ;
and various universities.
III. SWITZERLAND
172. Zwingli. Ulrich Zwingli, a priest of Zurich,

born in 1484, introduced the new doctrine into Switzer
land in 1516. Like Luther, he attacked the authority of
the pope and rejected tradition and indulgences. He
denied the existence of free-will in man and asserted that
God Himself works evil in us, absolute predestination.
He good works and of the sac
also denied the efficacy of
raments, maintaining justification by faith alone; and

finally he asserted that the Holy Eucharist is but a me
morial of the body of Christ. Zwingli inveighed against
the immoralities of the clergy but had to confess his own
shameful delinquencies. He repudiated his obligation of
celibacy and married. Having then succeeded in gaining
"
reformed
"
the favor of the magistrates of Zurich, he

the church there, demolishing altars, pictures and organs
(1525). The ancient Catholic worship was prohibited,
15
and an intolerant
censorship was established. This
treatment of the ancient Church was doubly unjust, be-
15
By order of Zwingli, those sectaries who practised rebaptism
were flogged and drowned.
PROTESTANTISM l6l
cause inflicted by innovators who always claimed for them

selves liberty of conscience and the right of free inquiry.
In Basle, the innovators having first secured tolera
tion for themselves, then proceeded to destroy every
16
thing Catholic and to persecute the Catholics. The
new religion was forcibly introduced into Berne in 1528,
and soon afterward into other cantons. In 1528, the
Protestant cantons entered into an alliance and the same ;
was done by the Catholic cantons in 1529. The monks

were expelled from St. Gall. Civil war followed, and
in a battle at Cappel (1531) Zwingli was slain. The
Catholics were victorious.
After a short armistice, Berne, allied with France, at
tacked the duke of Savoy and wrested from him certain
These were then reformed by
" "
parts of his territory.

force, and Catholic worship was prohibited. Geneva, in
dispute with its bishop and with Savoy, decided in favor
of the new doctrines. Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, Zug,
and Lucerne remained Catholic.
Luther entered into a controversy with Zwingli regard
ing the Lord s Supper. Confronted by Zwingli with his
own claim to the right of private interpretation of Scrip
ture, Luther was obliged to appeal to the
"
clear old
i. e., to Catholic tradition,
Fathers," against which he had
so strongly protested. Despite many religious confer
ences, no union could be effected between the Lutherans
and the
"
Reformed." The breach was impassable.

173. Calvin. John Calvin, or Chauvin, born at
Noyon, in Picardy, in 1509, adopted the principles of
Luther, and at Geneva, in 1536, began to teach Protes
tantism. Expelled for tyrannical conduct, he was re
called, and then, acquiring a supreme dictatorship in tem-
16
CEcolampadius was the pioneer of Protestantism in Basle.
poral and spiritual affairs, exercised absolute power. He

The Council of the
"
established an inquisitorial tribunal,

Ancients." Whoever criticised Calvin, or the
"
Holy
Reformation," was severely punished. Abstinence on
Friday, dancing, amusements, the frequenting of theaters
or saloons, were punished by imprisonment. Every one
had to attend a designated church. Preachers visited the
houses and watched over the attendance at divine wor
ship. Weddings and family festivals were supervised.
Persons were imprisoned for dancing, and children for
Superstition increased, and supposed
"
playing. pestmak-
"
ers underwent cruel torture. Heretics were banished

or put to death. The Spanish
physician, Michael Serve-
tus, travelling through Geneva, was seized contrary to all
law, condemned as a heretic, and burned at a slow fire.
"
whenever discovered, were

"
Catholics, reformed by
force.
Calvin died in 1564. His doctrines were, on the whole,
similar to those of Zwingli. He taught absolute predesti
nation and denied human liberty. He affirmed that God
works evil in us, and indeed, that God creates men who
have to sin in order that their eternal damnation may
manifest God s justice. He taught that Christ is present
in the Holy Eucharist only virtually and only for the pre
destined.
Theodore Beza succeeded Calvin and propagated the
doctrines of Calvinism.
IV. FRANCE
174. Introduction of Protestantism. Protestantism
entered France through the alliance of Francis I (1515-
1547) with the Protestant princes of Germany. At
an early period insulting pamphlets against the Church
PROTESTANTISM 163
were circulated; crucifixes and images were destroyed.

The university of Paris, the clergy and the parliament
opposed the innovations, and punished the plundering and
desecration of churches. the Huguenots increased in
Still
numbers. 17 According Theodore Beza, there was not

to
one Huguenot in France in 1532, whereas in 1550 there
were 400,000. The immorality of the court and the de
pravity of many of the court prelates helped the new re
ligion greatly.Although the French king had entered

into a compact with foreign Protestants, he persecuted
the new sect in his own country.
175. The Huguenot Wars. The Huguenots soon
formed a political party and, under cover of religion,
waged seven civil They were protected by the
wars.
Bourbon princes who opposed the king and their leaders
;
were Conde, Montmorency and Coligny. Having ob

tained approval of their plans from their own theologians,
the Huguenots formed the conspiracy of Amboise against
the king (1560) but this, as well as two subsequent con
;
spiracies, ended in failure. With the hope of satisfying

the Huguenots, an Edict of Toleration was issued in
1562, but they were not content with toleration; their ob
ject was the annihilation of the Catholic Church. They
had the explicit approbation of their preachers who de
"
clared the penalty of death against heretics," i. e., Catho

lics. Churches were pulled down priests were mutilated ;
and put to death. The massacre of Vassy (1562), in

which sixty Huguenots were killed after having wounded
the duke of Guise, was the signal for an open war. The
17 Some derive the name

Huguenot from
of
"
Eidgenossen,"
"
i. e., oath-bound," confederates bound to each other by oath ;
others from Hugo Capet, whose ghost was believed to haunt

" "
the castle where the Calvinists met by night.

Huguenots, headed by the prince of Conde, took up arms,

sought assistance from the German Protestants, and be
trayed Havre-de-Grace to England. Duke Francis de
Guise, the eminent Catholic general, was treacherously as
sassinated by a Huguenot, who, having been executed for
this crime, is honored as a martyr in the Huguenot mar-
tyrology. After having been defeated in three wars, the
Huguenots, by the peace of St. Germaine-en-Laye, in 1570,
obtained freedom of religious worship and access to all
political offices. They soon acquired influence at the court
and used it against the Catholics and Coligny succeeded
;
in prejudicing Charles IX even against the queen mother.
176. St. Bartholomew s Eve. The queen mother

took revenge by a massacre, which occurred on St. Bar-
tholemew s night, 24th to 25th of August, 1572. The
occasion was the marriage of Henry of Navarre with the
king s sister, Princess Margaret of Valois. Admiral
Col
igny and many distinguished Huguenots were

assassi
nated. In all, some 4,000 Huguenots lost their lives, and

many Catholics as well; but this number of Huguenot
victims has been unjustifiably raised to 20,000 or 30,000.
The Church had no share in the atrocious massacre: it
was a
purely event and even the Lutheran theo
political
logians so considered it. The king himself declared in
parliament, that nothing had been done except by his
orders, and had been forced to order the mas

that he
sacre for the safety of his person and the security of the
state. There was not one Catholic bishop in the council
of the king.
The foreign courts were informed by the French ambas
sadors that the king had happily escaped from an attack
on his life. receiving this report, Pope Gregory XIII
On
proclaimed a thanksgiving and congratulated the king
on
PROTESTANTISM 165
his deliverance from danger. This is the origin of the

fable that Pope Gregory celebrated High Mass for joy
over the massacre of the heretics.
Civil war continued to rage. The Catholic League,
headed by Duke Henry of Guise, fought for the mainte
nance of the Catholic religion against the Huguenots, and
against the licentious king, Henry III, who was vacillating
between the Catholics and the Huguenots. Henry III,
having ordered the murder of Henry, duke of Guise, and
his brother, Cardinal Louis of Guise, was himself assas
sinated by the fanatical Dominican, James Clement. He
was succeeded by Henry IV, of Navarre (1589-1610),
who at his accession became a Catholic and thus ended
the civil war.
177. The Edict of Nantes. The discontented Hugue
nots were pacified by the Edict of Nantes (1598),
which granted them the almost unrestricted exercise of
their religion throughout the kingdom. The edict gave
them also access to all offices and institutions, and support
for their Despite these concessions, the
universities.
Huguenots refused to tolerate Catholic worship within

their districts. Henry IV was murdered in 1610 by Ra-
vaillac, a lawyer, who for a brief time had been a Cister
cian, buthaving been expelled from the order, became a
writer and a school-master. Even under frightful tor
ture, Ravaillac denied that he had been aided by accom
plices. The murder of the king caused a new civil war,
inwhich the Huguenots were defeated by Cardinal Riche
lieu (1624-1642). At first they were treated with great
clemency but after they had formed an alliance with Eng
;
land in order to renew hostilities, the cardinal followed up

his victoryby capturing their headquarters, La Rochelle,
and destroying their strongholds. After peace had been
made, the Huguenot leaders were pardoned and received

back both their possessions and their dignities. During
the following decades, many Huguenots were led back to
the faith by Catholic missionaries. In 1683 an d 1685,
however, disregarding all previous agreements, the Hu
guenots again rebelled.
Louis XIV (1643-1715) deprived the Huguenots of
their standing before the law and made their worship
illegal by issuing the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
(1685). The cruelties ordered by the king included dra-
goonades (or the quartering of dragoons upon the inhabi
tants). The king s policy was disapproved of by Pope
Innocent XI, and by the French bishops, on the ground
heretics should be led to the Church by the hand
"
that
and not by the hair." The Huguenots resisted the royal
ordinance, especially in the Cevennes, where the Cami-
sards fought fiercely. Some 67,000 Huguenots emigrated
to England and other countries.
It was only in 1787, in the reign of Louis XVI (1774-
1792), that complete religious equality was again restored
by law.
V. ENGLAND
179. Henry VIII s Divorce. Henry VIII, of Eng
land (i5og-i547), 18 wishing to marry his queen s maid
of honor, Anne Boleyn, claimed in 1526 that his mar
riage with Catherine of Aragon, the widow of his
brother, was invalid. His court chaplain, Thomas Cran-
mer, who was married and a secret Lutheran, assisted by
various intrigues in preparing England for apostasy.
Having been made archbishop of Canterbury, by the help
18
Henry had defended the Catholic doctrine against Luther and
from the pope the title, Defender of
"
received the Faith," in 1521.

PROTESTANTISM 167
of the king, he took the oath of allegiance to the
pope,
while actually a Protestant. For the sake of
appear
ances he begged Henry s leave to examine into the
royal
marriage, and then obligingly pronounced it invalid.
Pope Clement VII, though threatened with the apostasy
of the English kingdom,
condemned the decision of Cran-
mer.
180. The Break with the
Papacy. Henry then re
nounced Catholicity and, in 1534, compelled the
clergy
and all office holders, under pain of high treason, to
take the oath of supremacy,
acknowledging the king
as supreme head of the Church.
Henry suppressed over
three thousand ecclesiastical institutions and confiscated
their property, in order God and
"
to please for the honor

of the kingdom." The
profits of this spoliation which
amounted to $25,000,000, were spent in wickedness
within the short space of ten
years. Magnificent
churches, libraries and works of art were demolished;
the tomb of Alfred the Great was
desecrated; everything
valuable that could be seized was confiscated
by the royal
19
commissioners ; and meantime, the misery of the poor
increased. The king s tyranny was directed against all
who remained true to the Catholic faith. Chancellor
Thomas More and Cardinal John Fisher died as mar
tyrs. Aprice of 50,000 ducats was placed on the head
of Cardinal Reginald Pole, and after the cardinal had
escaped, his mother and two other relatives were put to
death by the king. Even Cromwell, the
king s chief tool,
incurred disfavor and was executed, despite his
pliability.
Henry was married six times. Two of his wives, Anne
Boleyn and Catherine Howard, were, by his order, put to
death. During his reign, there were executed two queens,
19 See
"
History of the Reformation

"
by Cobbett, a Protestant
twelve dukes and earls, 164 gentlemen, one cardinal, two

archbishops, eighteen bishops, more than 500 abbots and
monks, and over 70,000 commoners. Though denying
the pope s supremacy, Henry adhered to most of the other
points of Catholic doctrine, and even punished viola
tions of the priestly vow of celibacy. From fear of the
king disapproval, Cranmer secretly sent his wife and
s
children back to Germany. Although at heart a Protes

tant, as he later on said openly and repeatedly, Cran
mer publicly professed Catholicism, and even condemned
a number of Protestants to death for their belief.
181. The Reign of Edward VI (1547-1553). Henry
died in 1547, and Edward VI succeeded to the throne.
As he was under age, his uncle, the Duke of Somerset,
and Cranmer assumed the government and at
reins of
tempted, with much compel the English peo
bloodshed, to
ple to embrace Calvinism. Cranmer became the head of
a new Inquisition; and foreign mercenary troops were
employed to quell the popular risings. Cranmer s
"
Book
of Common Prayer," and
"
The Forty-two Articles," of
1553, formulated by him, were recognized as the official

teaching of the Church of England. The death penalty was
decreed against who persisted in remaining Catholics.
all
Queen Mary (1553-1558).

182. After the death of
Edward, the Catholic Queen Mary, the legitimate
daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, as-
cended the throne. The fact that Mary preceded Eliza
beth proves that, despite the decision of Cranmer, Henry s
first marriage was still looked upon as valid. Mary sub
dued the rebellious party, re-established the Catholic re
ligion and, by the advice of Cardinal Pole, did not punish
Protestants for their religion. Both houses of parliament
were almost unanimously in favor of the Catholic Church,
PROTESTANTISM 169
and the pope renounced all claims to the stolen ecclesiasti

cal property. Unfortunately the Protestants, instigated
by their preachers, stirred up insurrections which com
pelled the queen to employ stringent measures to ensure
her own safety.
According to Hume, Fox and others, about 279 per
sons were put to death, including Cranmer. Nearly all
of these were criminals and open rebels, most of them
caught with weapons in their hands. The execution of
the dishonorable Cranmer was entirely justified, as he
was convicted of treason and several other crimes. He
changed his religion six different times in order to save
his life, but to no purpose, as his treason, not his faith,
was finally punished.
183. The Reign of Elizabeth (1558-1603.) Mary
died childless and was succeeded by Elizabeth, the
illegitimate daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.
The lawful heir to the throne was Mary Stuart, Queen
of Scots, granddaughter of Henry s elder sister Margaret.
But Mary Stuart was betrothed to the Dauphin of
France, and the English, who were averse to French rule,
decided in favor of Elizabeth. As the child of Anne
Boleyn, Elizabeth s personal interests coincided with the
cause of Protestantism. Elizabeth was crowned accord
ing to the Catholic rite and took the oath to uphold the
Catholic faith. To her sister, Mary, and the Spanish am
bassador, she had a few days before sworn that she was
May God let the earth open and swallow
"
a Catholic,
me, if I am not a true Roman Catholic." 20 But as she
was not able to obtain recognition from Pope Paul IV,
she embraced Protestantism and undertook to establish it
by force. The oath of royal supremacy was again im-
2
Cobbett, Letter IX, No. 260.
posed upon the clergy as a but the bishops

test of loyalty ;
refused to take it. Mathew

Parker, a former teacher of
the queen s, was appointed to the see of Canterbury, and
his consecration took place in an invalid form. He pro
ceeded to consecrate other bishops of the Established
21
Church, using an invalid form.
184.The Protestantizing of England. Whoever ac
knowledged the authority of the pope was obliged to
suffer the penalty of high treason. Nearly one-half of
the nationwas still Catholic. In 1559, Elizabeth could ob
tain a majority of only three votes in parliament, for
measures against the Church, yet no violent resistance
was made to the decrees of the queen, although they were
equivalent to a religious persecution. Her severity in

creased, after she had gotten the unfortunate Mary Stuart
in her power (1568), and still more after she herself had
been excommunicated by Pope St. Pius V (1570). Catho
lic worship was strictly forbidden. The Court of High
Commission, an inquisitorial tribunal without judicial
forms, possessed absolute power over Catholics. To re
fuse to be present at a Protestant service was punishable
by a fine of twenty pounds a month, corporal chastisement
and imprisonment. Priests exercising their functions,
as well as people assisting or sheltering them, were pun
ished with death. Communication with Rome was re
garded as high treason. Spies and decoys were employed
to discover and denounce Catholics who might be break
ing the new laws.
185. Catholic Missions. With the courage of true

heroes the Catholic missionaries, especially the Jesuits,
largely because of the use of this invalid form

21 It is that
Anglican orders were pronounced invalid in 1896, by Leo XIII,

after due investigation.
PROTESTANTISM 171
ministered to the Catholics in England. Two

hundred
and thirty-two priests suffered martyrdom from 1583 to
1603. In 1568, Cardinal Allen established a seminary
at Douay, in Belgium; and, in 1579, Gregory XIII estab
lished a seminary in
Rome, to prepare priests for the Eng
where many of them endured a fearful mar
lish mission,
tyrdom. Elizabeth died in 1603. She had helped to pro

mote England s material greatness, but she had not
scrupled to use evil means.
186. James I (1603-1625). The persecution was re
newed by James I, because several Catholics took
part in the Gunpowder Plot of i6o5.
22
A new penal
code against the Catholics was drawn up by both houses
of parliament. A
new oath of allegiance, which was a
disguised oath of royal supremacy, was exacted from all
Catholics. Catholics who took the oath suffered the or
dinary punishment for practicing their religion whereas ;
those who refused were imprisoned for life and had their
property confiscated by the crown. The annual fines ex
torted from the Catholics at this time amounted to some
36,000 pounds.
187. The Last Stuarts. Charles I (1625-1649), who
was personally undecided in religious matters, yielded
to the fantaticism of the Presbyterians, or Puritans.
The Presbyterians, extreme Calvinists, recognized
only presbyters, repudiating the episcopacy and the hier-
achical constitution of the Established Church which had
been borrowed from Catholicism. The name of
"
Puri
was given
"
tans to them, because they proposed to purify

the church of all Catholicity. Eventually Charles was
himself dethroned by the Puritans, and under Scriptural
"
22 It has been shown that this plot was carried out directly
against the advice of Catholic priests.
IJ2 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
beheaded by Cromwell (1649). Thus the

warrant"
" "
Reformation in England had soon led to revolution.

The rule of the Commonwealth (1649-1660), of course,
continued hostile to Catholicism.
Under Charles II (1660-1685), the oppression of the
Catholics was renewed. The king, at first inclined to
adopt a milder course against the Catholics, was threat
ened by the Protestants, who compelled him to employ
severe measures. The Test Act," calling for a repudia
"
was introduced after the fire of

tion of transubstantiation,
London (1666), which was charged against the Catholics.
The Popish Plot, discovered by Titus Gates, was an
" "
invention, butit served to increase the

severity of the per
secution and resulted in the exclusion of Catholics from
Parliament (1678). Charles II was reconciled to the
Church before he died.
II (1685-1688), a Catholic, granted freedom
James
of worship to all of his subjects. Having given liberty
tomany thousands of imprisoned Catholics and Quakers,
he incurred the violent enmity of the fanatics, especially
of the Scotch Presbyterians. The party of malcontents
begged William, Prince of Orange, to enter England and
to occupy the throne. He accepted the invitation and
James, abandoned by the Protestants, fled to France.
William III, who ruled from 1689 to 1702, continued the
persecution of the Catholics.
VI. IRELAND
Elizabethan Reform.
1 88. The first seeds of the new
heresy were planted in Ireland by Henry VIII (1509-
1547). A so-called Parliament," made up of Eng
"
Irish
lish colonists, declared Henry to be the sole and supreme
ruler of the Irish church. The Irish as a nation offered
PROTESTANTISM 173
a vigorous resistance to the introduction of Protestantism,

and during the reign of Elizabeth (1558-1603) endured
a systematic and atrocious persecution.
Among those who suffered martyrdom were several
bishops and archbishops. In order to destroy the Catho
lic faith, seminaries and colleges were closed
by the gov
ernment. Persons who desired a liberal education were
obliged either to give up their faith, or to cross over to the
continent. A
wholesale robbery of property was in
augurated. Exile and poverty became the common lot of
Irish Catholics. 23 The Irish were barely permitted to re
main on their former possessions, as the laborers and
servants of their oppressors. But despite confiscation,
the rack, and the scaffold, Irish priests and people re
mained loyal to the ancient faith.
Under James I. During the reign
189. Persecution
of James (1603-1625), the Irish hoped to obtain some
I
degree of religious freedom, but their hope was frus

trated. In an act of indemnity which the king granted,
he excluded from papists and assassins."
"
its benefits In
1605, Catholic services were prohibited; and all priests
were ordered to leave the country under pain of death.
190. Persecution Under Charles I. Persecutions
were continued with increased violence under Charles
I (1625-1649). This prince, although married to a
Catholic queen, listened to his evil advisers and continued
the oppression of the Catholics. At last (1641), a for
midable uprising took place throughout the whole island.
Priests and people united in the defence of their religion,
23 Under Elizabeth, 600,000 acres of land were confiscated un
;
der James I, 950,000; under Charles I, under Cromwell,

2,000,000;
5,000,000; under William III, 1,060,792; in all nearly ten million
acres.
and continued their resistance until 1643, when an armi

stice, known as
"
The Cessation," was concluded, by the

terms of which Catholics were promised the free exercise
of their religion. the fear of the Puritans,
Through
however, Charles did not dare grant the just demands
I
of the Irish. Yet at the moment when the king was in

dispute with the English parliament and threatened by his
Scotch subjects, the Irish came generously forward to
relieve his necessities.
191. Cromwell in Ireland. After the death of

Charles I, Cromwell landed in Ireland and organized
a terriblepersecution. Priests, soldiers, civilians,

women and children were put to the sword. Nearly all
the lands belonging to Catholics were confiscated and di
vided among the soldiers.
"
To Hell or Connaught," was

Cromwell s reply to the protests of the Irish people.
Twenty thousand persons were transported to the West
Indies, and many thousands more to the American col
onies. A prize of five pounds was set upon the head of
every priest.
192. The Restoration (1660-1688). The persecu
tion continued under Charles II, but when James II,
an avowed Catholic, ascended the throne, he granted
freedom of worship as well as civil and political equal
ity to his Catholic subjects in Ireland. This happy
change, however, was of short duration; for James was
soon driven from the throne by William, Prince of
Orange, who by the Treaty of Limerick, became su
preme ruler of the British Isles (1690). The treaty
provided for freedom of conscience, but it was quickly
violated.
193. William of Orange (1689-1702). With William

began a penal code unparalleled in the history of
PROTESTANTISM 1/5
Christian nations. Penal laws were enacted by the

"Irish Parliament," providing: I. That no Catholic
should bequeath his property, or endow his daughter.
2. That no Catholic should purchase landed property, or
hold in fee any property purchased or inherited. 3. That

leases should not be held for longer than thirty years,
and that tenants should give two-thirds of the income to
the owner. 4. That no should own a horse
" "
papist
worth more than five pounds.
Catholic education was proscribed under penalty of
high treason. The property of a child brought up in the
Catholic religion on the continent was to be confiscated.
"
were to be excluded from Parliament and all

"
Papists
offices of the state. Attendance at Catholic service was
prohibited under pain of banishment. Priests were for
bidden under penalty of death to solemnize marriage be
tween Catholics and Protestants. Protestant heiress A
who married a Catholic was punished by the loss of her
property and a Catholic wife who turned Protestant might
separate from her husband.
In 1697, an act was passed requiring all bishops to
leave the country before May, 1698; their return would
render them liable to capital punishment. Priests were
allowed to remain, but only under the most oppressive
supervision.
194. Queen Anne s Reign (1702-1714). -During the
reign of Queen Anne, a new persecution was inaugu
rated. Several acts were passed to root out the Catholic
faith in Ireland. One of the acts declared guilty of high-
treason and subject to its penalty, any person who should
"
harbour, relieve, conceal or entertain a Catholic priest."

The Irish were overburdened with taxes. They were
compelled to pay tithes to the bishops and pastors of the
Protestant High Church ; and in addition, they contributed
from their indigence to the support of their own priests

who, at the peril of their lives, remained. Famine and
starvation added to the horrors of the persecution.
195. Abolition of the Penal Laws. The disgraceful
laws remained in force until the War of Independence
broke out America (1776), when the English gov
in
ernment granted some concessions. By an act of Parlia
ment of the year 1778, the Catholics were designated
Roman Catholics," whereas previously they had been
"
the common enemy." But it was

" "
styled papists," or
only by the Bill of Emancipation (1829), that the penal

laws were finally abolished.
196. Continental Seminaries. Among the colleges
and seminaries on the continent, endowed for the Catho
lics of Ireland, may be mentioned the Irish College of
Salamanca, founded in 1582; the Irish Seminary at Lis

bon, established in 1595; the Irish College at Douay,
founded in Colleges were also founded at Lille,
1593.
Antwerp, Tournai, Paris and St. Omer. Seminaries
were established at Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Nantes.
The first Catholic college opened in Ireland since the
Reformation was Carlow College, founded by Dr.
O Keefe, Bishop of Kildare (+ 1787). The College at
Maynooth was established in 1795.
VII. SCOTLAND
197. John Knox. Protestantism was introduced

into Scotland by John Knox, who, in 1542, began his
career as a reformer by opposing both the Church and
the Crown. Expelled from Scotland, he spent some years
at Geneva, where he became a thorough-going Calvinist.
In the year 1559, he returned and organized the revolt
PROTESTANTISM 177
against the Church. The inauguration of the reformed

every other country, was ac
religion in Scotland, as in
companied by the sacking of churches and the entire de
molition of whatever pertained to the sacrifice of the
Mass or the veneration of the saints. The Scottish nobles
formed a league called,
"
The Lords of the Congrega

Assisted by Elizabeth of England, they engaged
tion."
in a civil war with the adherents of Mary of Guise, queen
regent, who was aided by the king of France.

The queen regent having died (1560), both parties
agreed upon a truce, which left the settlement of their
difficulties to parliament. The Protestant lords, not con
tent with the free exercise of their religion, demanded the
suppression of
"
idolatrous worship." The parliament of

1560 abolished the Catholic religion and established Pres-
byterianism as the religion of Scotland. The old Catholic

faith was thus replaced by a rigid Calvinism. Attendance
at Mass was forbidden under heavy penalties.
198. Mary Stuart. When Mary Stuart returned

from France, after the death of her husband, in 1561,
she found a disloyal and fanatical people. The re
formed preachers were not willing even to let her have
Mass said in the chapel of Edinburgh Castle. Knox per
sonally insulted the unfortunate queen, who was deserted
and persecuted by her rebellious subjects. After an im
prisonment of twenty years in England, she was beheaded
by order of Queen Elizabeth (1587).
The democratic system of church government continued
under James VI and Charles I. Attempts to introduce
the episcopal hierarchy caused new revolts. The Catholic
religion almost entirely disappeared from the land.
VIII. THE NETHERLANDS

199. Protestantism and Revolution. Wealth, lux
ury, and the influence of humanism prepared the Neth
erlands for the introduction of Protestantism; but
Charles V took severe measures against it. During the
reign of Philip II (1555-1598), the administration of the
Netherlands by Granvella produced general discontent.
In 1566, the malcontents under William of Orange and
Counts Egmont and Home, formed an alliance, the real
aim of which was to secure assistance from the Protes
tants in Germany and France. They received the name
They were joined by
"
Gueux," or beggars. the Cal-

vinistic preachers, and plundered churches and destroyed
works of art. In consequence of these outrages, Count
Egmont and other Catholics abandoned the movement

and returned to the allegiance of the king. The Gueux
were defeated; and William of Orange fled to Germany.
Philip finally sent the Duke of Alva to rule the country
(1567). He employed rigorous and bloody measures
against the rebellious party and commanded the execu
tion of both Count Egmont and Count Home.
William of Orange, in 1574, invaded and conquered
the northern province with a large foreign army.
24
Priests and monks were ill-treated. Great cruelty was
practiced on both sides. To pacify the people, Philip
finally recalled the Duke of Alva; but the rebellion con
tinued to spread.
province, Holland, became Calvinistic
The northern ;
the southern province, Belgium, remained Catholic.

24 The nineteen martyrs of Gorkum, who were put to death at
this period,were canonized by Pius IX, in 1867. Their feast is
celebrated on July ninth.
PROTESTANTISM 179
William reigned over Holland, where in 1582 the public

practice of the Catholic religion was proscribed. Wil
liam died in 1584. After
many struggles, Spain finally
acknowledged the independence of Holland in 1648. Bel
gium belonged to Spain until 1713, and then to Austria,
until conquered by France in 1794.
IX. OTHER COUNTRIES

(Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Poland, Russia,
Hungary, Spain, and Italy)
200. Sweden. Sweden became independent of Den
mark and, at the same time, Protestant, through a revo
lution headed by Gustavus Vasa (1523-1560). Hav
ing seized the property of the Church, he succeeded in
breaking the power of both the clergy and the nobility.
The liturgy that he imposed instructed the preachers to
deceive the people by taking the host and chalice in their
hands, so as to make the congregation think they were
assisting at the rite to which they had been accustomed.
The Dominicans were banished; many bishops were put
to death; and Catholic worship was prohibited under
severe penalties. John (1569-1593), son of Gustavus,
was a Catholic for a time, but died a Protestant. An
other son, Charles, the father of Gustavus Adolphus,
put himself at the head of the Protestant party and pre
vented John s son, Sigismund, from succeeding to the
throne.
Gustavus Adolphus (1611-1632), decreed the death
penalty against all Catholics found in Sweden. He
gave important military aid to the Protestant German
princes in the Thirty Years War. His daughter, Chris
tina, resigned the regency of the kingdom^ to embrace
I8O A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
the Catholic faith, and lived in (1669-1689). The

Rome
legislation of Sweden continued to be severe against
Catholics until recent years. As late as 1859, Swedes
who joined the Catholic Church were banished; and not
until 1873 was conversion to Catholicism permitted by
law. At the present time, Catholics are ineligible to sev
eral of the state offices.
201. Denmark, Norway and Iceland. In Denmark
King Frederick I (1523-1533) gradually introduced
Protestantism as the best instrument for weakening
the power of the clergy. Finally all bishops were seized
and imprisoned the priests were banished, under pain of
;
death and Catholics were deprived of the right to hold

;
public office and of the right of inheritance. Religious

orders were forbidden to enter the country under pain
of death.
Norway and Iceland also were made Protestant by
force. The courageous bishop of Holar, John Arason,
was beheaded for his faith (1550).
202. Poland. Sigismund I (1506-1548) opposed the
introduction of Protestantism into his country; but
Sigismund II (1548-1572) tried to make Poland Prot
Religious Peace of Warsaw (1573) P

estant. The ro ~
vided for the equal rights of Catholicism and Protestant
ism, although the bulk of the nation remained Catholic.

The Protestant nobles formed foreign alliances, and thus
the country to its ruin. Frederick II of Prus
brought
sia (1713-1740), and later Catherine II of Russia (1762-
1796), worked for the suppression of

the hereditary king
dom of Poland. After the defeat of the Catholic Confed
eration of Bar (1768), the Russian ambassador ruled the
the first
country and exiled the Catholic bishops. By
partition of Poland in 1772, some
twelve hundred Catho-
PROTESTANTISM l 8l
lie churches were handed over to schismatics; and in

various other ways schism was promoted by force. In
1793 and 1795 occurred the second and third partitions,
by which Poland ceased to be a nation.
203. Russia. In Russia, the government prevented
the spread of Protestantism, but maintained the ancient
opposition to Latin Catholicism. Little or no religious
change occurred until after 1700. Peter the Great
(1689-1725) refused to appoint any candidate to the
patriarchal see of Moscow, and ruled the Church himself.
In 1721, he established the Holy Administrative Synod
which, under his direction, arbitrarily changed ecclesias
tical laws to suit political purposes. The Church became
a police institution, very helpful in the systematic op
pression of the people. Attempts were made to force

violations of the seal of confession. Catholics who held
fast to their religious allegiance and refused to join the
schismatical Russian Church had to endure persecu
tion.
Hungary, Spain and Italy.

204. Despite the oppo
sition of the Hungarian government, Protestantism was
propagated by Lutheran preachers and favored by the
nobles for political motives. Calvinism was introduced
later, and won adherents. The party of the reformers
became powerful enough to obtain freedom of worship
in 1606. In Transylvania, a dependency of Hungary un
til1538, the reformers made such rapid progress that
they were able to expel the Catholics in 1529. In 1545,
Transylvania became officially Lutheran.
Spain and Italy offered no welcome to the reformers ;
and the activity of the governments, together with the

popular sentiment of loyalty to the Church, put an end
to the attempts of the Protestants to win a foothold.
X. SUMMARY
205. Eight Causes of the Spread of Protestantism.
The rapid growth of the new heresy was largely due
to the following causes :
i. Abuses existing within the Church, such as the

ignorance and wickedness of many bishops, priests,
and religious. Important ecclesiastical posts and wealthy
benefices were often held by members of the nobility,
whose shameful negligence and misconduct made their
expulsion a fitting punishment for their misconduct.
2. General resentment at existing abuses. The dis
contented were naturally inclined to innovation ; and this
tendency formed a rallying point.

3. Fascinating talk about freedom of spirit and
"
Evangelical Liberty," helped by the inability of the

people to detect the contradictions between the doc
trines of the Church and the new heresy.
The reform
ers at first retained in name, and partly in fact, many
Catholic usages, such as Mass, confession, church fes
tivals, and sacred vestments.
4. The many inducements offered to sensual men

by the new doctrines. Humble faith was replaced by
private judgment; confession of sins was abolished;
princes and nobles could confiscate the property of
churches and convents. The peasants, captivated with
"
the idea of possessing the liberty of the children of

God," hoped to shake off the yoke of every authority
and to free themselves from all burdens.
5. The quarrel between the humanists and school
men as well as the still persisting influence of old
heresies, such as the Waldensian and the Hussite.
6. The personal influence of the reformers, espe-
PROTESTANTISM 183
cially ofLuther with his popular writings and sermons.

Luther and his followers at first professed to preach no
heresy and to desire only the correction of abuses. They
appealed to the Word of God, as interpreted by the un
trained mind. They promoted their propaganda by popu
larsermons full of exaggerations, by vulgar wit and
mockery, and by caricatures. They misrepresented
Catholic doctrines and asserted that Catholics paid divine
honor to the saints, and to images and relics. These
calumnies have remained more or less popular even to the
present day.
-^7. The political condition of Germany. The bishops
holding temporal power became odious to the people, and
were often in dispute with cities and with citizens. Some
of the cities, in order to gain political independence, be
came promoters of the new religion. There was a gen
eral antipathy to the house of Austria, and much political
prejudice against the Apostolic See.

8. The banding together of the strongest princes in
Germany against the emperor, to introduce the new re-
vligion into their territories, and forcibly to suppress

Catholicism.
206. Effects of Protestantism. Luther s attack oc
casioned the correction of many real abuses which he
pointed out; and in the struggle with him new religious
vitality was developed, so that the Church actually derived
some benefit from his assault. Yet in addition to the
Church s loss of so many children, the people of Germany
suffered disastrous consequences. Political unity was de
stroyed with religious unity and the thirty years of civil

;
war left the country a prey to foreigners. Despite the

fact that the reformers were personally well educated
and solicitous for the cause of education, the net result of
1 84 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
their activity was and civil

a setback in science, art, virtue
25
liberty. This is evident from the laments made by
Luther himself and by his contemporaries.
207. The Reformers and Education. That the re
formers were the first to introduce systematic popular
education is utterly untrue. An impetus had already
been given to the movement for popular education, as
early as the fifteenth century.
208. Minor Protestant Sects. The fundamental
principle of Protestantism, the right of private judgment
in matters of religion, necessarily led to many divisions
and to the rise of new sects. Holy Scripture, privately
interpreted, could not replace the living authority of the
Church. 26 Step by step, each ruler appropriated to him
self the supreme religious authority of his dominions,
and a thorough-going Caesarism soon became the rule.
But though the princes usurped the functions of popes and
ecumenical councils as well, they could not settle the
countless disputes, nor prevent the formation of new sects.
We shall mention the chief of these.

Lutheranism prevailed in Germany; Calvinism in
Switzerland, Holland, Scandinavia, and Scotland; and

the English created a national religion of their own.
From the Lutherans sprang Anabaptists, and from these,
Mennonites and Baptists. Calvinism begot Presbyterian-
ism and Congregationalism. Methodists and Quakers
"
Second Protestant Revolt against

"
represent a sort of
25 that of late there has grown
"
"
I perceive," says Melanchthon,
up a tyranny incomparably worse than ever before."

Luther, says Paulsen, did not reform; he destroyed the old
28
forms. Indeed, his specialty was the fundamental rejection of the

Church. He absolutely refused to recognize any earthly authority
in matters of faith and his denial of all church authority what
;
soever, was as downright as could be.

PROTESTANTISM l8$
the government of the new Anglican Church. The

Moravians are descended from the Hussites.
The Anabaptists drew from Luther s teaching on faith
the logical conclusion that children incapable of faith
were also incapable of receiving baptism; and they re
quired adults to be rebaptized. They were organized by
Thomas Munzer, who was killed in the Peasants War,
in1525. Ten years later, they inaugurated a reign of
terror, under the pretence of founding a socialistic king
dom called the New Zion at Minister in Westphalia
" "
and their leaders, John Mathias and John of Leyden, were

executed in 1535.
The Mennonites originated from the Anabaptists, un
der the leadership of Simon Menno (1492-1561). In the
seventeenth century, they divided into two chief factions ;
and at present, in the United States, they include five

different parties.
The Baptists began to exist in England about 1612,
under the leadership of John Smyth, who had adopted
the teaching of the Mennonites while in Holland. The
first Baptist church in America was founded by Roger
Williams, in Rhode Island, in 1639.

The Moravian Brethren were the disciples of John
Huss, and were expelled from Bohemia and Moravia in
1627. In 1722 they founded the village of Herrnhut,
in Saxony, and are on that account often called Herrn-
huters.
The Quakers were organized in England, under the
name of the Society of Friends, about 1652, by George
Fox; and were persecuted until 1689. They were in
troduced into Pennsylvania by William Penn, in 1682.
The Methodists were organized in England about 1774,
by John Wesley, who had been a missionary in Georgia,
Associated with him was his brother Charles, who became

the hymn-writer of the movement.
The Swedenborgians (The New Church) were
founded in 1778 by a Swede, Emanuel Swedenborg, on
the basis of visions which he had begun to experience
about 1743.
CHAPTER XVII
THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
I. THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL
209. Recuperative Power of the Church. The vic

tories of Protestantism seemed, for a time, to doom the
Church but she rose up again
to destruction ; with new
strength, and recovered much of the ground that had
been lost. In the period before us, the Church becomes
rich again in zealous missionaries, learned scholars, and
gifted artists. Abuses are corrected; magnificent insti

tutions and powerful religious orders are founded Catho ;
lic a generation of saintly priests con

science flourishes ;
duct the people in the way of virtue the faith is carried

;
to distant lands by tireless missionaries; and finally the
Apostolic See, occupied by popes eminent for wisdom and

virtue, becomes again the center of universal reverence
and affection.
210. The Council of Trent.- Paul III (1534-1549)
was an able ruler, who selected excellent men as car
dinals and bishops. He reformed the papal court, es
tablished the Congregation of the Index to proscribe dan
gerous books, and convoked the long expected ecumenical
council. The Nineteenth Ecumenical Council of Trent
(1545-1563) defined clearly and precisely the doctrines
of the Church that had been disputed by Protestants;
and also issued decrees on discipline for the correction
of the abuses that had afflicted the Church so disastrously.
An invitation was extended to the Protestants to attend
187
the sessions of the council; but they declined, because
their demands (e.g., to adopt the Bible as the only rule
of faith) were rejected. At the eighth session (1547),
the council was transferred to Bologna, where it was soon
prorogued (1549)-
In 1551, Pope Julius III (1550-1555) transferred the
council back to Trent, where it was again suspended in
1552. Reassembled again at Trent, it concluded its
sessions there (1561-1563). The final decrees were
signed by 252 members whereas, at the opening of the
;
council, only 40 bishops had been present. With new "
and
"
youth strength," says Ranke, Catholicism again

faced the Protestant world."
211. Popes from 1566-1758. St. Pius (1566-1572), V

a man of great energy, renewed piety in Rome and
throughout Italy. He was assisted by St. Charles Bor-
romeo and St. Philip Neri in carrying out the reforms
"
decreed by Trent. During his pontificate, the Cate

was published, the Breviary and
"
chism of the Council

Missal were revised, and many abuses within the Church
were corrected. To Pius V we are indebted for the splen
did victory over the Turks at Lepanto, in the Gulf of
Corinth (1571).
Gregory XIII (1572-1585), a famous jurist, di
rected his attention chiefly to the promotion of ec
clesiastical science. He
published a new edition of
canon law and, in place of the old Julian Calendar,
;
he substituted the new Gregorian Calendar (1582), which

was a great improvement and gradually came into univer
sal use.
1
At Rome he founded six colleges, among them
1
Worthy of remark is the Protestant prejudice which kept so
many nations from adopting the improvement until after 1700,
simply because it originated with a pope. Russia has not yet
accepted it.
THE CATHOLIC CHURCH 189
the Irish and German colleges, and the Roman college

for the youth of Rome. He also established nuntiatures
at Lucerne, Vienna and Cologne.
Sixtus V
(1585-1590) possessed an extraordinary
capacity for government, and ruled the states of the
Church with admirable skill. He established fifteen
congregations for the administration of public affairs, en

larged the Vatican library, founded various colleges, and
established new printing offices for the purpose of secur
ing improved editions of the Church Fathers. He had
obelisks brought from Egypt, completed the dome of St.
Peter s Church, built a hospital for 2,000 patients, con

structed a superb aqueduct on the Quirinal Hill and, by
his good business methods, left the Holy See in a finan
cially sound condition.

Among the successors of Gregory, the following de
serve special mention: Clement VIII (1592-1605), pro
moter of the new edition of the Vulgate, who surrounded
himself with eminent scholars such as Baronius and Bel-
larmine; Paul V (1605-1621), who erected magnificent
buildings and labored with great zeal for the reformation
of the clergy; Gregory XV
(1621-1623), who established
the Congregation of the Propaganda and gave a fixed form
to papal elections; Urban VIII (16*23-1644), who was a
zealous promoter of science; Benedict XIV (1740-1758),
one of the most learned men of the age, who was espe
cially famous as a master of canon law.
II. THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS

212. Effects of Protestantism. Protestantism in
flicted severe wounds upon the religious orders. Many
members of the various communities fell away, discipline
was relaxed, and the religious life came to be despised
and ridiculed. But holy men founded new orders, the

older ones were thoroughly reformed, and the religious
life flourished again.
213. Congregations of Men. There were several

notable foundations of communities of men.
The Order of Capuchins took its rise from the Order
of St. Francis, and revived the original austere rule of
the Franciscans (1528). It spread rapidly and its mem
bers worked with great zeal for the restoration of the
Catholic faith and the conversion of the heathen.
The from the monastery of La
Trappists, so-called
Trappe in Normandy, formed a branch of the Cistercian
Order, and observed the same rigorous austerity (1662).
The Redemptorists were founded by St. Alphonsus
Liguori, for missionary work among the people (1732).
Many other congregations were established: The
Theatines, named after the Episcopal See of Theate,
(Chieti) in the Kingdom of Naples, were founded to re
form the secular clergy (1524) the Barnabites were in
;
stituted for the care of souls, works of charity and scien

tific studies (1530) ;
the Brothers of Mercy were founded
by St.John of God, for the care of the sick (1540) the ;
Oratorians were founded by St. Philip Neri, to promote

science and the instruction of the people (1574); the
Lazarists, or Priests of the Mission, were founded by
St. Vincent de Paul, for missionary work and especially
for the conversion of the heathen (1624) the Piarists, ;
or Fathers of the Pius Schools, were founded in 1597,

and the Congregation of the Brothers of the Christian
Schools, in 1680, both for the instruction of youth.
The founding of the Society of Jesus is described below.
Besides these, many local communities were established.
THE CATHOLIC CHURCH IQ 1
214. Congregations of Women. New communities

of women were established also. The
Religious of Per
uninter
petual Adoration were founded in 1526, for the
rupted worship of the Blessed Sacrament; the Ursulines
for the education of young girls (1537) the Sisters of J
the Visitation of Our Lady, by

Francis de Sales, for
St.
teaching and the care of the sick (1610); the English

Ladies, for the education of young girls (1609); the
Sisters of Charity, by St. Vincent de Paul, for teaching
and the care of the sick (1633) ;
the Sisters of the Good
Shepherd, for the reformation of fallen women and the
preservation of young girls (1644).
III. THE JESUITS
215. St. Ignatius of Loyola. St. Ignatius, who

founded the Jesuits in 1540, was a Spanish noble, born
at Loyola, in 1491, and educated at the royal court.
Having been seriously wounded during the gallant defence
of Pampeluna (1521), he resolved to enter upon a more
austere life. After days of retirement in a cavern at
Manresa, he wrote the
"
Spiritual Exercises." Soon

after he went to the Holy Land, but had to give up his
design of converting the infidels and return to Europe.

To obtain the necessary knowledge for his missionary
work, he began at the age of thirty-two, to study the rudi
ments of Latin with the school children of Barcelona.
While prosecuting further studies at the University of
Paris, he was joined in his austere mode of life by his
fellow students, Peter
Faber, Francis Xavier, James
Lainez, Alonso Salmeron, Nicolas Bobadilla and Simon
Rodriguez. All took the vows of poverty and chastity,
and decided to devote themselves to the conversion of
the Saracens, or in case this project could not be real

ized, to place themselves at the disposal of the Holy
See (1534).
216. Constitution of the Jesuits, In a Bull, dated
September 27, 1540, Paul III approved the Society
"
of The Jesuits adopted as their motto, the

Jesus."
for the greater glory of God (Ad Major em

"
All
"
phrase,
Dei Gloriam). The new order differed in many respects
from the older orders, notably in not requiring its mem
bers to recite the Divine Office in choir. 2
It spread rap
idly and (1556), numbered

at the death of St. Ignatius
one thousand members, including many nobles, one of
whom was the Duke of Gandia, St. Francis Borgia. At
the present time the society numbers about 15,000.
217. Influence of the Jesuits. The followers of
Ignatius early acquired a great reputation for sanctity
and learning, and obtained many marks of favor from the
popes. Their labors in the missionary field, as well as in
the different spheres of education, helped to revive the
spiritual life of both people and priests, and to win many
"
Protestants to the faith. writes Paul- It can be said,"

" "
sen, in his History of Higher Education," that the pre

servation of the Catholic Church in the southeast and
northwest of Germany, is essentially due to the labors
of the Society of Jesus."
Ranke says of the order:
There never has been, nor will there ever again be, such
a combination of science and tireless zeal, of study and
2 At the close of a novitiate of two years, the Jesuits take their
simple vows and begin their studies, which last from eight to ten
years. In the meantime, they are assigned to teach. Upon the
completion of their theological studies, they are ordained, usually
after the age of thirty; and after that they make a second noviti
ate of one year.
THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
eloquence, of magnificence and mortification, of world

wide propaganda and unity of purpose."
The order produced many saints. Besides St. Ignatius,
we may mention Sts. Stanislaus Kostka, Aloysius Gon-
zaga, John Berchmans, Francis Xavier, Francis Borgia,
Francis Regis, and Peter Canisius, the first German
Jesuit, author of a famous catechism. great many A
members gained the martyr s crown in missionary coun
tries.
218. Charges Against the Order. Being so numer

ous and so influential, the Jesuits were especially hated.
Among the charges made against the order are these :
1. It is falsely claimed that the Jesuits teach the prin

The
"
ciple : end justifies the means." For more than

twenty years Father Roh, S.J., offered about five hun
dred dollars to any one who would prove before a Protes
tant law faculty of Germany that any Jesuit, in these or
similar words, in any of his writings ever enunciated this
infamous proposition. No one has ever furnished the
proof, nor will any one ever do so. The ex-Jesuit, Count
Hoensbroech, tried to do it in a court of law in 1905,
but failed to win the verdict.
2. As the Jesuits vow absolute obedience, the monstrous
charge is made that the superior can bind an inferior to

commit sin. This accusation originated from the false
translation of a passage in the constitutions of the so
3
ciety.
3 The expression
"
obligationem ad peccatum (Part

inducere"
VI, C 5) is falsely translated into "to bind to whereas itsin,"
means "
to bind under pain of sin." A similar phrase is used by

St. Thomas Aquinas (II, II ae q. 186, a. 9) :
"
Si qtiselibet trans-
gressio regularum religiosum obligaret ad peccatum mortale,
"
status religionis esset periculosissimus." If every transgression

Again it is falsely charged, that the Jesuits teach

3.
that the murder of tyrants is lawful. Some Jesuits, it is
true, taught this doctrine, but under carefully specified
and extreme conditions; for instance, when an unlawful
ruler usurped power and abused it to practice wicked
4
ness.
4. Many charges are drawn from the so-called Monita

Secreta ("
Secret Instructions of the Jesuits ), which
is the of a forger. 5
work
219. Suppression of the Jesuits. The success of the
Jesuits and the powerful influence which they obtained
in all quarters of the world made many enemies for
them, especially among the rulers of the various na
tions, and among the foes of the Catholic Church. The
first actual suppression of the order was effected in Portu
gal by the Minister Pombal, who, in 1759, undertook to de

stroy the Jesuits. Thousands were cast into prison and
the rest exiled. The prisoners were declared free, when
of the rule would oblige the religious under pain of mortal sin, the
religious state would be most dangerous." According to the
moral theology of all Jesuits, a religious is never allowed to
comply with a sinful command.
4 It should be remembered: i That the doctrine of tyranni
cide was taught by some Catholic moralists before the foundation
of the order. 2 Protestant writers like Melanchthon and Luther
defended this doctrine. 3 Only a few members of the society
were in favor of the doctrine; whereas the great majority con
demned it. 4 The general of the society, in 1610, strictly for
bade the doctrine to be taught.
5 Of
course individual Jesuit writers have made mistakes.
Father Roh, in his pamphlet, The Old Song the End Sanctifies
"
the Means It should not be said that the Jesuits have

" "
writes,
never erred. Like other Catholics, they too have contributed
. . .
their share to the propositions condemned by the popes and to

the books prohibited by the Index."
Queen Mary ascended the throne in 1777 but by that time ;
only eight hundred remained alive.

In France the Jesuits were suppressed in 1764.*
They had made enemies of the Jansenists and of Madame
de Pompadour, mistress of Louis XV. One weapon used
them was a book of so-called Extracts," purport
"
r.gainst
ing to be taken from the writings of various Jesuits, and
containing objectionable and treasonable doctrines. In
part these were forgeries, and in part passages torn from
their context. 7
In 1765, Clement XIII proclaimed himself a defender
of the Jesuits and bestowed on them the papal approba
tion. Two years later, the Jesuits were banished from
the Spanish dominions, and shortly afterwards from the
kingdom of Sicily and the duchy of Parma. On the
death of Clement, the Bourbon princes did their utmost
to secure a pope who would suppress the Jesuits.
A was elected with
Franciscan, Lorenzo Ganganelli,
the name Clement XIV (1769-1774) and for the
of ;
sake of peace, he issued the Brief, Dominus ac Re- "
decreeing the suppression of the society in

demptor,"
1773. Thegeneral, Father Ricci, and some other mem

bers, were imprisoned; and Ricci died a prisoner, two
years later, in the Castle of Sant Angelo. Clement XIV
died a year after the suppression; and Pius VI (1775-
1799) permitted a part of the society to exist in Russian
6
The offer to permit the Jesuits to exist with a changed consti
tution was refused by them with the words, Sint ut sunt out "
non sint (Let them be as they are, or not at all).

"
7 The same
method had been practised by Blaise Pascal in his
Lettres Provinciales, "those immortal falsehoods," as some one
callsthem which were published in 1656, and remained a per
manent source of calumnies against the society. Pascal s text
contains many unjust charges and misconstructions.
Poland and in Prussian Silesia, where it was protected by

Catherine II of Russia and Frederick II of Prussia.
IV. THEOLOGY AND CATHOLIC PRACTICE

220. Theological Science. The outbreak of Protes
tantism was followed by a period of remarkable ac
tivity in Catholic theology. John Eck, of Ingoldstadt
(+ 1543) was among the earlier controversialists; and
Thomas de Vio, Cardinal Cajetan (-f- 1534) was among
the noted commentators on the Summa Theologica of St.
Thomas Aquinas. Three very famous Dominicans were
Dominic Soto (+ 1560), Melchior Cano (+ 1560) and
Banez (+ 1604). About the year 1600, there flourished
a number of Jesuit theologians whose works are still
held in high honor in the schools, Vasquez (-J- 1604),
Sanchez (+ 1610), Suarez (+ 1617), Bellarmine
(+ 1621), Lessius (+ 1623), Petavius (+ 1652), and De
Lugo (+ 1660). Important commentaries on Sacred
Scripture were written by the Jesuits, John Maldonatus
(+ I an d Cornelius a Lapide (+ 1673). In 1665,
5^3)>
at the University of Salamanca, there was organized a
Jesuit school of writers (Salmanticenses), which became

very famous in the science of moral theology. Prominent
among ascetical writers were St. Ignatius (+ 1556), St.
Teresa (-J- 1582), St. John of the Cross (+ I 59 I the )>
Dominican Luis of Granada (+ 1588), and the Jesuits,

Alphonsus Rodriguez (+ 1616) and Luis de Ponte
(+1624).
The Oratorian, Cardinal Baronius (+ 1607), published
Ecclesiastical Annals," which was con
"
a great work,
tinued by three other Oratorians, Raynaldus (-f- 1671),
Laderchi (-f 1738) and Theiner (-f- 1874). The hagio-
graphers, Surius (+ 1587) and Rosweyde, S.J., ( +
"
1629), were precursors of the Jesuit Bollandists,"-
John van (+
Bollandus Henschen
1665), Geoffrey
(+ 1681) and Daniel von Papenbroeck (+ 1714), who
initiated the monumental Acta Sanctorum, or
"
Lives of
All the Saints
"
in one series. The Benedictine Congre

gation of St. Maur, reorganized in 1645, developed a
noted school of historical writers, including Mabillon
(+1707), Ruinart (+1709) and Martene (+ 1739).
After Tillemont (+ 1698), came other learned historians,
Natalis Alexander (+ 1724), Fleury (+ 1725), Har-
douin (+ 1729), Muratori (+ 1750), Mansi (+ 1769),
and the brothers, J. S. Assemani (+ 1768) and J. A.
Assemani (+ 1782).
Renowned were the three French bishops,
pulpit orators
Bousset (+ 1704), Fenelon
(-J- 1715) and Massillon
(+ 1742) and
; the Jesuit, Bourdaloue (+ 1704). Dis
tinguished canonists were the Franciscan, Reiffenstuel
(+ 1703)* Schmalzgrueber (+ 1735), the
the Jesuit,
Franciscan, Ferraris (+ 1763), and Prospero Lambertini,
afterwards Pope Benedict XIV (+1758). The Ora-
torian, Richard Simon (-)- 1712), the Capuchin, Piconio
(+ 1709), and the Benedictine, Calmet (+ 1757), were
famous in the field of Sacred Scripture.
The list of eminent theologians in the eighteenth cen
tury includes the Dominicans, Gotti (+ 1742) and Billu-
art 1757), who published commentaries on St.
(+
Thomas; the Jesuits, Lacroix (-(-1714) and Antoine
(+ J 743) J Tournely (-J- 1729), the great opponent of
Jansenism; Zaccaria (+1795) an d Cardinal Gerdil
(-[-1802), who refuted Febronianism the Ballerini
;
brothers, Pietro 1769) and Girolamo (-J- 1781)

(+ ;
and
one of the greatest of all moral theologians, the Nea
politan, St. Alphonsus Liguori (+ 1787).
221. Superstitions. The belief in witchcraft was

general in this period,
and persons were readily sus
entered into a compact with Satan
pected of having
for the performance of malevolent deeds. Supposed
witches were punished sometimes by the secular and some
times by the ecclesiastical court. In 1484, Innocent VIII

and Henry
published a Bull authorizing James Sprenger
to
Kramer, two inquisitors of Cologne, proceed against
and witchcraft.
every form of crime, including heresy
The effects of this Bull, which really enacted nothing new,
have been greatly exaggerated. About 1489 these
two
Malleus
"
Maleficarum" or
published a book,
inquisitors
*
"Witches which gave rules for discovering,
Hammer,
witches. It awakened much opposi
trying and punishing
tion, notablyon the part of the Bishop of Brixen, and after
were usually left to the secular
that, trials for witchcraft
power. The Protestant provinces of Germany were much

more active than the Catholic, in prosecuting supposed
witches ; and the strongest protest against the cruel cus
tom was made by the Jesuit, Friedrich von Spec, under the
Cautio Criminalis," in 1631.
"
title
222. Natural Science. The seventeenth century wit

nessed the birth of a new interest in the natural
1642) was among the most

distin
sciences. Galileo (+
the
guished in the proposed the theory if
field. He
around the sun but, as this seemed
movement of the earth ;
to contradict the teaching of Scripture, it

was censured
Roman Galileo for a time submitted
authorities.
by the
to their decision, but later withdrew his submission and
was imprisoned. The that he suffered torture is a

story
preposterous fable.
223. Religious Literature
and Art. The period was
a flourishing one for the arts. In Italy lived Tasso
(+ 1595). author of "Jerusalem Delivered"; in Spain,

the two priests, Calderon (+
1681), authors of several
famous festival plays, and Lope de Vega (+ 1635), au
thor of religious dramas and in Germany, the two Jesu
;
its, Jacob Balde (+ 1668) and Friedrich von Spee

(+ l6 37)> together with the convert, Angelus Silesius, or
Scheffler (+ 1677), all three of them noted poets.
Church music was revived and beautified by Palestrina
(+ 1594). About the end of the period flourished four
great composers, Mozart ( 1791), +
John Haydn
(+ 1806), Joseph 1809), and Beethoven
Haydn (-f
(+ 1827).*
Among the great painters of this period were Rubens
(+ 1640), Guido Reni (+ 1669), Rembrandt (+ 1674),
and Murillo (+ 1682). Plastic art flourished in
Italy,
but not in Germany. In architecture, the
beauty of the
Renaissance degenerated into the style called Rococo, or
Baroque, which was pedantic, given to endless gilt and
disfigured with meaningless showy ornaments.
224. Religious Practices. The effect of the Council
of Trent was seen in a great revival of
religious life.
Able men were raised to the papal throne; illustrious
cardinals, excellent bishops and priests, and wonderful
saints adorned the Church. Amid the troubles of war,
the people turned heartily to the
supports of faith.
When we contrast the end of this period with the
beginning we note a surprising improvement.
Pagan
ideas have disappeared, Christian moral
principles have
been restored, ecclesiastical unity has been
secured, and
8
Lutherwas active in composing hymns and adapting psalms,
folksongs and old Latin poems. Similar work was done by Paul
Speratus, Paul Fleming, Paul Gerhard. In all perhaps 20,000
hymns appeared, though some were far from poetical.
authority again respected. Even when, later on, in the

is
eighteenth century, Catholic sovereigns attempt to impose

false enlightenment by altering the laws, restraining
popular devotion, prohibiting pilgrimages, destroying
shrines, and the like, we
find great masses of the people
ready to struggle for their ancient faith and their tradi

tional devotions.
CHAPTER XVIII
RELIGIOUS DISCORDS
I. THE THIRTY YEARS WAR
225. General Situation. The religious supremacy

accorded the state by the Protestant reformers quickly
led to Caesarism, even in Catholic countries. Many
sovereigns suppressed ecclesiastical rights, as well as pop
ular liberties. The peasants were turned into slaves, and
often subjected to treatment far less humane than in the
Middle Ages; and emigration was prohibited under pen
alty of death. Contrary to the stipulations of the Re
ligious Peace of Augsburg, Protestantism forcibly ex
tended its territory. Protestant princes seized twelve
bishoprics and two archbishoprics and made them Protes
tant. In the Palatinate, the rulers changed the official
religion four times, between 1562 and 1583. The im
perial city, Oppenheim, had to change to and fro, be
tween Lutheranism and Calvinism, ten times before the
year 1648. While the Protestant princes were establish
ing their religion by force, the Emperor Maximilian was
that he favored them even at the expense
" "
so liberal
of the Catholics. Finally, however, Rudolph II and
Ferdinand I also made use of the civil power to impose
the Catholic religion.In like manner the Archbishop of
Salzburg compelled all Protestants to leave his territory
in 1731, because Frederick William I of Prussia kept
stirring them into revolt.

201
2O2 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
226. The War. The
Protestants, in 1608, formed the
headed by the Elector Frederick
"
Evangelical Union,"
of the Palatinate. In 1609 the Catholics formed the

Holy League," under Maximilian I of Bavaria. In
"
Evangelical Union," concluded an alliance with

"
1610 the
France against the house of Hapsburg. Although the
French invaded Jiilich, peace was formally preserved until
1618, when the Thirty Years War began, in the reign of
the Emperor Matthias. It commenced with riots in Bo
hemia, occasioned by the closing of a Protestant church
which had been erected contrary to the imperial order.
The rebels were assisted by the Union. Frederick V of
the Palatinate, head of the Union, was defeated (1620).
The Restitution Edict (1629), issued by Ferdinand II,
commanded the Protestants to restore the fourteen bishop
rics and convents wrested from the Catholics in violation
of the treaty of Passau. This measure, though in itself
justifiable, exasperated the Protestants, who formed an
alliance with France and, aided by the Swedish king,
Gustavus Adolphus, revolted against the emperor in
1630. In the war which followed Germany was terribly
devastated. According to a list made by Protestants and
preserved in the imperial archives at Stockholm, 1,976
and 18,300 villages were destroyed by
castles, 1,629 cities
the Swedish king. The German population fell from
eighteen millions to four millions. Historical researches
show aim of Gustavus Adolphus was not so
that the real
much become emperor.
to assist his fellow-believers as to
227. The Peace of Westphalia. In 1648 the terms

of peace were dictated to Germany by the French and
Swedes. The conditions were shameful. Germany was
compelled to pay land and money to its destroyers, in
Protestant princes were in-
"
return for their help."

RELIGIOUS DISCORDS 2O3
damnified from the property of the Catholic Church, and

this process of confiscating church property was called
a term then first introduced. The Re
"
secularization,"
ligious Peace of Augsburg was renewed, likewise the

Reformation Right, i. e., the right of the ruler to dic
tate the religion of his subjects and to deprive dissenters
of civil rights. Pope Innocent XI (1676-1689) protested,
not against the making of peace, but against certain arti
cles of the treaty that violated the rights of the Church.
II. THEOLOGICAL ERRORS

228. Gallicanism. One of the old forms of opposi
tion to the papacy was which restricted
"
Gallicanism,"
the authority of the Holy See in France and infringed
upon the rights of the Church. The so-called Gallican
"
"
Liberties authorized the king to convene French synods

and confirm their decrees and affirmed the superiority of
;
the council to the pope. To further his own arbitrary

rule, Louis XIV (1643-1715), in his controversy with the
pope, made use of these anti-ecclesiastical tendencies, and
would have precipitated a schism, had not Bossuet op
portunely intervened. Unfortunately, Bossuet was more
eloquent of speech than loyal of character. He drew
up the celebrated declaration of the French clergy in the
Four Gallican Articles (1682), which in after years, Na
poleon I endeavored to enforce by law, and which were
finally condemned by the Ecumenical Council of the
Vatican (1870). The efforts of Louis XIV placed the
clergy in an unfortunate relation to the court. Bishops
were usually appointed by the king; and the episcopate
became almost the exclusive prerogative of certain noble
families. Commendatory abbots, secular clergy, who
lived in idleness on the revenues of the monasteries,
increased in number. The clergy deteriorated more and

more.
229. Jansenism. Cornelius Jansenius, a professor of
Louvain, and Bishop of Ypres, was like his predecessor
Baius (+ 1589), the exponent of erroneous views about
divine grace. After the death of Jansenius, in 1638, his
work on the teaching of St. Augustine, which he had
wished to submit to the judgment of the Church, appeared
under the title of Augustinus ( 1640). In it, Jansenius
" "
maintained that man, after his fall into sin, had no free
will and could not resist the grace of God. Despite the
condemnation of these errors by the Apostolic See, espe
cially by Clement XI (1700-1721) in the Bull, Vineam
Domini (1705), and in the Constitution, Unigenitus
(1713), the disciples of Jansenius, notably, Arnauld,
Quesnel, and Pascal, and the nuns of Port-Royal, upheld
the erroneous doctrines by means of subterfuges and false
They became known as Appellants," be
"
distinctions.
cause they desired to appeal from the decision of the
pope to an ecumenical council. They attempted to prove
the truth of their doctrine by alleged miracles. Owing
to their rigorism, they were inclined to refrain from re
ceiving the sacraments. Some of them fell into indiffer

ence or into despair, some died of excessive penance, and
some died without the sacraments. The Jesuits were
especially hated by the Jansenists who accused them of
laxity. In the Netherlands, the Jansenists effected a
complete separation from the Catholics and, by the Schism
of Utrecht (1723), formed an independent church which,
at the present day, includes perhaps 5,000 followers.
230. Febronianism. Like Gallicanism in France,

certain movements in Germany aimed to take away the
rights of the Church and transfer them to the civil
RELIGIOUS DISCORDS 20^
power. Nicholas of Hontheim, co-ad jutor bishop of

Treves, in 1763, published a book called
"
Justinus Feb-
ronius," limiting the authority of the pope. He tied the "
pope s hands, while kissing his feet." This tendency was

known as Febronianism.
231. Josephism. Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790),

influenced by his minister Kaunitz, attempted to sep
arate the Church from the pope and to change the an
cient faith. The emperor began a series of ecclesiastical
innovations, suppressed 7,000 monasteries, containing 36,-
ooo members, and destroyed magnificent works of science
and art. He issued ordinances regarding divine worship,
regulated the number of candles to be used at service, com
manded the use of the German language in the liturgy,
prohibited the celebration of more than one Mass in the
same church, at the same time, and forbade the making of
pilgrimages and the promulgation of indulgences without
his permission. He also placed penalties on the devotion
of the Sacred Heart and the Way of the Cross. Frederick
II of Prussia nicknamed him
"
Brother Sacristan." He
abolished several ecclesiastical impediments to matrimony,
and introduced freedom of the press, thereby causing an
overflow into Austria of frivolous and obscene foreign
literature. He suppressed the diocesan seminaries and
replaced them by general seminaries, in which
"
enlight
"
ened professors taught gross infidelity and immorality

to the students of theology. The emperor aimed to sep
arate the Austrian church completely from Rome. Un
fortunately many bishops lacked the courage to resist.
Pope Pius VI (1775-1799) went in person to Vienna, but

was rudely received by Joseph (1782). The emperor
lived long enough to see the failure of his mistaken re
forms and to regret them.
example, the three ecclesiastical

Following Joseph s
electors of Treves, Mainz and Cologne, fortunately with

out success, labored to promote the false enlightenment
and to increase the confusion of the Church. At the
Congress of Ems, in 1786, they drew up the notorious
Punctuation of Ems." In Tuscany, the Grand Duke
"
Leopold tried to follow the example of his imperial

brother, Joseph II, but did not succeed, owing to the loy
alty of the clergy. He depended largely on Scipio Ricci,
bishop of Pistoia, to realize his plans but the acts of the ;
Synod of Pistoia (1786) were condemned in the Bull

Auctorem Fidei, and Scipio Ricci submitted to the de
cision of the pope.
III. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PHILOSOPHY

232. Character of the Age. The new philosophy be
gan with Descartes (-+- 1650), who made universal
doubt the basis of his system. Soon came Spinoza
(+ 1677), who directed the human mind toward panthe
ism. Men were led astray by naturalism, teaching them
to reject supernatural revelation; by deism, rejecting the
possibility ofcommunication between man and God and ;
by rationalism, the system which makes the human reason

the source and standard of religious truth.
The fundamental principle of Protestantism, that each
individual may interpret Scripture according to his own
judgment, substituted the individual mind in place of au
thority as a guide in matters of faith. The logical de

was the
"
velopment of this principle religion of reason,"
that is the rejection of supernatural belief.

all
233. English and French Freethinkers. In England,

Thomas Hobbes (+ 1679), John Locke
(+ 1704), and
David Hume (-J- 1776) taught doctrines adapted to
RELIGIOUS DISCORDS 2O/
undermine both the faith and the morals of the people.

But the movement gained few followers except among the
upper classes of society. It was promoted, however, by
the lodges of the Freemasons (founded in London about
1717), and by other secret societies. When the free-
thinking movement spread into France, it found more
favorable soil, for the ground had been prepared through
the shameless mockery of virtue and religion that had
long prevailed. Salons conducted by persons of the type
of Ninon de 1 Enclos, gathered together all that was most
frivolous and most pagan, spread moral contamination,
and established gilded vice as the proper fashion of the
day. Rousseau, who had been banished for immorality,
Voltaire, whose hatred of Christianity was expressed in
1
stinging, poisonous satires, and the authors of The En
"
cyclopedia,"
2
D Alembert, Diderot, Holbach and Helve-
tius, sowed the seeds of irreligion and vice among the
masses by means of numerous cheap books and pamph
lets. The Freemasons aided in the work. God was neg
lected pleasure was worshipped.
; Revolution became in
evitable.
234. German Rationalists. The liberal Protestants

of Germany, having fallen under the influence of ra
tionalism, rejected whatever the reformers had left un
touched in the traditional teaching of Christianity, and
condemned all creeds as opposed to the principle of free
inquiry. The learned Leibnitz (+ 1716) defended the
principle of authority; but his pupil, Christian Wolf, a
professed rationalist, rejected the Bible, which he called
1 His
famous slogan for the battle against Christianity was
"
Ecrases I lnfame."" Crush the infamous thing."

2
The Encyclopedia was begun in 1750 for the purpose
" "
of
spreading the new ideas and of destroying Christianity.
the Christian Koran. The philosophy of false enlighten

ment was further promoted by Nikolai, in his Universal
"
German Library (1764), and by Lessing (-f 1781), who

"
defended religious indifferentism in his classically written

Nathan the Wise." Lessing rejected all super
"
work,
natural revelation and contended that the resurrection of
Christ is only a fable, that Christianity represents merely
a phase of human progress, and that happiness, attained
through the development of reason, is the real destiny of
man. 3 Immanuel Kant (1804) Critique of Pure
"
in his
Reason," taught that naturalism is the only religion in

accord with human reason. Wieland, Goethe, and Schil
ler propagated naturalism in an attractive form with
great success.
In the Catholic parts of Germany, the false enlighten
ment was favored by the government. Every ancient
institution was replaced by something modern and
"
ra
In Austria, religious affairs were under the
tional."
of apostates and Freemasons, rationalism

official direction
was practically imposed upon the students of the imperial

schools, and Church history was taught out of Protestant
text-books. Nothing but the grace of God and the fun
damental good-sense of the people prevented a general
apostasy. Notable among the violent enemies of Catho
licism was Professor Weishaupt, who founded the sect of
the Illuminati in 1776.
The false enlightenment spread widely and won many
supporters at Cologne, Mainz, and Treves, as well as in
Bavaria. Minister, on the other hand, was the rallying
point of the Catholic forces; and among the group of
8
Lessing published the famous work known as
"
The Wolf en-

biittel Fragments."
RELIGIOUS DISCORDS 2OQ
illustriousCatholics gathered there were Fiirstenberg,

Overberg, Katerkampf, Stolberg and the Princess Gal-
litzin. At Ratisbon, the famous Bishop Sailer (+ 1832)
was a pillar of orthodoxy.
CHAPTER XIX
FOREIGN MISSIONS IN AFRICA AND ASIA
I. THE NEW MOVEMENT
235. General View. Among the most notable chap

ters in the history of the Church is the story of the
foreign missions begun in the sixteenth and seventeeth
centuries. While multitudes were falling away from the
faith in the old Catholic countries, other multitudes were
being converted in the New World. The great explorers
were quickly followed by numerous missionaries, drawn
mainly from the religious orders, Franciscans, Domini
cans, Augustinians, and especially Jesuits. Missions rap
idly grew and schools multi
into dioceses, monasteries
plied, baptisms were innumerable, martyrdoms were fre

quent. By 1622, the foreign missions had developed to
such an extent that Gregory XV then established the Con
gregation of the Propagation of the Faith, composed of
fifteen cardinals, to superintend the work of the mission
and to distribute alms to needy missions. Urban
aries,
VIII made two important improvements. He founded
the Collegium Urbanum (1627), an international college
where non-European students could be trained for the
priesthood and for missionary work in their own coun
tries; and he initiated a new sort of apostolate, by setting
up a printing-press for the publishing of books and cate

chisms in all languages.
210
FOREIGN MISSIONS IN AFRICA AND ASIA 211
236. Portuguese Explorers. Prince Henry of Portu

gal, the pioneer of the great exploring movement, con
ducted a school for the training of explorers in his pal
ace during the years 1433-1460. Before his death, the
Portuguese had taken possession of the Azores, the Ma
deira, and the Cape Verde Islands. Diogo Cam sailed
to the west coast of Africa (1484), Vasco da Gama to
Calicut in India (1498), and Cabral to Brazil in South
America (1500).
237. Spanish Explorers. After the first voyage of
Columbus in 1492, Spanish explorers crossed the ocean
in such numbers that by 1540 Spain controlled enor
mous possessions in the Gulf of Mexico and on the con
tinent to the north, west and south, namely, in Florida,
Mexico, Peru, and Paraguay. To prevent further dis
pute between the two countries, Pope Alexander VI, act
ing as arbitrator, in a Bull of Partition, drew his famous
Line of Demarcation (1493), giving Spain a claim to
everything west, and Portugal a claim to everything east,
of a certain specified degree of longitude.
238. French Explorers. French explorers led the
way to parts of North America near the St. Lawrence
River, the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River.
239. English and Dutch Explorers. In the sixteenth
century, Protestant England and Holland developed
the strongest navies in the world and took the lead in
exploration. Naturally there were no priests in the ex
peditions sent out by these two countries; and after the
formation of the English East India Company (1600)
and the Dutch East India Company (1602), the Catholic
missions suffered greatly from Protestant hostility.
3s
5 u,
3
: III
II. AFRICA
240. Christianity, carried by
Early Christianity.
St. the Evangelist to Alexandria, and by Roman
Mark
colonists to Carthage, so flourished in Africa that hun
dreds of dioceses arose during the first centuries. But
the Monophysite heresy, in the fourth century, de
tached most of the African churches from the Roman
l
See ; and the Saracens,
seventh century, practically
in the
completed the destruction of Catholic Christianity.

The Portuguese explorers of the fifteenth century,
doubling Cape Verde in 1444 and reaching Guinea in
1471, opened up the continent again to Catholic mis
sionaries. Diogo Cam sailed a thousand miles up the
Congo Franciscan, Carmelite, Dominican, and
in 1484.
Augustinian missionaries soon followed. Dioceses were

established in the Canary Islands (1409); at San
2
Thomas (1498); in the Madeira Islands (1514); at
Cape Verde (1553); and in Mozambique (1612). In
Madagascar missions were commenced about 1540, but
for a long time were unsuccessful.
241. Decline of the Missions. After 1600 came tne
general rush to Africa by the various European pow
ers ; and national together with the unhealthy
rivalries,
climate, seriously retarded the progress of religion.
Pombal, Minister of Portugal, gave the final blow to the
Portuguese missions in 1759; and, at the beginning of the
nineteenth century, there were no priests in Africa, ex
cept a few at the trading stations. The missions revived,
later on, and Africa now contains 800,000 native Catho
lics, with 2,000 European and 100 native priests.
1
Several million Monophysites still remain in Abyssinia.
* Later the see was transferred from San Thomas to Loanda.
III. ASIA
242. India. Vasco da Gama reached Calicut, on the

Malabar coast, in 1498, and was followed two years
later by eight Franciscans. Three of these were slain
by the natives and the others opened a mission at Cochin.

;
Goa, acquired in 1510, became a see in 1534, with jurisdic

tion extending from the Cape of Good Hope to China.
Within a few years it was raised to the rank of arch
bishopric, and the following suffragan sees were estab
lished: Cochin (1558) Malacca (1558) Macao (1576)
; ; ;
Funai (1588) Cranganore (1600) Sao Thome, in Mad

; ;
ras (1606); Mozambique (1612); Peking and Nanking
(1690).
St. who reached Goa in 1542 and
Francis Xavier,
Malacca in 1545, had the Gospel translated into
the native tongue and converted thousands. Jesuit
presses at Goa printed ten books before 1573. The
Synod of Diamper (1553), reconciled the "Thomas
Christians 3 with Rome, and a see was erected at Cran
"
ganore for them (1600). Most of them are still Cath

olics, although a large section returned to Nestorianism
in 1637.
Missionaries were in Bombay in 1534, Damaun in
1558, Lahore in 1570, and Tibet (temporarily) in 1624.

At Madura, in 1606, Father Nobili established the Jesuit
headquarters for Malabar and, assuming the dress and
the habits of a Brahmin, attained great success in convert
ing the natives. His methods were denounced to
Rome
The Malabar were ultimately condemned
"
and Rites
"
by Benedict XIV in 1744. Disputes among the mission-
8 Descendants of the ancient Nestorians who claimed to have

received Christianity from St. Thomas the Apostle.
SKagoshima 164D
Caceres 1596
Malacca 1558
CENTRAL ENQ. CO. 8T. LOUIS, MO.
MAP VI. MISSIONS IN CHINA AND JAPAN
aries, lack of co-operation between the local Portuguese

clergy and vicars sent out from Rome, and finally the en
try of the English and Dutch into this territory, kept the
2l6 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
missions of India from realizing their early promise.
India now more than a million native Catho
contains
lics, with 1,200 foreign and 1,200 native priests.
243. The Islands. A Portuguese settlement was
made at Colombo, in Ceylon, in 1517, and the Francis
cans came a year later. The Dutch rule hindered the
growth of Catholicity; but after the British occupation
the Church prospered. Colombo contains nearly 250,000
Catholics, with 90 foreign and 30 native priests.
In Sumatra, Java, Borneo and other islands of the
Malay Archipelago, missions begun by the Portuguese
were destroyed by the Dutch about 1600. This group
now contains about 50,000 Catholics and 100 priests.
The Philippines were visited in 1577 by a Spanish
Augustinian, Urdaneta, who accompanied Legaspi s
expedition. Franciscans followed in 1577; and, in 1581,

came the first bishop, the Dominican, Salazar, accom
panied by several Jesuit missionaries. Of the natives
of the so-called
"
wild tribes," nearly all are now Catho

lics. They number over 7,000,000, with 1,500 priests.
244. Japan. A few years after the discovery of
Japan, St. Francis Xavier arrived at Kagoshima
(1549), and baptized multitudes. The Jesuits built a
church at Nagasaki in 1567, and at Osaka in 1583; and,
before the end of the century, there were over a hundred
missionaries and nearly three hundred thousand Chris
tians in Japan. Funai was made a diocese in 1588. Dis
putes between Jesuits and Franciscans about the adopting
of native customs, as well as commercial quarrels between
the Dutch and the Portuguese, helped to bring on a violent
persecution. In 1597 twenty-six missionaries were cruci
fied at Nagasaki; and in 1622 fifty-two chosen victims
died in the
"
Great Martyrdom." Christianity was prac-

tically destroyed,and after 1640, Japan remained closed

to Christians fortwo centuries. Japan now contains 60,-
ooo Catholics with 150 foreign and 30 native priests.
245. China. Mongolia was visited in the thirteenth
century by a Franciscan missionary, John of Piano,
who went to Tatary by order of Pope Innocent IV in
1245, nine years before Marco Polo was born. Nich
olas III sent five Franciscans to China in 1279. They
converted thousands, translated the New Testament and
the Psalms into Chinese, and erected a church in Peking.
An archbishop, with six suffragan bishops and numerous
missionaries, entered this field during the early part of
the fourteenth century, but the growing church was de
stroyed by theMing dynasty soon after 1368.
St. Francis Xavier planned to revive Christianity in
China, but died at the island of San-cian, near Macao,
in 1552, without having reached the mainland. Macao
became a Portuguese mission center in 1557, and a diocese
in 1576. Father Matteo Ricci, who arrived in Canton
in 1583, was the first priest to visit Nanking (1595). His
great learning earned such favor that he was allowed
to settle permanently in Peking ( 1601 ) and to build many
churches. When he died in 1610, Father Johann Adam
Schall succeeded him in the imperial esteem. The Domi
"
nicans objected to the Jesuit toleration of the Chinese

Customs," and these were prohibited by Innocent in X
1645, but permitted again by Alexander VII in 1656.
This permission was recalled under Clement in 1704; and
then the customs were finally condemned by Benedict
XIV in 1742.
K ang-hi (1661-1721), the second of the Manchu em
perors, was a warm friend of the Jesuits. During his
reign Father Gerbillon negotiated the treaty with Russia
2l8 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
(1689), missionaries preached throughout the empire,

and nine new vicariates apostolic were created. Tonking
became a vicariate in 1676; Peking and Nanking were
made dioceses in 1690. After the death of K
ang-hi in
1721, there began an era of persecution which continued
until the proclamation of religious freedom in 1860.
There are now 1,500,000 Catholics in China, with 1,300
foreign and 700 native priests.
Indo-China contains nearly a million Catholics, with
500 foreign and 700 native priests.
246. Korea. Korean visitors to Peking in 1784 car
ried the Catholic faith back to their own country. Ten
years later, the first missionary priest found four thou

sand Catholics there. At present, Korean Catholics num
ber 80,000, with 50 foreign and 15 native priests.
CHAPTER XX
THE FOREIGN MISSIONS IN AMERICA
I. THE NORSE SETTLEMENTS
247. The Norsemen. About the year 1000, Leif

Ericson introduced the Catholic religion and European
civilization into Iceland, Greenland and Vinland. In
1 121, Eric Gnupsson, the first
bishop in America, was ap
pointed to the See of Garda, with jurisdiction over Green
land and Vinland. His successors continued to rule over
the Church on this continent until the beginning of the
fifteenth century, when the Norse settlements were de
stroyed by the Eskimos, and the Catholic religion disap

peared.
II. THE PORTUGUESE SETTLEMENTS

248. The Line of Demarcation. Brazil became a
Portuguese colony almost by accident. In 1541, Por
tugal obtained from Pope Nicholas V the exclusive right
to exploration on the road to the Indies, meaning of
course the road east from Europe to Asia. After Spain
had learned that there was also a western road, the two
nations applied to Pope Alexander to draw a line of de
marcation and in 1493, tne
; PP
e fi xe d u P on a li ne run ~
ning north and south 100 leagues west of the Cape Verde
Islands, to divide the Portuguese field of exploration on
the east from the Spanish field on the west. The Por
tuguese protested against the decision; and by common
219
consent the line was shifted to a point 370 leagues west of

the Cape VerdeIslands, and made to correspond to the
5Oth degree of longitude west of Greenwich. This line
cut the continent of South America at the mouth of the
Amazon and ; thus predetermined the loss of Brazil to the
Spanish crown, when that country was discovered, six
years later, in 1500.
249. Catholic Brazil. Six Portuguese Jesuits landed
at Bahia, on the east coast, in 1549; and a see was es
tablished there two years later. In 1555, French Hugue
nots landed at Rio Janeiro, and made the first Protestant
settlement on the American continent; but they were
quickly driven away by the Portuguese. As the Catholic
settlements multiplied, the whole country was gradually
filled with Catholic colonists and native converts; and at
the present time, the Brazilian population of 20,000,000 is
almost entirely Catholic.
III. THE SPANISH SETTLEMENTS IN CENTRAL AND

SOUTH AMERICA
250. The Pioneers. Columbus brought Christianity
to Santo Domingo and Porto Rico in 1493. Within a
"
few years it had spread into all the region of the half-
civilized
"
Indian tribes (that is from New Mexico to
Chile). It was
established also in the different Spanish
settlements founded near the Venezuelean pearl-fisheries,
at the Bolivian silver-mines, and around the mouth of La
Plata River.
Missionaries were not far behind the earliest explor
ers. They followed Balboa to the Pacific (1513); De
Leon to Florida (1513); Cortes to Mexico (1519) and
lower California (1535); Pizarro to Peru (1532); Val-
divia to Chile (1540) ; Coronado to New Mexico (1540) ;
FOREIGN MISSIONS IN AMERICA 221
1502
Convent
lFran Cj
4 **
MAP VII. EARLY BISHOPRICS IN SOUTH AMERICA

De Soto to the Mississippi (1540).

Missions were estab
lished at onceand millions of the natives were baptized ;
and, as opportunity allowed, dioceses were erected.

The identification of Christianity with the European
conquerors of the country was not always fortunate.
The Spaniards were sometimes cruel and unjust to the
Indians. But missionaries, like Las Casas, championed
the cause of the natives and carried their grievances even
to the royal court of Madrid. 1
The missionary band, made up of Franciscans,
first
arrived at Santo Domingo in 1495. Bishoprics were

erected in that island and in Porto Rico. In 1513
Bishop Manso reached San Juan in Porto Rico, and
became the first bishop resident in the New World.
251. The Early Dioceses. In 1504, Santo Domingo
was made an ecclesiastical province with two depend
ent sees. At the request of the three bishops, however,
the province was suppressed in 1511 and three new dio-
1 "
The legislation of Spain in behalf of the Indians everywhere

was incomparably more extensive, more comprehensive, more sys
tematic, and more humane than that of Great Britain, the
Colonies, and the present United States combined. Those first
teachers gave the Spanish language and Christian faith to a thou
sand aborigines, where we gave a new language and religion to
one. There have been Spanish schools for Indians in America
since 1524. nearly a century before there was a print
By 1575
ing-press in English America many books in twelve different
Indian languages had been printed in the City of Mexico, whereas
in our history John Eliot s Indian Bible stands alone and three ;
Spanish universities in America were nearly rounding out their

century when Harvard was founded. A surprisingly large pro
portion of the pioneers of America were college men and intelli ;
gence went hand in hand with heroism in the early settlement of

the New World." The Spanish Pioneers by C. F. Lummis, p. 24.
Chicago, McClurg, 1906.
ceses were two in Santo Domingo 2 and one
established,
in Porto Rico. These were made suffragan to the metro
politan see of Seville in Spain. In 1545, Santo Domingo
became an archbishopric with five suffragan sees, San
Juan Porto Rico, Santiago in Cuba, Caracas in Vene
in
zuela, Cartagena in Colombia, and Trujillo (later Corn-

ay agua) in Honduras.
The growth of the Church was rapid. It may be
measured by a glance at the dates when the first sees were
founded in the territory of the states named below. The
location of the sees is shown on the maps.
A.D.
Santo Domingo, 1504.
Porto Rico, 1511.
Cuba, 1518.
Yucatan, 1518.
Panama, 1520.
Honduras, 1527.
Venezuela, J 53O.
Colombia (3 sees), 1
534-1547-1564-
Guatemala, J 534-
Nicaragua, 1534.
Peru (4 sees), 1
53^543-1 577-1577-
Ecuador, 1545.
Paraguay, 1547.
Brazil, 1551.
Bolivia, 1552.
Chile (2 sees), 1561-1563.
Argentine, 1570.
252. Some Famous Missionaries. Bartolome de las

Casas, of the Spanish settlement in Santo Domingo, be
came a priest about 1510. He attempted to found an In-
2
One of these was suppressed a few years later.
dian colony on the coast of Venezuela in 1519; but the
enterprise failed. As a Dominican missionary, and later
as bishop of Chiapas, he was an ardent defender of the
Indians against European oppression.
St. Louis Bertrand, a Spanish Dominican, who landed at
Cartagena in 1562, converted thousands in twenty years

of work along the coast of Colombia and Panama.
St. Francis Solanus, a Spanish Franciscan, achieved
wonderful success as a missionary in Argentine, Para
guay, and Peru, between 1590 and 1610.
St. Peter Claver, a Spanish Jesuit in Cartagena, be
tween 1610-1650 baptized 300,000 negro slaves imported
from Africa.
253. Peru. Father Vincente Valverde, one of the
five Dominicans who had accompanied Pizarro, be
came bishop of Cuzco (later Arequipa) in 1536. Lima
was made a diocese in 1543, and an archdiocese in 1546;
and the second occupant of the see was St. Toribio Mo-
grovejo. San Marcos, the first university of the New
World, was founded at Lima in 1551, and still remains
an important institution. The Jesuits, who came to Lima
in 1568, setup there the first printing-press in America.
St. Rose of Lima, born in 1586, was the first native of
America to be canonized.
254. Ecuador. Quito, a capital of the Incas, cap
tured by the Spanish in 1534, became the seat of a
bishop in 1545, and the headquarters of a new Fran
ciscan province in 1565. The Jesuits arrived in 1596,
and established a seminary, very important later as a
center of ecclesiastical learning. The thirty-three Jesuit
missions of Ecuador contained 100,000 souls in
1767.
255. Paraguay. Asuncion, founded about 1541, be-
FOREIGN MISSIONS IN AMERICA 22$
came the seat of a bishop in 1547. After 1586 the

Jesuits spread over all the region near La Plata, and in
the year 1610, began to establish their famous Reduc
tions. These settlements, made up exclusively of Chris
tian Indians, and organized into a sort of model theocratic
state, included at one time over 100,000 people. Conces
sions made by the Spanish treaty of 1750,
to Portugal,
enabled the Portuguese minister, Pombal, to destroy
these missions; and after the expulsion of the Jesuits
(1767), the Reductions soon disappeared.
256. Chile. Sees were established at Santiago in
1561, and at Concepcion in 1563. The Jesuits, who ar
rived in 1593, founded schools and missions in various
towns. For three centuries unsuccessful attempts to con
vert the Araunican Indians in the south have been kept
up. These people, in number about 50,000, still enjoy
a certain amount of political independence.
IV. THE SPANISH SETTLEMENTS IN MEXICO AND

SOUTHERN UNITED STATES
257. Early Mexican Dioceses. Cortes, having landed
at Vera Cruz in 1519, was in possession of Mexico by
1521. Twelve Franciscans arrived in 1524, and accom
panied the expeditions which explored the surrounding
country. Millions of the natives were baptized before
1600, and missions were rapidly converted into dioceses.
Yucatan became a see in 1518, the bishop residing at
Tlaxcala until 1526, and at Puebla until 1542. Mexico
was made a bishopric in 1530; Guatemala in 1534; Oaxaca
in 1535; Michoacan in 1536; Guadalajara (Compostela)
in 1548; and Chiapas in 1546.
258. Franciscan Missions in Mexico. The Francis

cans arrived in 1524, the first priests in Mexico. They
founded scores of missions. Queretaro (1531) and Za-

catecas (1546) developed two famous missionary col
leges which sent many priests into the territory of the
present United States. From the Zacatecas convent
sprang Durango (1563) and Saltillo (1582). As the
missionaries moved steadily northward they founded mis
sions at Tampico (1580) and Monterey (1600); at San
Francisco by the Rio Conchos (1604) m modern Chi J
huahua (1697); and at San Juan Bautista by the Rio

Salado (1700).
To the various Franciscan convents were attached
free schools, where the natives were taught to read
and write. Father Juan Perez, who accompanied Co
lumbus on his second voyage and celebrated the first
Mass in the New World on the island of Haiti, December
8th, 1493, became the head of a Franciscan monastery
which conducted a school for boys on the site of the
present city of Santo Domingo.
The twelve Franciscans who arrived at Tlaxcala in
1524 did not find one native who was able to read.
Schools were opened at once. Bishop Zumarraga, be
fore his death in 1548, founded six schools for girls in
his diocese of Mexico. Six women teacherscame to
Mexico from Spain in 1530; and six more followed in
1534. In 1554, reading was so common an accomplish

ment among the natives, that the bishop proposed to
have the catechism translated into the Indian tongue.
The famous College of Santa Cruz was founded at
Tlaltelolco in 1534; and by 1553 Mexico contained three
colleges. In 1553 was opened the University of Mexico

invested with the same powers as the University of
Salamanca, and possessing chairs of Theology, Scripture,
Canon Law, Civil Law, Arts, Rhetoric, Grammar, and

Medicine. 8
259. Jesuit Missions in Mexico. When in 1572, St.
Francis Borgia, general of the Jesuits, gave up the
Florida missions, he transferred twelve of his mis
sionaries to Mexico. settled in
Jesuits Michoacan
(1573), Guadalajara (1574), Oaxaca (1575) and Dur-
ango (1589). They entered the territory of modern
Sinaloa in 1591, and southwestern Coahuila in 1594. In
1600 there were five Jesuits preaching the faith to the
natives along the Sinaloa River; and by 1604 they had
baptized some 40,000 of the Yaqui Indians. Jesuit mis
sionaries were laboring among the Mayo Indians in 1613,
and in the Sonora Valley about 1638; and by 1645 tnev
had baptized some 300,000 natives of Sinaloa and So
nora.
Development of the Church in Mexico.
260. For
three centuries the Church in Mexico grew steadily;
and eventually the entire country became Catholic.
Among the notable occurrences of the period may be men
tioned the placing of the City of Mexico under interdict
by Archbishop Serna, during his dispute with the Vice

roy de Gelves (1620), and the excommunication of the
Jesuits by Bishop Palafox of Puebla in 1647. Popular
dissatisfaction with the Spanish Government was notably
increased by the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, and
finally led to revolution. The first insurrection, in 1810,
was led by the Hidalgo; and the second, in 1813,
priest,
by the priest, Morelos. A few years later (1821), Itur-
bide organized the revolutionary forces and succeeded
in winning independence for Mexico. The Freemasons
3The Century Dictionary calls Harvard the oldest institution
"
of learning in America," and says that it was founded in 1636."

"
soon gained control of the new government and began

4
to pass anti-clerical laws.
261. New Mexico (1539-1830). Starting from Culia-
can, in 1539, the Franciscan, Marcos de Niza, went as
far as the towns of the Zuni Indians of Mexico. New
He was followed a year later by Father Padilla, who ac
companied Coronado s expedition into central Kansas
(Quivira), and was there martyred. In 1581 the Fran
ciscan, Brother Augustine Rodriguez, went down the
Conchos and up the Rio Grande to the mouth of the
Puerco, where he was killed by the natives. Ofiate
(1598) took possession of the whole country from El
Paso to Zuni, placed friars in the pueblos of six nations
and, near the present city of Santa Fe, established a capi
tal,San Juan, the oldest Spanish settlement in the United
States, except St. Augustine. The capital was moved
to Santa Fe about 1639, at which date there were fifty
friars and 60,000 converts in the ninety pueblos of this*
region.
The Indianrevolt of 1680 swept away all the mis
sions; but they were re-established in 1696, after Var
gas had permanently subdued the Indians. Records of
various episcopal visitations of the missions made by the
bishops of Durango between 1725 and 1845 show that
the revived missions did not prosper. In 1800 the Chris
tian Indians had dwindled to less than 1,000. Mexican
independence (1821) did not improve religious conditions ;
and in 1830 the churches of New Mexico were decadent.

A revival occurred after the annexation by the United
States (1848).
4
The Inquisition, suppressed in 1820, had during the 250 years
of existence, caused the execution of
its some fifty persons, a
number that is usually much exaggerated.
262. Arizona (1684-1828). The Jesuit Father Kiihn
(or Kino), the apostle of the region between Sonora
and the present Tucson, visited the banks of the Gila
several times in the years 1684-1711. Other mission
aries followedhim but their work was suspended by the
;
suppression of the Jesuits in the Spanish dominions

(1767). The Franciscans built a church in Tucson in
1776; and established several missions which suffered
from Indian raids and were finally closed by the Mexican
Government in 1828. It was not until 1859 that a priest
again entered Arizona.
263. California (1597-1 833). Franciscans accom
panied Vizcaino on his first expedition to La Paz
(1597), and Carmelites were with him on his second
expedition to San Diego (1603) but the first perma;
nent mission in California was established at Loreto,

in 1697, by the Jesuit, Juan Salvatierra. He organized
the entire mission system which included sixteen different
stations the time of the Jesuit expulsion in 1767.
at
After that, Dominicans carried on the missions of Lower
California.
In Upper California, the Franciscans, under Father
Junipero Serra, founded their first mission at San
Diego in 1770. Sixty years later they had twenty-one
prosperous missions with a Catholic population of 30,000.
In 1833 the Mexican Government
" "
secularized (that
is to say, confiscated), the mission property and, in 1842,
6
appropriated
"
The Pious Fund," an endowment for

6 The accrued
interest of this money was refunded by Mexico in
1902, inconformity with a decision of The Hague Tribunal, and a

perpetual annuity of $43,000 is paid each year by the Government
of Mexico to the Government of the United States for the use of
the Catholic prelates of California.
mission work. When Upper California was ceded to the

United States in 1848, the missions were in ruins.
264. Texas (1687-1845). The French missionaries,
who accompanied La Salle s expedition, passed a few
years in the neighborhood of Matagorda Bay and then
returned to Canada (1687). The Franciscan, Father
Mazenet, from Queretaro, came with Alfonso de Leon,
the governor of Coahuila, and founded a mission, San
Francisco de los Tejas, near Matagorda, in 1689; but
it was abandoned three
years later.
Queretaro Friars founded the San Juan Bautista
mission on the Rio Grande near the Rio Salado about
1700. About 1715, six Franciscans from Queretaro and
four from Zacatecas established several missions in the
vicinity of the present Nacodoches, between the Trinity
and the Red Rivers, only to be driven away
by the
French of Natchitoches in 1719. Father
Margil, the
leader of the missionaries, returned in
1721, and rebuilt
the missions, including one at San
Miguel within twenty
miles of Natchitoches.
The San Antonio mission, founded on the Rio
Grande and transferred to the San Antonio
in 1703,
River in 1718, became the chief town and the resi
dence of the governor in 1724. San Antonio was visited
by the bishop of Guadalajara in 1759, at which date there
were perhaps 3,000 Spanish in Texas and about
500 Chris
tian Indians. As frontier posts the missions were of great
concern to the Spanish Government, but after France had
ceded all the
territory west of the Mississippi to Spain,
in 1763, the latter lost interest in the missions and
they
were soon consolidated into one mission at San Antonio
in 1785. In 1794 the missions were all secularized
by
the Spanish Government. The sparse population of the
region remained Spanish and Catholic, until the coming of

Protestant settlers from the United States (1821). Irish
Catholic immigrants began to appear a few years later.
Texas became a prefecture apostolic in 1840, five years
before annexation to the United States.
its
265. Florida (1565-1763). Missionaries from the

Spanish settlements in Cuba and Santo Domingo vis
ited Florida in company with the early explorers, De
Leon (1513), De Allyon (1525), De Narvaez (1527),
and De Soto (1539). When Melendez founded St. Au
gustine in 1565, the Vicar Mendoza established the first
permanent mission there. Jesuits, Dominicans, and
Franciscans converted thousands of the Indians of
Florida during the seventeenth century; but their work
was stopped by Governor Moore s invasion from Carolina,
in 1704. At the cession of Florida to England in 1763,
most of the Spanish inhabitants emigrated and Catho
licity practically disappeared.
V. THE FRENCH SETTLEMENTS

266. Canada (1608-1784). After the foundation of
Quebec in 1608, Champlain invited the Franciscans to
settle there. They came in 1615, and were followed by
Jesuits and Sulpicians (1657). Three Rivers
(1625)
was founded Tadousac in 1640, and Montreal in
in 1634,
1642. Successful missions were carried on among the

Algonquins (Micmacs and Abnakis) of Maine, and also
among the Hurons in the Ontario region, until the Iro-

quois, in 1650, destroyed this latter tribe, killing Fathers
Daniel, Breboeuf, and many other Jesuit missionaries.
In 1659 Bishop Laval was consecrated, and in 1674, Que
bec was made a see with jurisdiction as far south as New
Orleans.
In 1755 the British Government deported from their

homes some 10,000 Catholics of Acadia. The treaty of
Paris (1763) which ceded Louisiana to the Spanish, gave
Canada, and its 70,000 French Catholics, to the British.
The Quebec Act of 1774 guaranteed to the Catholic
" "
Church all its old rights and privileges in Canada, in

cluding the whole region west to the Mississippi and
south to the Ohio; but persistent attempts were made
to force the Canadians into Protestantism. Helped by
Irish and Scotch immigration, the Catholics increased rap
idly and numbered 130,000 in 1784.

Maine (1604-1789). -In 1604 the first Mass in
267.
New England was celebrated on Neutral Island (now
Douchet, within the Maine line, at the mouth of the
Sainte Croix River) by Father Aubry, a companion
of Champlain. The Jesuit, Father Drouillettes, was sent
to the Abnaki Indians on the Kennebec in 1646. The
Massachusetts Colony claimed the territory that is now
Maine, and regarded the French missionaries as invaders.
British soldiers destroyed the Jesuit mission at Mount
Desert Island in 1613; and, at Norridgewock in 1724,
killed Father Rale, who had converted many of the
Abnakis. Left without missionaries, these Indians
nevertheless loyally retained the faith until the coming
of Cheverus in 1797. About a thousand of them are
still Catholics.
268. New York (1626-1713). Father Daillon, a Re
collect missionary in the Huron country (the present
Ontario), went as far as the banks of the Niagara in

1626, and was thus the first priest to visit northern
New York. The
Jesuits worked among the Iroquois
from 1642 to 1687. Father Bressani was tortured by
them in 1642, and Father Jogues was martyred in 1646.
Fathers Le Moyne, Chaumonot, and Dablon succeeded

in establishing a line of Indian missions stretching across
the present State of New York, among the Mohawks (at
Fonda), the Onondagas (at Syracuse), the Oneidas, the
Cayugas and the Senecas. Among the converted In
dians were the famous Onondaga chief, Garacontie
(+ 1677), an Kateri Tegakwita, "the Lily of the Mo
<3
hawks" 1680). The rivalries of the French, the

(+
English and the Dutch caused the Iroquois missions to de
cline. Not one remained when the British came in 1713.
269. The Great Lakes (1641-1763). Fathers Jogues
and Raymbault visited and named Sault Ste. Marie
in 1641. Father Menard opened a mission among the
Ottawas on Lake Superior in 1660 and, a year later, died
near the Wisconsin River on his way to the fugitive
Hurons, who had fled to that country from the Iroquois.
Allouez was at La Pointe in 1664, and at Green Bay in
1670; and Andre was at Mackinac in 1670. The names
of the Jesuit Marquette (1673) and the Franciscan Hen-
nepin (1679) are identified with missionary work along
the Mississippi and Illinois Rivers. At Kaskaskia, Vin-
cennes, Peoria, and St. Joseph, missions flourished, es
pecially between 1725 and 1750. When this territory
was ceded to England, in 1763, it remained under the ec
clesiastical jurisdiction of the bishop of Quebec, and re
ligious freedom was provided for in the treaty.

270. Louisiana (1700-1787). Under the bishop of
Quebec, missionaries worked in the vicinity of Mobile
(1702), and of New Orleans (1717). When ceded to
Spain (1763), the province passed under the ecclesiastical
jurisdiction first of Santiago, and then of Havana (1787).
Luis Cardenas, the first bishop of New Orleans (1793),
reported it to be in a very poor condition spiritually.
VI. THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS
271. General View. With regard to religious free

dom, the English colonies were divided into three dif
ferent groups, the intolerant, the tolerant, and the
variable. Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Hamp
shire established the Congregational Church, and Virginia,
with the Carolinas, established the Anglican Church;
and this group of colonies showed considerable bitterness
towards dissenters. Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and
Delaware had no religious establishments, and cultivated
a general spirit of tolerance. New York, New Jersey,
Maryland, and Georgia, at first tolerant, were later forced
by the British Government to discriminate against Catho
lics. According to the report made by Bishop Challoner,
vicar apostolic of London, and superior of the Church in
the American Colonies, the total Catholic population of
the colonies in 1756 was between 4,000 and 7,000; and
there were no Catholic missions outside of Maryland and
Pennsylvania.
272. Maryland (1634-1789). Maryland, settled by
the Catholic, Lord Baltimore, became the home of
most of the Catholic immigrants to the Colonies. The
Jesuit Fathers, White and Altham, came with the Ark
and the Dove; and Mass was offered on St. Clement s
Island, in the Potomac,March 25, 1634. Religious tol
erationwas the law of this colony, until the rule of the
Commonwealth in England, when the commissioners,
Clayborne and Bennett, came to Maryland and passed
laws against Catholics (1652). After the second fall of
the Stuarts (1688), the Puritans in Maryland were dis
placed and the Church of England was established by law.
Mass was prohibited but, by favor of Queen Anne, an
exception was granted for the private houses of Catho

lics (1707). The intolerant laws were in force until the
Revolution. Bishop Challoner reported twelve Jesuit
missionaries in Maryland in 1756.
273. Pennsylvania (1708-1789). Pennsylvania was

the next largest Catholic settlement after Maryland.
In the year 1700, Catholics began to leave Maryland, for
Pennsylvania, where the penal laws, although formally
enacted in obedience to the British Government, were not
enforced. For
strictly this mildness, the Pennsylvania
Colony was denounced to the Crown and again
in 1708,
in 1746. A
Catholic parish, founded at Philadelphia in
1730, contained 3,000 people in 1787. Bishop Challoner
reported four Jesuit missionaries in Pennsylvania in 1756.
When, in 1780, a representative of the Spanish Govern
ment was buried Philadelphia, the members of the
in
Continental Congress assisted at the funeral Mass.
274. New York (1674-1689). The Dutch Colony of
New Netherlands, although officially Protestant, was
disposed to be tolerant toward the few Catholic inhabi
tants, and the Church began to grow strong on Man
hattan Island, after it came under the control of the
Duke of York in 1664. Colonial Governor Thomas
Dongan, who was a Catholic, opened a Catholic chapel,
and established religious liberty (1682). Upon the acces
sion of William of Orange to the British throne, however,
New York obeyed the mother-country and persecuted the
Catholics. John Ury, a Protestant clergyman, suspected
was hung for treason in 1741. The
" "
of being a priest,
Acadian captives of 1755 endured cruel treatment in New
York, and the Catholic inhabitants were harshly dealt
with, until the Revolution. After the war brought liberty
of worship, they quickly increased in number.
PERIOD II
FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE

ACCESSION OF BENEDICT XV
(1789-1914)
NEW GROWTH OF THE CHURCH
CHAPTER XXI
THE PAPACY IN THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY
275. General View. The French Revolution began,
and the several mid-century revolutions completed, the
formation of a new political world dominated by the
principle of democracy. There was a general attempt to
eliminate, or at least to re-shape, almost everything that
had survived from the mediaeval world; and the Church
came in for its full share of attention from the advocates
of progress. these declared Catholicism to be
Man^ôf
incompatiblewith the principles oi modern society."
and
predicted^hatlHe"paflaCV would sogn d^jjT~
Instead of these expectations being fulfilled, there came
a startling revelation of the The
vitality of the Church.
close of the nineteenth century found her with
strength"
renewed, and with a great part of her ancient influence
and,. Jionor. restored .... ..Her
dominion*lias"stea3ijy "ex
panded; and from every field of human activity have

come new evidences of her enduring hold upon the best
minds and wills of the human race. Her prestige with
scholar and with statesman is now again, as of old,
prac
tically ecumenical; and her luminous, consistent, moral
238
THE PAPACY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 239
system causes her to be generally regarded as the one

great hope of the world, not only in religion, but in social
ethics also.
"276. The Papacy (1775-1914) .

Eight popes occu
pied the Chair of Peter, during the period under con
sideration. Three of them reigned for nearly eighty
years of the nineteenth century, namely: Pius VII Jîgpp-
1823), the patient victim of Napoleon s persecution; Pius
IX (t 846-1 878), dethroned as sovereign, but triumphanF
as"
pontiff; and- Leo XIII (1878-1903), who is ranked
among the great statesmen of history.
277. Pius VI (1775-1799). About the middle of the

reign of Pius VI, occurred theJFrenchJReyolutio.n_of
1789, whjch all but destroyed the Church in France.
Lesser storms had preceded this terrible outbreak. The
Austrian Emperor, Joseph II, had oppressed the clergy
and violated the Church to such an extent
rights of the
that, in 1782, the pope went
Vienna in person, in or
to
der to remonstrate with him. The same policy of
was pursued by other Catholic powers,
" "
Josephim
Spain, Sardinia, Venice, and, notably, the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies. At the Congress of Ems (1786), even the
archbishops of Germany displayed opposition to the pope s
authority. Pius was obliged to condemn the Synod of
Pistoia, in Italy (1786), and to censure the bishop, Scipio
Ricci, for repudiating papal supremacy and adopting the
doctrines of Jansenius and Quesnel.
The leaders of the French Revolution called upon the
clergy to subscribe to a Civil Constitution which put the
state above the Church ;
but Pope Pius threatened to sus
pend any priest who
should subscribe (1791). One re
sult of this action was the French invasion of the Papal
States in 1796. Napoleon proclaimed Rome a republic;
and the pope was carried a prisoner to France, where he

died in 1799.
Pius VI permitted the Jesuits, although suppressed,
to retain their schools in Prussia; and to keep up their
organization in Russia. In 1789, he created the See of

Baltimore, the first bishopric in the United States.
278. Pius VII (1800-1823). Elected pope in 1800,
Pius VII at once appointed Ercole Consalvi secretary
of state. 1 A concordat was arranged by Consalvi and
2
Napoleon, in i8oi. In 1804, the pope journeyed to Paris
to crown Napoleon emperor, in the church of Notre
Dame; but, at the ceremony, Napoleon took the crown

and placed it on his own head. The pope s refusal to
hos
"
divorce Jerome Bonaparte, his refusal to promise

tility against every enemy of France," and his refusal
to acquiesce in the state control of Church affairs,
demanded by Napoleon, soon aroused the emperor s
wrath.
I
Napoleon determined to transfer the papacy to
]
France. Romejvyas seized by a French army, under Gen
eral Miolhs, in 1808; and the Holy Father, after having
excommunicated his captors, was carried first to Savona,
and then to Fontainebleau. Here, in 1813, the emperor
succeeded in extorting from the pope the
"
|
Concordat
of Fontainebleau," by which Piusjrelinquished Jhe^spv-
Weignty of the Papal States and allowed the French .Gov
ernment considerable power in the selection, of bishops.
Within Two months, however, the pope recalled and
annulled the concessions that had been thus wrung from
1 Consalvi then received minor orders and the
cardinalate, but
never became a priest.
2 It remained the basis of ecclesiastical
organization in France,
until the Law of Separation, enacted in 1905.
THE PAPACY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 24!
him. After the fall of Napoleon, Pius returned to Rome.

Consalvi set about the reorganization of the Papal
States (1814), and his concessions to the demands of
the Liberals caused him to be regarded as a dangerous
radical by the conservative party, at the head of which
was Cardinal Pacca. Representing the pope at the Con
gress of Vienna (1815), Consalvi succeeded in obtaining
the restoration of the greater part of the papal territory ;
but the congress would not settle the general question of
ecclesiastical organization in the various countries.
Agreements were then entered into between the Holy See

and the separate states, Austria and Bavaria (1817),
France (1819), Naples, Russia, Prussia, and the Rhine
states (1821). The British Government attempted to
obtain a certain amount of control over the nomination of
bishops; but was successfully opposed by the Irish hier
archy, and by Dr. Milner. The year 1808 witnessed the
organization of the Church in the United States, by the
raising of Baltimore to metropolitan rank, and the insti
tuting of four new dioceses, New York, Philadelphia,
Boston, and Bardstown. In France, thirty new bishops
were appointed by the pope (1822).
Revolutionary agitation in Italy resulted in the for
mation of a secret society called the Carboneria, which
was condemned by the Holy See (1821). Ir Spain, an
anti-clerical revolution occurred in 1820, and diplomatic
relations with the Holy See were suspended; but the in
tervention of the French king, Louis XVIII, enabled the
Spanish sovereign, Ferdinand VII, to repeal the anti-
Catholic laws in 1823.
Pius VII restored the Society of Jesus, at first only in
Russia (1801), then in the Two Sicilies (1804), and
finally throughout the world (1814).
279. Leo XII (1823-1829). Leo XII negotiated for

a concordat with Holland, and encouraged the movement
for the emancipation of Catholics in Great Britain. In
France, Spain and Mexico, he supported the opponents
of democracy, even when they were not friendly to the
r\ Church. His consistent dislike of innovations in the
government of the Papal States provoked the hostility
of the advocates of reform.
280. Gregory XVI (1831-1846). After the short
reign of PiusVIII (1829-1830), the papal throne was
occupied by Gregory XVI. Almost at once revolution
broke out and, with nearly the whole of his territory in
\{ rebellion, the pope appealed for help to Austria. The

j
rebellion was promptly quelled by an Austrian army.
Representatives of Austria, France, Prussia, Russia and
England, then met in Rome to consider the reform of
"
the Papal States." Even the conservative Metternich,

minister of Austria, now recommended the pope., to. .in
troduce various changes, including popular elections, and
lay administration. Some of these recommendations
"were accepted; to others the pope declared himself in-
alterably opposed.
Disturbances involving the rights of the Church
were frequent during Gregorys reign. About 1840, an
anti-clerical outburst occurred in Portugal. In Spain the
religious orderswere suppressed (1835), and diplomatic

relations between Madrid and Rome were temporarily
suspended in 1841. In Poland, the Ruthenian Uniats

were forced to join the Russian schism; and more than
one hundred priests were exiled to Siberia. The Prus
sian Government conspired with several of the German
bishops to set at naught the instructions of the Holy See
upon mixed marriages and Archbishop von Droste, of
;
Cologne, and Archbishop von Dunin, of Gnesen-Posen,

were arrested by the police (1836).
Gregory condemned the teaching of Lamennais
(1832), and, of Hermes, who had been professor at
Bonn (1835). He also issued a condemnation of the
propaganda carried on in Italy by the London Bible So
ciety and by the New York Christian Alliance.
During the last years of this pontificate, revolts in the
Papal States occurred more than once; but neither the
pope, nor his secretary of state, Cardinal Lambruschini,
would make the concessions demanded. The Jesuits, re
garded as the advisers of Lambruschini, were opposed by
Padre Gioberti, of Piedmont, who planned to make the
pope president of United Italy.
281. Pius IX
(1846-1878). When Pius IX became]
pope, young Italy, led by Mazzini, was clamoring for (
reform and on the verge of revolution. Pius began by 1
proclaiming an amnesty for all political prisoners and es
tablishing an advisory council of laymen. Annoyed at his

liberal tendencies, the extreme conservatives circulated
the report that he was a secret Freemason. Metternich
"
scornfully ridiculed the efforts of the reforming popej

Influential priests, among whom were Rosmini and Giot
berti,promoted the movement to unite Italy into a f ederaA
tionand place it under the pope. J
Pius IX was ready to concede a constitution to his
subjects; but he refused to declare war against Aus
tria. Popular agitation resulted in the Roman riots of
1848, when Pius was forced to flee to Gaeta, and his prime
minister, Count Rossi, was assassinated. French troops-
restored order and the pope, returning to Rome,
begarj
under the guidance of his secretary of state, Cardinal An-i
tonelli, a long struggle with the revolutionary party.
Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont, and his minister,

Cavour, succeeded in uniting various Italian states in
a war against Austria, and, with the secret aid of Napo
leon III, expelled the Austrians from Italy in 1859.
An ex-Jesuit, Passaglia, figured in the attempt to persuade
Pius to surrender his sovereign rights; but the pope s
consistent answer Non possumus." Negotiations
was
"
having failed, the allied forces seized Rome and made it

"
the Capital of United Italy" (1871). Ignoring the

Law of Guarantees which offered him a yearly income
of $650,000, Pius became a voluntary prisoner in the Vati
can Palace, where the Italian Government has never at
tempted to exercise jurisdiction up to the present time.
Among the notable acts of the pontificate of Pius IX
were the defining of the dogma of the Immaculate Con
ception of the Blessed Virgin (1854) tne issuing of the J
Encyclical Quanta Cura

"
and the Syllabus Er-

" "
rorum," against modern errors (1864) and the con ;
voking of the Vatican Council which defined papal

infallibility (1870). The publishing of the dogma of
papal infallibility created general excitement throughout
Europe, and many governments interfered with its pro
mulgation. Austria and Bavaria abrogated their concor
dats; and Wurtemberg and Switzerland bestowed offi
cial favors on
"
The Old Catholics," a schismatical sect,
organized in opposition to the dogma. Prussia and Baden

assigned to the Old Catholics a share of ecclesiastical
property (1874). Some forty German priests joined the
schism. Among the most prominent of the Old Catholics
were Pere Hyacinth and Abbe Michaud in France; Pro
fessors Dollinger and Friedrich in Bavaria; Herzog in
Switzerland; and Reinkens in Silesia. At present, the
total number of Old Catholics in Europe is less than 50,-

ooo.
Pius IX endured many severe trials. In 1873, Prus
began the persecution of Catholics, known as The "
sia
Switzerland expelled the papal nuncio in
Kulturkampf."
1874. Russia violated the concordat in 1847 an d, after

the Polish insurrection of 1863, treated Catholics with
cruel injustice, finally suspending diplomatic relations
with the Vatican in 1866. Colombia and Mexico passed
anti-clerical laws in 1852 and 1861. Austria, in 1874,
endeavored to bring the Church under the control of the
state. On the other hand, favorable relations were es
tablished with Spain in 1851 and 1859; with Portugal in
1852; and with several South American governments be

tween 1852 and 1862.
In 1850, the pope re-established the hierarchy of
England, appointing Wiseman archbishop of West
minster. In 1853, he re-established the hierarchy of Hol
land and in the United States he erected more than thirty
;
new dioceses.
282. Leo XIII (1878-1903). Leo XIII, called "the
Pope of Peace," restored to the Holy See much of its
old prestige among the nations. In the very first year
of his reign, he was approached by Bismarck, who felt
the need of being supported by the Catholic voters in
Germany. It was jestingly said that Bismarck, like
Henry IV, was forced

"
to go to Canossa." Diplomatic
relations between Germany and the Holy See were re
sumed in 1884. The pope acted as arbitrator in a dispute
over the Caroline Islands between Germany and Spain in
1885 and the German Emperor, William II, visited the
;
Vatican three times (1888, 1893, 1903). Leo maintained

friendly relations with Austria and arrived at a good uiv

;
derstanding with Switzerland in 1888. The persecution

of Catholics in Russia having relaxed, he ventured to pre
sent a petition in behalf of the oppressed Ruthenians
(1884). The first result of his intervention was un

fortunate, and the persecution recommenced; but, in 1894,
under Alexander III, there came an improvement and dip
lomatic relations were renewed. To the Poles, the
French, the Spanish and Irish, Leo gave counsel to accept
the existing political conditions and, although his advice
;
was not heartily followed, he obtained in return the good

will of the governments concerned.
The Scottish hierarchy was re-established by Leo in
1878; and hierarchies were organized in Bosnia (1881),
British India (1886), and Egypt (1894). Nearly two
hundred and fifty episcopal sees were founded in various
parts of the world during this pontificate. Among other

important acts, may be mentioned, the founding of the
Catholic University at Washington (1889), the establish
ing of the Apostolic Delegation at Washington (1892),
and the condemnation of Anglican Orders as invalid
(1896). Leo raised John Henry Newman to the car-
dinalate in 1879, reorganized Catholic teaching on the sys
tem of St. Thomas Aquinas (1879), opened the Vatican
Archives to historians (1883), and published a famous
encyclical on the fundamental principles of society
(Rerum Novarum, 1891). Partly in the hope of forcing
concessions from the Italian Government, he held Italian
"
Catholics strictly to the Non-Expedit," the decree which

prohibits them from voting in the national elections; but
no good understanding with the Government was ever
reached.
283. Pius X (1903-1914).- Cardinal Joseph Sarto
was elected to succeed Pope Leo XIII. Born in 1835,

of a simple peasant family in the province of Treviso,
Venice, he became a priest in 1858, a bishop in 1884, and
patriarch of Venice in 1893. Among the aims of his
administration were the better education and discipline
of the clergy, especially in Italy, the study of Sacred
Scripture, the reform of church music, the spread of the
practice of youthful and frequent communion, and the
safeguarding of the faith against modern errors. He also
formed commissions to codify the Canon Law (1904),
and to restore the text of the Vulgate (1907).
The steadily growing opposition of the French Gov
ernment to the pope s policy developed first into an
tagonism and then into persecution. The religious con
gregations were suppressed and their property confiscated
(1903). The condordat was abrogated (1905). By
direction of the pope, the French bishops refused to
accept the government s plan for the reorganization of

parishes and dioceses; and in consequence all church
property passed into the hands of the state.
In 1908, Pope Pius X inaugurated a great change at
Rome, by reorganizing the various departments charged
with the government of the Church. He died August 20,
1914.
284. The Present Organization of the Church. As
the Church is now
organized, its central
government is
in the hands of His Holiness, the Bishop of Rome, as
sisted by the Sacred College of Cardinals, who number
seventy and are distributed into fourteen Congrega
tions, three Tribunals, three Offices, six Commissions,
and three Secretariates.
The Roman Curia is a term applied to this whole group
of departments and includes:
1. The following Congregations: Of the Holy Of
fice,Of the Consistory, On the Discipline of the Sacra
ments, Of the Council, Of Loreto, Of Religious, Of the
Propagation of the Faith, Of the Index, Of Sacred Rites,
Of Ceremonies, Of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs,
Of Studies, Of Seminaries and Universities, Of St.
Peter s.
2. The following Tribunals Of the Penitentiary, Of

:
the Rota, Of the Segnatura.
3. The following Offices: The Apostolic Chancery,

The The Apostolic Camera.
Apostolic Datary,
4. The following Commissions For Biblical Studies,
:
For Codification of Canon Law, For Works of Religion,

For Preservation of the Faith in Rome, For Historical
Studies, For Administration of the Revenue of the Holy
See.
5. The following Palatine Secretariates: Of State,
Of Briefs Of Latin Letters.
to Princes,
CHAPTER XXII
EUROPE
I. GENERAL VIEW
285. Changes. During the nineteenth century EiP,

rope was the scene of numerous struggles for national
independence and for constitutional government. The
French Revolution, the founding of the Kingdom of Italy \
and of the German Empire, the formation of Austria-

Hungary, the development of autonomy in Belgium, Nor
way, Greece and the Balkan States, the efforts at inde
pendence of Ireland and Poland all these events had
important religious, as well as political, results. The

general tendency of the period was toward abolishing
state churches, and making depend directly upon
religion
its adherents for support. During the process of ef
fecting this change, governments were frequently guilty
of great injustice toward the Catholic Church. At pres
ent, a common cause of discord between state and church
is the matter of education; for Catholics refuse to ap
prove of any system which makes it hard, or impos
sible, to provide religious training for their children.
286. Religions of Europe. The following is a rough
distribution of the inhabitants of Europe, according to
religion :
249
EUROPE (1910)
Total Population, 430,000,000.
190,000,000
Orthodox 1 13,000,000
Protestants
{Catholics 107,000,000
*
Mohammedans 9,000,000
Jews 10,000,000
Others 1,000,000
II. ITALY
After the readjustment of
287. Political Unrest.
European boundaries by the Congress of Vienna
(1815),the Italian peninsula was in about the same
status as before the Napoleonic invasion. Austria re
tained Venice and Lombardy; and nearly all the rest of
Italy was divided between

Victor Emmanuel I, king of
Sardinia, Pope Pius VII, and the Bourbon, Ferdinand I,
king of Naples and Sicily. There had been no religious

changes, but the dislike of foreign mastery and the long
ing for liberty now united hundreds of thousands in a
secret patriotic league known as the Carboneria. Con
revolts, followed by imprisonments and
and exe
spiracies
cutions, recurred frequently. The Carboneria was con
demned by the pope in 1821.
About 1840, Mazzini formed the Society of Young
all Italy into a
Italy, with the definite aim of making
free republic. In 1843, men like Gioberti, Rosmini,
esare Balbo, and Manzoni began to advocate the federa
tion of Italy under the presidency of the pope, but their
>lans found little favor with Gregory XVI and his sec-
1
Including four million Russians, three million Turks,
and two
million natives of the Balkans.
EUROPE 251
retary of state, Cardinal Lambruschini. The election of

the liberal-minded Pius IX was welcomed with wild en
thusiasm by the federal party but the Catholic movement
;
soon died out. Garibaldi as insurgent leader, Cavour as

diplomat, and Victor Emmanuel II, as sovereign, led the
masses in another direction. The Jesuits came to be con
sidered as hostile as the Austrians to the cause of national
freedom. When the revolution got into full swing, it was
j
thoroughly anti-papal and anti-clerical in character and ; If
its success was bound to be a serious blow to the Church
in Italy.
288. Unification of Italy . The war between Pied
mont and Austria, in 1848, commenced a series of strug
gles for the unification of Italy. After Charles Albert,
of Piedmont, had failed to expel the Austrians from Ital
ian territory, his son, Victor Emmanuel II, with the help
of France, finally drove them out in 1858, and annexed
Lombardy. In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was formed
by the incorporation of Piedmont, Modena, Parma, Tus
cany, the Romagna, the Marches, Umbria, Naples and
Sicily. Venice was added in 1866; and Rome was seized
in 1870. _
289. New Italy and the Church. In the new
king-]
dom, the Catholic religion was officially established;!
but the greater part of the Church s property was ap-\
propriated by the government and the remainder was \
placed under strict supervision. The_qleree, Non ex-

pedit, issued by Pius IX in 1878, prohibited Catholics
from participating In the election of deputies to the na
tional parliarnent. The accession of Leo XIII, in 1878,
occasioned an interchange of courtesies between the new
king,Humbert, and the pope and, in the same year, the
;
government made the concession of allowing the bishops

to use the papal formula when applying to the govern

ment for their allowance. The friendly attitude of the
Italian prime minister, Crispi, and the publication of a
pamphlet on conciliation by Father Tosti, an intimate
friend of the pope s, led some to expect the making of a
concordat, in 1878. But it soon became clear that the
pope would not even consider the proposal to relinquish
his claim to sovereignty over the territory which had been
seized; and nothing in the way of reconciliation was at

tempted.
In 1905, Pius X modified the Non expedit and al
lowed some Catholics to participate in the national
elections; and in 1909, over twenty
" "
clerical deputies
were thus elected to the Chamber. In 1907, certain
missions in the near East, embarrassed by their connec
French Government, asked and
tion with the anti-clerical
received the official protectorate of Italy. The same year,
however, witnessed a succession of anti-clerical outrages,
fomented by Socialists and Freemasons, in different parts
of Italy.
Italy is divided into 275 dioceses with 70,000 priests;
and the population of 35,000,000 is registered as ninety-
seven per cent. Catholic.
III. FRANCE
290. The French Revolution. In 1788, Louis XVI
convoked the States-General," that is the National
"
Parliament, composed of three classes or estates, the

nobles, the clergy, and the people at large. France, at
that time, possessed a population of 25,000,000, with about
60,000 priests and nearly 40,000 nuns. The clergy, as a
body, was largely controlled by the king, who, in making
appointments to important ecclesiastical positions, usually
EUROPE 253
chose candidates from the ranks of the nobility. Conse

quently, a close alliance existed between the Church and
the upper classes. For many years, religion and mon
archy alike had been assailed by powerful writers, such
as Villiers, Montesquieu, Fontenelle, Rousseau, and the
Encyclopedists Voltaire, Diderot, D Alembert, and
Condillac. When the revolutionary storm broke, it burst
upon government and Church together.
Dissatisfied with their share of power in the assembly
of the States-General, the Third Estate, i. e., the people,
dissolved the convention and immediatly constituted
themselves into a National Assembly, and drafted a
new (1789). After having attacked the
constitution
royal prerogatives, they decreed the confiscation of ec
clesiastical property, and imposed upon the clergy an oath
which involved the practical denial of the papal suprem
acy. Pius VI condemned this oath, or
"
constitution,"
as it was called. All the priests who refused to become

"
were expelled from the country by the

"
constitutional
new government.
291. The Popes and Napoleon. After the execution
of Louis XVI
(1793), Robespierre aimed to destroy
Christianity and to enthrone the Religion of Rea
"
son."
During the Reign of Terror, priests and nobles
were massacred in multitudes. Thousands fled for refuge
to England. The Catholic district, known as
"
La Ven
on the west coast, offered- resistance and the popu
dee," ;
lation was practically exterminated. The armies of the

Directory, under command of Napoleon Bonaparte, mas
tered Italy in 1796; and, later, General Berthier seized
Rome and proclaimed the Roman Republic (1799). Pius
VI was taken to Southern France, where he died at
Valence, in the same year.
Elected First Consul in 1800, Napoleon set about

using the Church as an aid to his plans of government.
Pius VII sent his representative, Consalvi, to Paris and, ;
a concordat,making unusually large concessions to the

French Government, was proclaimed in 1802. Napoleon,
"
having secretly prepared a series of Organic Articles,"
stillfurther restricting the rights of the Church, pub

lished them, as if they were part of the concordat. The
pope s protest against this action was disregarded.
Napoleon, as Emperor, being angered by the pope s
refusal to annul the marriage of Jerome Bonaparte,
with Miss Patterson of Baltimore, and again by his re
fusal to declare himself an enemy of every nation
hostile to France, abolished the papal sovereignty, an
nexed the Papal States, and carried Pius VII together
with many of the cardinals to France in 1808. A year
later, Napoleon s marriage with Josephine was annulled
by the diocesan court of Paris, without being referred to

the pope. At the wedding of the emperor with Maria
Louisa, thirteen of the cardinals declined to be pres
" "
ent, and were thereafter called papal, or black cardi

nals.
292. The Monarchy. Under Louis XVIII (1814-

1824), France became a constitutional monarchy. Ca
tholicism was established as the state religion; and the
other churches enjoyed freedom of worship. The gov
ernment aimed to control the Church and many bishops
;
and priests of Gallican tendency were in sympathy with

this aim. DeBonald, DeMaistre and Chateaubriand how
ever helped to spread true Catholic ideas and to extend
Catholic influence.
Charles X (1824-1830), who labored both to promote
EUROPE 255
the Catholic religion and to restore the old regime,

made laws against sacrilege and prohibited infidel and
revolutionary publications. In opposition to his policy
were and the revolutionists.
allied the constitutional party
The revolution of 1830 displaced him and, at the same
time, disestablished the Church.
293. Catholic Progress. Louis Philippe (1830-
1848), with his minister, M. Guizot, withstood as far
as possible all demands or concessions, whether made
by the Catholics, or by the democratic parties. His
opposition to the French Church helped to strengthen it
and to unite it more closely with Rome. Lamennais,
Lacordaire and Montalembert having formed a Catholic
liberal program, founded the paper, L Avenir (1830), and
strove to put the Church in control of the democratic
movement. They succeeded in weakening the old Gal-
lican spirit,and in creating much sympathy both for the
Holy See and for the new political order. However,
Gregory XVI found it impossible to approve their policy
entirely; and, in consequence, Lamennais abandoned the
Church. His two companions continued to labor zeal
ously for the faith and, among other successes, helped to
;
secure in 1833 an educational law so favorable to Catholic

schools that these multiplied rapidly. Louis Veuillot took
charge of UUnivers in 1843, and consistently championed
the cause of the pope. The Benedictine, Dom Gueranger,
the Dominican, Lacordaire, and the Jesuit, Ravignan, at
tained great popular influence. The Trappists and Car
thusians founded new houses. Ozanam s Society of St.
Vincent de Paul formed five hundred local conferences be
fore 1848. The
Society for the Propagation of the Faith,
founded at Lyons in 1822, increased to nearly a million
members. The Church was so popular an institution that

the revolutionary mob of 1848 carried the cross through
the streets of Paris.
The elections of 1849 gave new advantages to the
Catholics. M. Falloux, a Catholic, became minister of ed
ucation; and a law favorable to Catholic education was
passed in 1850.
294. Napoleon III. After the Coup d Etat of 1851,
Napoleon III was supported by some Catholics, but op
posed by others, including Montalembert. The Catho
lics were further divided by controversies on the use of the
classics in education, and by the old issue of Gallicanism.
On the other hand, infidelity was helped by such influ
ences as the publication of Comte s Positive Philosophy
(1842-1852), its popularization through Taine (1856),
Kenan s Life of Jesus (1862), the Evolutionism of MM.
Paul Bert and Georges Clemenceau, the program of non-
religious schools advocated by Duruy, minister of educa
tion, and the socialistic propaganda conducted by the fol
lowers of Karl Marx.
Napoleon III (1852-1871), soon became very hostile
to the Church. Religious orders were attacked the Su ;
preme Council of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul was

suppressed (1862) ; and the Piedmontese were aided in
their attempt to seize the territory of the
Pope (1860).
295- Opposition to the Church. In the early days of
the Third Republic (1873), the Catholic Church, op
posed by men like Gambetta and Jules Simon, and
championed by men of royalist tendencies like Mgr.
Dupanloup and Mgr. Pie, gradually became identified
with the legitimists (the advocates of royalty). During
the presidency of MacMahon religion prospered. Per
mission to establish Catholic universities was obtained
EUROPE 257
were founded at
" "
in 1875 ;
and five Catholic institutes
Lyons and Toulouse.

Paris, Lille, Angers,
When M. Grevy succeeded MacMahon in 1879, the
anti-Catholic party gained control; and legislation
grew steadily more hostile to Catholicism. In 1879,
the clergy were excluded from hospital boards and the
boards of public charitable institutions. In 1880, the
engaged in teaching, were expelled;
Jesuits, except those
many were dismissed for being too Catholic
civil officials
and too royalist; and military chaplaincies were sup

pressed. In 1881, the hospitals were secularized; and, in
1884, divorce was made legal. The Comte de Mun s at
tempt form
to a Catholic party was frustrated by internal
divisions (1885) and Pope Leo s plan to rally Catholics
;
to the support of the existing government was resented

and foiled by the Catholic royalists (1892) and as the ;
were too few to accomplish much alone, the

" "
Rallies
radicals gained ground steadily.
The
participation of Catholics in the anti-semitic
movement, during the presidency of M. Loubet (1899),
was followed by the formation of the anti-Christian
bloc which consistently opposed everything Catholic.
During M. Waldeck-Rousseau s ministry, the Law on As
sociations, of July, 1901, practically destroyed the re

ligious orders in France. M. Combes, Minister of Wor
ship (1902), suppressed over a hundred congregations and
eliminated the Catholic primary schools. The formula
used in the nomination of bishops gave the Government a
pretext to quarrel with the Holy See; and, other causes
of offence having been created, diplomatic relations were
suspended in 1904 and the concordat was abolished in
1905. Pius X instructed the French bishops to refuse to
accept the conditions imposed by the new law; and, in
1906, all ecclesiastical property passed into the hands of

the state. In most of the dioceses, voluntary associa
tions now provide for the support of the churches and
the clergy.
France has 84 bishops and 60,000 priests and Catho
;
lics are reckoned at 38,000,000, in a total population of

39,000,000. There are 600,000 Protestants and 100,000
Jews.
Monaco. After having been temporarily annexed by
the French, Monaco became a principality, under the pro
tection of France, in 1814. Since 1868 Monaco has been
a diocese directly dependent on Rome. The bishop has a
force of twenty priests and the population, numbering
;
20,000, is wholly Catholic.
IV. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
296. Ecclesiastical Innovations. Charles III (1759-

1788), imitating Joseph II of Austria, went as far as
he dared in making ecclesiastical changes. The Jesuits
were expelled from all the Spanish dominions in 1767.
Charles IV (1788-1808), allowed his minister Godoy
to seize church property and to discontinue the close
connection of religion and education. The Freemasons
gained control of the Inquisition, and used it for their
own purposes.
Napoleon s brother, Joseph, did much to hamper the
Church during his brief rule (1808).
Ferdinand VII (1814-1833) refused to tolerate any
religion except Catholicism. Nevertheless, the Free
mason-Liberals were strong enough in his reign to abolish
clerical privileges. In 1820, they won control of the gov
ernment and began to legislate against the Church. In
the civil war which followed, victory came to the Catholics
EUROPE 259
who became identified with the cause of royalty (1823).

The succession of Ferdinand VII was disputed be
tween his daughter, Isabella, and his brother, Don
Carlos, who had the support of the clergy, but lost the
throne (1839). A persecution of the Church followed,
against which Gregory XVI protested (1842).
297. Catholic Revival. The writings of Balmes and
Donoso Cortes did much to win popular favor for
Catholics. In 1851, a concordat was arranged with Pius
IX; and, in 1863, the national sentiment in favor of the
pope brought about the resignation of the anti-clerical

prime minister, O Donnell. Soon afterwards a liberal
revolution placed Amadeo, son of Victor Emmanuel, on
the Spanish throne (1870).
Under King Ferdinand s grandson, Alphonsus XII
(1875-1885) Catholicism was declared to be the state
religion. The Carlists resented the attempt of Pope Leo
XIII to induce all Catholics to accept the established gov
ernment (1883). A movement to eliminate religious in
struction from the schools was defeated (1894).
From 1901 on, the Liberals made frequent attempts
to restrict the rights of religious orders and to legalize
the civil marriages of Catholics; but the Liberal policy
was repudiated by the people in the elections of 1907.
Spain has 56 bishops and 31,000 priests; and Catho
licsare reckoned at 19,597,000 in a total population of
19,611,000.
298. Disturbances in Portugal. Pombal, the min
ister of Joseph Emmanuel I (1750-1777) persistently
interfered with the Church. The Jesuits were ex
pelled in 1759; the Inquisition became a government ma
chine Freemasonry was fostered and the University of
; ;
Coimbra grew to be a centre of rationalism.

Maria Francisca (1777-1816) favored religion and

suppressed Freemasonry, as far as possible; but the
revolutionary National Assembly forced her son, Dom
John, to accept a constitution hostile to the Church
(1822). When he died, his brother, Dom Miguel, es
poused the Catholic, and his son, Dom Pedro, the Free
mason cause. Dom Pedro triumphed in 1834, and en
croached so far upon the freedom and the property rights
of the Church, that a threat of excommunication was
made by Gregory XVI.
299. Modern Portugal. Through the remainder of
the nineteenth century, the Church was usually suffer
ing persecution. The religious orders were suppressed
by law in 1843 but their existence was officially ignored
>
when they were again attacked. The

until recent years,
Church possessed no authority in the schools after 1845.
The government claimed considerable control of church
property, ecclesiastical education, the division of dioceses,
and the like ; and refused to negotiate a concordat.
In 1910, a revolution dethroned the King, established
a republic, and effected the separation of Church and
state. The Catholic party, weakened by internal divi
sions, offered little opposition. The religious orders were
subjected to a cruel persecution, against which the pope
protested in 1912, without avail.
The total population of 6,000,000, is classified as en
tirely Catholic, with the exception of about 250,000, and
there are 12 bishops with over 4,000 priests.
V. GERMANY
300. Reorganization of the Church. During the
eighteenth century, Austria, the recognized head of
the German Confederacy, grew gradually weaker,
EUROPE 26l
whereas Prussia, the representative of Lutheranism,

grew steadily stronger. When Napoleon defeated the
alliedGerman forces, sixteen of the smaller states sepa
rated from Austria, and formed the Confederation of the
Rhine. Thereupon, the Emperor, Francis II, dissolved
the Holy Roman Empire (1801).
Napoleon brought about the secularization of the
German Church in 1808, leaving but one diocese, Ratis-
bon, in Bavaria, and nominating for bishop of that dio
cese, Dalberg, elector of Mainz, a strong Josephist in
policy. Many of the old ecclesiastical possessions fell
into the hands of secular princes ; and, despite the repre
sentations of the papal legate, Consalvi, to the Congress
of Vienna, (1815), that body refused to restore the
Church to its previous position.
Each individual state was thus given the power to
regulate religious affairs within its own territory ; and
negotiations soon began between the different rulers
and the Holy See to establish concordats. Bavaria en
tered into an agreement in 1817, and Munich and Bam-
berg became archbishoprics in the following year. After
long negotiations with the Rhine states of Baden, Wurtem-
berg, Hesse, and Nassau, the pope made Freiburg in
Baden, an archdiocese, and placed bishops at Rottenberg,
Limburg, and Fulda, in the other states, thus constituting
the Province of the Upper Rhine (1821). In the same
year, an archdiocese was established at Cologne, in Rhen
ish Prussia; and one at Gnesen and Posen, to care for
that part of Poland retained by Prussia, after the partition
of 1795. These five archdioceses make up the present
five provinces of Germany. The Prince-
ecclesiastical
Bishop of Breslau, in Silesian Prussia, who depends di

rectly on the Holy See, has jurisdiction over Berlin.
After the formation of the modern German Empire

(1871), Bismarck attempted to unify the religion of all
the twenty-six confederated states, but hopelessly
failed. Some provinces are strongly Catholic, and
still
others Protestant. The dominant political influence of

Protestant Prussia, however, puts the Catholics at a con
siderable general disadvantage. Ecclesiastical affairs are
regulated by the individual states. Thus, in Prussia, Ba

varia,Wiirtemberg and Baden, the Church is a privileged
corporation, whereas in the Kingdom of Saxony, and in
several of the smaller states, Catholics are subjected to
and disabilities.
legal restrictions
There are 25 bishops and 24,000 priests in Germany ;
and Catholics number about 24,000,000 in a total popu

lation of 65,000,000. In the larger states of the Empire,
the distribution of Catholics is as follows :
States Total Population Catholics Priests

Prussia 40,000,000 15,000,000 12,000
Bavaria 7,000,000 5,000,000 7,000
Saxony 5,000,000 250,000 60
Wurtemberg 2,500,000 750,000 1,200
Baden 2,000,000 1,250,000 1,500
Hesse 1,250,000 500,000 350
Lorraine (territory) 2,000,000 1,500,000 2,300
The recent history of the Church in each of these states

willnow be briefly indicated.
301. Prussia. Frederick the Great (1740-1786).
Frederick claimed the same jurisdiction over Catholi
cism as over Lutheranism, and interfered with the
liberty of the Church, even in Catholic Silesia. The
Code of 1/94 denied the right of the bishops to publish
papal documents and to obey papal decrees.
Frederick William III (1797-1840), established Prot-
EUROPE 263
estant churches and schools, and appointed Protestant

officials, in Catholic districts. In 1821 Pius VII agreed
to allow the Government certain rights in the nomination
of bishops. Trouble arose in the Rhine provinces,
(1825), over the civil law requiring the children of every
mixed marriage to be trained in the religion of the father.
Unsatisfactory negotiations went on (1828-1834) between

the Prussian Government and the popes, Leo XII, Pius
VIII and Gregory XVI. Archbishop von Spiegel, of
Cologne, made a secret agreement to obey the govern
ment; but his successor, Clemens Augustus, resisted the
government and was arrested (1837). year later, A
Archbishop von Dunin, of Gnesen-Posen, was also ar
rested; and a serious agitation spread among German
Catholics.
Frederick William IV (1840-1861) announced the
cessation of governmental interference in mixed mar
riages. The Constitution of 1851 granted more liberty to
the Church ; and a religious revival took place. Catholic
journals were founded and Catholic associations formed,
and the Catholic party successfully opposed some un
favorable measures introduced into the parliament at this
time.
William I (1861-1888) and Bismarck began a perse
cution of Catholics. The expulsion of Austria from the
German Confederation, after the war of 1866, hurt the
and the formation of the German
prestige of Catholicism ;
Empire (1871), under the leadership of Prussia, was a

further victory for Protestantism. To consolidate the
German Empire, Bismarck set about unifying the new na
tion in the matter of religion. The Jesuits, Redemp-
torists, Lazarists and Sisters of the Sacred Heart were
abolished. The suppression of the Polish language fol-
lowed, and this act caused a dispute with Archbishop

Ledochowski of Gnesen-Posen ( 1873 ) The appointment
of Falk as Minister of Worship, and the passing of the
May Laws," in 1873, were direct blows at the Catholic
"
Church. The
"
Kulturkampf," or
"
religious war," was

carried on by oppressive
legislation, many bishops and
"
priests being imprisoned. But the Catholic party, the
Centre," in the Reichstag, led by Windthorst, increased

in numbers and fought hard. After the accession of
Leo XIII (1878), the government began negotiations with
Rome; and diplomatic relations were resumed in 1882.
Pope Leo acted as arbiter in the Spanish-German dispute
over the Caroline Islands (1885). Some of the expelled
religious orders returned in 1887.

William II (1888- ) tried to satisfy Catholic de
mands and to win the aid of the Centre against the
Socialists. Cardinal Kopp, who became Prince-Bishop of
Breslau, in 1886, greatly promoted the harmonious rela
tions of Church and state during recent years. Bismarck
retired in 1890. The Redemptorists were readmitted to
the empire in 1894, and the Jesuits in 1904. The Centre
is now, in many respects, the strongest party in the
Reichstag.
Prussia has nearly 15,000,000 Catholics in a total pop
ulation of about 4O,ooo,ooo.
2
The Catholics are few in
the centre of the kingdom, being most numerous in the
Rhine provinces at the western, and in Prussian Poland
at the eastern extremity.
302. Bavaria. As a reward for having abandoned

Austria, Bavaria was made a kingdom by Napoleon in
1806. It was at that time pretty thoroughly permeated
with Febronianism. Maximilian IV ( 1799-1825), and his

2 number about
"
The "
Old Catholics 30,000.

EUROPE 265
minister, Montgelas, favored Protestants, secularized

church property, destroyed four hundred monasteries and
expelled the Franciscans, Capuchins and Carmelites. The
government passed laws regulating mixed marriages
(1809), and restricting the liberty of the bishops. At
Ingolstadt and Wiirzburg, the universities were put under
Protestant control. A
similar policy was applied to the
Tyrol, where priests and bishops were arrested. The

Tyrolese sided with the Austrian Emperor, Francis II,
and, under the leadership of Hofer, Speckbacher and
the Capuchin, Haspinger, fought bravely against Napo
leon in 1809, but were defeated. After Montgelas was
dismissed, Maximilian signed a concordat (1818), against
which the Protestants protested; but it did not bring
great relief to the Catholics.

Louis I (1825-1848), at first friendly to the Church,
helped to make Munich the home of Catholic scholars,
like Gb rres, Mohler, Klee, Philipps and Dollinger. In
later years, he became hostile to the Church through the
influence of the notorious actress, Lola Montez.
Maximilian II (1848-1864), made some concessions
to the Catholics.But he insisted that their leader, Arch
bishop Reisach of Munich, should be named a cardinal
and transferred to Rome (1855).
Under Louis II (1864-1886), the Liberal party in
terfered with the Catholics who finally organized a
party and defeated the Hohenlohe bill aimed against
religious instruction in the primary schools. The Cath
olicparty soon obtained a majority in the Chamber (1869).
The Minister von Lutz sympathized with the Prussians
and favored the Old Catholics. Laws were passed against
the Jesuits and other orders (1872). The Bavarian
Catholics continued to grow more powerful politically;
under the regency of Luitpold (1886-1913); and they

forced the ministry to allow the return of the Redemp-
torists in 1889.The Catholic Church is now on the same
legal footing as the Protestant.
Bavaria contains about 5,000,000 Catholics and
2,000,000 Protestants in a total population of 7,000,000.
303. Saxony. Saxony became a kingdom in 1806,
being at that time, as at present, a vicariate apostolic,

with a vicar resident at Dresden. The status of the
Church has been almost the same in Saxony as in Prussia,
but with some petty restrictions added. The Jesuits are
excluded from the kingdom, and their students are under
certain legal disabilities. It is reported that, in the first
decade of the twentieth century, some ten thousand Catho
lics became Protestants.
The population includes about 4,500,000 Lutherans,
and less than 250,000 Catholics. The Catholic portion
3
of the population mostly made up of immigrants.
is
304. Wiirtemberg. Wiirtemberg, a duchy since

1495, was made a kingdom by Napoleon in 1806; and,
at the same time, received territory which added many
Catholics to its population. A "
Church Council "
was
formed in 1816, to protect the state officially against pos
sible Catholic encroachments. The Protestant religion
was established by law. The Diet refused to recognize
the concordat with the Holy See, entered into by the
king, in 1857; but laws were enacted to cover practically
the same ground, and relations have been fairly harmoni
ous.
8The ruling house is Catholic and the present King is Frederick

Augustus III (1904-). His brother, Prince Maximilian, became
a priest in 1896, and later was appointed professor of canon law
at the University of Fribourg in Switzerland.
EUROPE 267
There are some 700,000 Catholics, and more than

twice as many Protestants in the duchy, the total
population numbering 2,500,000.
305. Baden. When
Baden became a grand duchy
in 1806, about two-thirds of its population were Catho
lics; but Liberalism was strong in the political field,
and many of the clergy had a tendency toward Joseph-
ism. Laws were passed in 1807, restricting the rights of
the Church. Dalberg, Prince-Bishop of Ratisbon, put von
Wessenberg, a noted Josephist, in charge of Baden, and,
in 1815, nominated him coadjutor. The Baden seminari
ans were obliged to study at Freiburg University, which
had been filled with Protestant professors. Pius VIII
(1830) and Gregory XVII (1833) protested against the
unfriendly acts of the government ;
but the Catholic bish
ops gained little, until Herman von Vicari became Arch
bishop of Freiburg in 1842. For twenty-five years he
strenuously defended the Church against secular interfer
ences. Baden entered the German Empire, under the
control of a Liberal majority, which has maintained itself
ever since.
The Catholics number 1,200,000 and Protestants 800,-
ooo in a total population of over 2,000,000. There are
about 8,000 Old Catholics.
306. Hesse. Hesse became a grand duchy in 1806.
By the decision of the Congress of Vienna, Hesse was
left in possession of considerable Catholic territory on the
left bank of the Rhine; and thus was led to enter into
negotiations with the Holy See for the organization of

the Church in those districts. Mainz and Fulda were
made when Pius VII established the Province
dioceses,
of theUpper Rhine in 1821. The general policy of the
government in Hesse was more friendly than in Baden;
yet, in 1830, the Seminary of Mainz was closed and the

seminarians were obliged to attend the Protestant Uni
versity of Giessen. In 1850, von Ketteler became Arch
bishop of Mainz and, aided by Canon Lenning, ably de
fended church rights for thirty years against the en
croachments of the Government and the Liberal Party.
Hesse has nearly 40,000 Catholics in a total popula
tion of 1,300,000.
VI. SWITZERLAND AND LUXEMBURG
307. Switzerland before 1848. In 1797, seven of the

thirteen Swiss cantons were Catholic. The Constitu
tion of 1798, imposed on the country by the French, was
rejected in 1815, and the old constitution restored; but

the cantons, twenty-two in number, were reorganized with
out sufficient regard to religious differences. After 1830,
there came a strong Liberal, anti-Catholic movement and
;
six cantons formulated Articles of Conference, plainly

aimed against the influence of the pope. These articles
were condemned by Gregory XVI (1835).
The educational system, developed by able men like
Pestalozzi, was used against the Church. The Diet (or
National Congress), having failed to protect religious in
"
terests, the Catholics

organized the Sonderbund," con
sisting of Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Fri-

bourg and Valais but;
it was suppressed by force of arms
(1847).
The constitution of modern Switzerland in 1848
guaranteed religious freedom throughout all the can
tons. This gave many advantages to Catholics who now
emigrated in large numbers into Protestant territory,
erecting churches, organizing societies, and founding
newspapers.
EUROPE 269
Isolated instances of religious persecution by the

Liberal Party occurred during the next twenty years.
After 1870 considerable trouble arose in consequence of
governmental opposition to the definition of Papal Infal
The Old Catholic party was favored, Herzog in
libility.
Berne and Pere Hyacinthe in Geneva receiving impor
tant posts. The Constitution of 1874 imposed serious
disadvantages upon Catholics; and relations between the
government and Pius IX became strained.
In 1883, Leo XIII began the approach to a better
understanding. Most of the churches transferred to
the Old Catholics have been returned. In 1895 a Catho
lic, Dr. Zemp, was President of the Swiss Confedera
tion. The democratic movement, organized
Catholic
nearly thirty years ago, and directed by Cardinal Mermil-
lod and M. Decurtins, has prospered greatly. The Uni
versity of Fribourg, inaugurated in 1886, is a home of
Catholic scholarship. Since 1903, a Catholic congress has
convened annually. Catholics have a majority in thirteen
of the twenty-five cantons; and the federal government
guarantees freedom in all.
There are five bishops and 3,000 priests in Switzer
land and Catholics number 1,500,000 in a total popula
;
tion of almost 4,000,000.

308.Luxemburg. In the Grand Duchy cf Luxem
burg, now an independent state, the Church is flourishing
and active. Luxemburg has one bishop and over five
hundred priests and the Catholics number 250,000 in a
total population of 260,000.
VII. THE NETHERLANDS

309. Holland. The Calvinist provinces in the
Northern Spanish Netherlands were recognized as an
independent republic in 1648. Persecution of the

Catholics prevailed until 1775, when Liberalism began to
replace orthodox Protestantism. The Constitution of
1798 disestablished Calvinism as the state religion and in
stitutedfreedom of worship.
Under William I, who became king in 1815, laws
were made against the Catholics. Negotiations for a
concordat with the Holy See went on from 1818 until the
Revolution of 1830. William II (1840-1849) at first
favored, and then opposed, the Church. The Constitution
of 1848 was favorable to Catholics, who were both numer
ous and resolute.
Pius IX re-established the hierarchy in 1853, despite
hostile agitation by Calvinists and Jansenists. The al
liance of the Old Catholics with the Liberals, dating from
1848, was dissolved by disputes over religious education.

Catholics and Conservatives joined forces, and in 1889
secured state assistance for denominational schools.
Religious orders and Catholic schools flourish in Hol
land; and there is a strong Catholic representation of
deputies and senators. Catholics and Protestants formed
an alliance against Liberals and Socialists, and secured a
great victory in the elections of 1909.

The Catholics have five bishops and 3,800 priests
and number 2,000,000 in a total population of 6,000,000.
There are some 9,000 Jansenists with one archbishop and
two bishops.
310. Belgium. After 1713, the Spanish Netherlands
were governed by Austria, although enjoying an inde
pendent constitution of their own. The Austrian Em
peror, Joseph II, aroused popular opposition in 1778, by
introducing religious reforms and abrogating Catholic
privileges. The Revolution of 1789 gave France posses-
EUROPE 271
sion of Belgium; and the Directory passed laws against

the Church (1795). Under Napoleon s government, a
somewhat better arrangement was made, to which Pius
VII agreed (1802) but the Congress of Vienna (1815)
;
assigned Belgium William I, thus making it practically

to
subject to Protestant Holland, a smaller nation.

Catholic opposition to William s policy of oppression
forced him to make a concordat with the Holy See in
1827. Catholics and Liberals allied forces in 1828 and
finally achieved Belgian independence (1839). The Lib

erals founded the University of Brussels in 1834, and the
Catholics founded Louvain in 1835. The school system,
established in 1842, was accepted by both Catholics and
Liberals. Since 1846, there has been consistent political
disagreement between the two parties and each has been
;
inpower three times.

M. Frere-Orban, supported by the Freemasons, led
an anti-Catholic campaign (1857-1870). The Catholic
forces were guided by Cardinal Dechamps of Mechlin,
and by Catholic deputies, like Malon and Woeste. In
1880, the educational dispute grew so violent that the
Belgian ambassador Vatican was recalled; but the
at the
Catholics won the elections of 1884 and have retained the
power ever since, even when Liberals and Socialists were
as in 1906.
allied, The industrial troubles of 1886 led to
the forming of Catholic labor organizations, and to the
passing of social legislation in the last twenty years which
has been a great honor to the country. The University of
Louvain, controlled by the Catholic hierarchy, and the
Catholic system of secondary schools have been remark
ably successful institutions. The Church is independent
of the state but the government sends a representative to
;
the Vatican.
In 1910 Belgium had six bishops and 8,000 priests;

and of the population of 8,000,000 the great majority
were Catholics.
VIII. SCANDINAVIA
311. Denmark. In the sixteenth century, Lutheran-
ism became the state religion of Denmark and the prac
was made illegal. In 1841,
tice of the Catholic religion
the country contained less than one thousand Catholics.
Freedom of worship was granted in 1849. After that
date there were many conversions. A vicar apostolic was
appointed in 1892. The Catholics conduct their own pri
mary schools. The Church is supported partly by the
Society for the Propagation of the Faith.
Denmark has seventy-five priests and the Catholics
number less than 20,000 in a total population of almost
3,000,000.
312. Norway. Norway separated from Denmark in
1814, and established partial freedom of worship in
1845, although Lutheranism remained the state re
ligion. A prefect apostolic was appointed in 1869. Most
of the legal disabilities of Catholics were removed in 1894.
In 1892, a bishop was consecrated; and his priests
number about twenty-five. The Catholics are about
3,000 in a total population of over 2,000,000.
313. Sweden. In Sweden, after 1591, only Protes
tant worship was allowed; and banishment was the
penalty of renouncing the state religion. Freedom of
worship was granted to foreign residents in 1780. A law
passed in 1873 permits persons over eighteen years of age
to abandon Lutheranism; but only after having notified
their pastors. No religious communities are permitted,
except nursing sisters.
EUROPE 273
A vicar apostolic, who resides at Stockholm, has

twenty priests, and there are about 4,000 Catholics in
a total population of 5,500,000.
IX. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
314. General View. The Austro-Hungarian Mon
archy comprises the Empire of Austria, the Kingdom
of Hungary, and the territories of Bosnia and Herze
4
govina. states have their own independent
The two
constitutions and parliaments; but they are bound to
gether by a constitutional union and are ruled by the
same sovereign. Each year, alternately at Vienna and
Budapest, delegates from the two states assemble to
transact the common business of the Dual Monarchy.
In all Austria-Hungary there are some 50 Catholic
bishops and 30,000 priests. Catholics number about
34,000,000 in a total population of over 50,000,00.
315. Austria. The Emperor, Francis II (1792-
1835), continuing his predecessor s policy of Josephism,
nominated court favorites as bishops, and prevented
free communication with the Holy See. Under Ferdi
nand I (1835-1848), the people showed a growing oppo
sition to imperial interference with religion. The bishops
defied the civil law which required priests to assist at
the mixed marriages of parties refusing to promise Catho
lictraining for their children. In 1840, this question
Rome Gregory XVI allowed nega
"
was referred to ; and

tive the presence of the priest as mere
assistance," that is,
witness, religious ceremony being omitted.

all In 1848,
Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his son, Francis Joseph
4The population of Bosnia-Herzegovina is about two million,
mainly Slavonian, including nearly 1,000,000 Orthodox Greeks,
over 500,000 Mohammedans, and less than 500,000 Catholics.
I (1848- ), who extended the freedom of the Church.

In 1855, a concordat with the Holy See practically de
stroyed Josephism, guaranteeing the rights of the Church
in accord with Canon Law. Cardinal Rauscher was at
the head of the Catholic movement that obtained this
concession.
When Austria became a constitutional monarchy,
an Edict of Toleration was passed in favor of non-
Catholics (1861). The government negotiated with the
Holy See to revoke the concordat (1863-1867); made
laws seriously restricting the rights of the Church; and
required civil marriage in all cases (1868). In con
sequence of the definition of Papal Infallibility, Austria
finally abrogated the concordat; and the Liberals passed
laws further hampering the Church (1874). In 1879,
under Lueger, the Catholics organized politically and won
some advantages and, in 1905, Catholic action prevented
;
divorce from being legalized. The Los-von-Rom

" "
movement, a Protestant campaign begun in Bohemia in

1897, had some success for a few years; but, after 1903,
itlost its first importance. It was largely inspired by the
wish to draw some provinces away from Austria, and into
the German Empire.
The Austrian provinces (excluding Hungary, with
Croatia and Slavonia) contain about 30,000,000 people.
This number includes about 10,000,000 Germans, 6,000,-
ooo Czechs, 5,000,000 Poles, 4,000,000 Ruthenians,
1,000,000 Slovenes, and 1,000,000 Serbs. Of these, 20,-
000,000 are Catholics of the Latin Rite, and 3,000,000 are
Uniats. Orthodox Christians, Protestants, Jews and
some 10,000 Old Catholics aggregate about 7,000,000.
There are seven ecclesiastical provinces of the Latin Rite,
namely, Goerz, Lemberg, Olmiitz, Prague, Salzburg,
EUROPE 275
Vienna, and Zara. At Lemberg there are two provinces,

one of them Armenian, and one Uniat (Greek Catholic).
316. Hungary. When the Austrian Emperor,
Joseph II (1780-1790), introduced his religious reforms
into Hungary, then practically an Austrian province,
he was resisted by the Hungarians, who demanded a
national assembly. In 1790, the objectionable legisla
tion of the preceding ten years was revoked. In 1848, the
Catholic clergy aided Kossuth in his unsuccessful attempt
to achieve Hungarian independence. Later, the Austrian
concordat with the Holy See was extended to Hungary,
despite the resistance of Cardinal Scitovsky and other
bishops (1855). The struggle for national and ecclesias
tical freedom continued for years (1848-1866). New
laws (1868-1879) forbade priests to baptize sons born
to non-Catholic fathers and Catholic mothers; but the
prohibition was ignored both by the clergy and by the

courts. A law of 1894 prescribed civil marriage in all
cases. Another law (1899) placed heavy penalties on the

use of churches for political purposes. At present,
the authority of the bishops is unduly limited by the
state.
In the population of 20,000,000, there are 9,000,000
Magyars, 3,000,000 Rumanians, 2,000,000 Germans,
2,000,000 Slovaks, 2,000,000 Croatians, 1,000,000 Serbs,
500,000 Ruthenians. Hungary has four ecclesiastical
provinces of the Latin Rite: Esztergom, Kalocsa and
Bacs, Eger, and Agram; and one Greek Catholic prov
ince, Fogaras.
Divided according to religion, Catholics of the Latin
Rite number 10,000,000; Greek Uniats, 2,000,000;
Protestants, 4,000,000; the Orthodox, 3,000,000; and
Jews about 1,000,000.
X. RUSSIA AND POLAND
317. Hostility to Rome. From the time of the Coun

cilof Florence (1438), the popes frequently but with
out success attempted to reconcile Russia with the
Holy See. Active persecution of Catholics, begun under
Peter the Great (1682-1725), was continued through the
eighteenth century.
Catherine II (1762-1796), after the partition of Po-
lan.d, tried to establish a national Polish Church, and
to effect a schism. Jesuits, who took refuge in Russia,
upon the dissolution of the society, won the favor of the
Czar, Paul I ; and he persuaded Pope Pius VII to re-es
tablish the order in Russia (1801).
Alexander I (1801-1825) renewed diplomatic rela
tions with the Holy See. The diocese of White Rus
"
sia was erected,

"
and Bohusz became bishop but the ;
government tried to use this prelate as an instrument

to separate the Catholics from the pope. An agitation,
occasioned by the conversion of Prince Alexander Galit-
zin, resulted in the expulsion of the Jesuits from Russian
territory (1820).
318. Modern Russia. The Polish insurrections of
1830 and 1863 intensified the opposition to Catholics.
Priests were executed and bishops imprisoned; and, in
1864, all religious orders were suppressed. Pius IX pro
tested,and finally diplomatic relations were broken off.
Alexander III (1881-1894) sent a representative to
the Vatican and entered into a concordat which was,
however, nullified by means of new laws.
Nicholas II (1894- ) continued the same policy
until political troubles and the disastrous Japanese
War occasioned an edict of religious toleration in
EUROPE 277
1905. Within two years, there were 500,000 conversions

to Catholicism, including 300,000 Uniats who had been
previously compelled to profess the Orthodox religion.

The vigor of the Catholic revival aroused new opposition ;
and laws were enacted against Catholic schools and the

liberty of the clergy. In 1911 occurred a notable renewal
of hostility to the Church.
Russia proper has at present one Catholic archdio
cese (Mohilev), with 6 suffragan sees and some 2,000
priests. The Catholics number about 5,000,000, and
the rest of the population, of 175,000,000, are adherents
of the Russian Orthodox Church.
319. Poland. After the influence of Catherine II
of Russia had placed Stanislaus Augustus on the throne
of Poland (1764), Protestants and Greek schismatics
were for the first time admitted to religious equality
with Catholics. The partitions of Poland (1772, 1793,
1795) gave the purely Polish territories (Galicia and
Warsaw) to Austria and Prussia. The redistribution
made by the Congress of Vienna (1815) left Galicia with
Austria; and gave one part of Warsaw (Posen) to Prus
sia, and another part of it Congress Poland
("
to Rus ")
sia. At present, there are, perhaps, 5,000,000 Poles un

der Austrian rule; 4,000,000 under Prussian rule; and
about 13,000,000 under Russian rule. In all three dis
tricts,the Poles have been harshly treated. The Rus
sian Government especially has tried to destroy both the
Polish language and the Polish attachment to the Catholic
religion. Uniats under Russian rule have been driven
into schism. Over a thousand Uniat priests, under pres
sure, deserted the Uniat for the Orthodox Church in
1839. In 1875 tne Uniat Diocese of Kholm was forced
into the schismatical Church. Church property has been
confiscated and the liberty of the clergy curtailed. The

various insurrections have only made persecution sterner.
After the revolt of 1830, Gregory XVI counseled the
Poles to submit to the Russian Government; but he was
not heeded. Since the proclamation of religious tolera
tion, in 1905, the condition of the Church has been bet
ter than before.
Russian Poland has one archdiocese, Warsaw, with
six suffragan sees.There are nearly 2,500 priests and ;
the Catholics number about 8,000,000, in a total popu

lation of 13,000,000.
XL THE BALKANS
320. General View. With the exception of Monte
negro and some Adriatic towns, the Balkan Peninsula
was a Turkish possession from the fifteenth to the
nineteenth century. The subject races, however, re
tained muchof their national spirit and their religious
traditions; and, when they obtained independence, they
restored the Orthodox religion.
321. European Turkey and Albania. Before the
war of 1912, European Turkey contained nearly 200,000
Catholics, with six bishops and 400 priests. The
Treaty of London, in 1913, distributed among the dif
ferent Balkan nations most of the territory which had
perviously been Turkish. Of the Catholics in this ter

ritory, perhaps 100,000 came under the. rule of the new
Kingdom Albania, which contains a population of
of
1,000,000; and about 50,000 came under the rule of
Servia, Bulgaria and Rumania.
About 50,000 Catholics still remain under Turkish
rule, in the vicariate apostolic of Constantinople.
322. Montenegro. Montenegro entered into a con-
EUROPE 279
cordat with the Holy See in 1886, and established free

dom of worship. The Catholics, who have one bishop
and twenty-four priests, number about 12,000 in a total
population of nearly 300,000. Most of the inhabitants
belong to the Orthodox Church, which is established
by law.
323. Greece, Greek independence was effected in
1820, and since then the Catholic Church has enjoyed
freedom of worship, although the Orthodox Church
is established by law. In 1875, Pius IX erected the
archdiocese of Athens.
There are now nine bishops and 150 priests. The
Catholics number 40,000 in a total population of 5,000,-
ooo, half of whom belong to the Orthodox Church.
324. Servia.The Orthodox Church in Servia was
under the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople and was
ruled usually by Greek bishops after 1766. A con
cordat with the Patriarch of Constantinople gave a meas
ure of freedom in 1832; and full ecclesiastical indepen
dence came with political autonomy, in 1878. The major
ity of the population of 4,500,000 are members of the
Orthodox Church which is established by law.
Before the war of 1912 Catholics numbered about
10,000 and had two priests. The newly acquired ter
ritory includes Uskub, which contains nearly 20,000
Catholics and 20 priests.
325. Rumania.- With the exception of a few Fran
ciscan missions, the Church here was practically de
stroyed during the Turkish rule. Rumania obtained a
autonomy in 1858, and complete
certain degree of political
independence In 1885, the Patriarch of Constan

in 1878.
tinople recognized the independence of the Orthodox

Church established by Rumania. Owing chiefly to im-
migration from Austria, it was found necessary to erect

a Catholic archdiocese at Bucharest in 1883.
Catholics number some 160,000, with 130 priests and
two bishops. The Orthodox are about 6,000,000, in a
total population of 7,500,000.
326. Bulgaria. Bulgaria was subject to Turkey, po

and to the Patriarch of Constantinople, ec
litically,
clesiastically, until the middle of the nineteenth cen
tury. The movement for independence caused a demand
for a native hierarchy; and resistance to Constantinople
developed first a schism, and then (1870) an independent

national church which was established by law. Its mem
bers live side by side with the subjects of the Orthodox
Church of Constantinople, but do not hold communion
with them. During the pontificate of Pius IX, there was
a strong agitation for union with the Church of Rome,
but despite the efforts of the pope, it came to naught. In
1866, the Catholic prince, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, was
invited to occupy the throne of Bulgaria; and for the
sake of promoting friendship with Russia and Turkey,
he made his son, Boris, a member of the Orthodox
Church.
In a total population of some 5,000,000, Bulgaria con
tains about 4,000,000 Orthodox, 1,000,000 Mohamme
dans, and 50,000 Catholics, with one bishop and over
100 priests.
XII. GREAT BRITAIN

327. England. Various causes diminished hostility
to Catholics in England, during the latter part of the
eighteenth century. The spread of free-thought, which
weakened religion, also lessened prejudices connected
with religion; leaders like Edmund Burke, who loved lib-
EUROPE 28l
erty, favored tolerance in every form; the revolutions,

in America and in France, caused the Government to
seek the support of its Catholic subjects, and finally,
thousands of French priests, who took refuge in England
during the Reign of Terror, displayed remarkable char
acter,and established new respect for the Church. The
Catholics, headed by the Duke of Norfolk, presented an
address of loyalty to King George III, in 1778 and, in the
;
same year, the Relief Act provided a new form for the
Oath of Allegiance, removing the part that had been of
fensive to Catholics. This caused an outbreak of bigotry
on the part of Wesley and his followers, and, in 1779,
occurred the anti-Catholic Lord Gordon Riots
" "
but still ;
further concessions were made to Catholics by the Relief

Act of 1791.
The Catholic Committee formed of laymen, in 1783,
was disposed to accept compromises and to become
over-independent of the Church authorities; and the
same tendency was visible in a later Catholic organi
zation, the Select Board of 1788. A plan to win con
cessions by giving the Crown the right to veto the ap
pointment of bishops, was resisted by Bishop Milner and
by the Irish hierarchy; and Rome finally rejected it. As
Milner had predicted, Emancipation came in 1829, with
out the cost of any such concession.
About this time, state interference caused much dis
turbance in the Anglican Church; and the Oxford
Movement (1833), led by Newman, Keble, Pusey, and
Hurrell Froude, advocated a return to Apostolic Chris
tianity. William George Ward, Newman, Manning, and
many other noted persons entered the Catholic Church
about 1845. I*1 J 85O, Pius IX re-established the English
hierarchy, naming Wiseman first archbishop of West-

minster. Wiseman was succeeded, at his death in 1865,

by one of the Oxford converts, Henry Edward Manning,
who became a distinguished champion of the rights of
labor in the closing years of the century.
In 1847, tne Catholics, together with the Wesleyans
and the Jews, began to receive a share in the state
subsidy granted to schools. Agitation by the combined
forces of Catholics and Anglicans produced the Education
Act of 1902, which increased the aid given to religious
schools. At present the state maintains all necessary
elementary schools for which buildings are provided by
the parents. The local authorities regulate the secular
instruction and the appointment of teachers and the par
;
ents, or the pastor representing them, can make provision

for religious instruction.
Catholics, at present, suffer few legal disabilities in
England, although impossible for a priest to
it is still
become a member of Parliament, or for any one who is

not a Protestant to ascend the throne. The Catholic
Truth Society carries on an active propaganda by means
of books, pamphlets and lectures ; and conversions to the
Church are numerous.
England contains 16 bishops, 3,500 priests, and
nearly 2,000,000 Catholics, in a total population of
36,000,000.
328. Ireland. After the middle of the eighteenth
century, the penal laws against Catholics were less
strictly enforced. Step by step, Catholics obtained the
right to hold land (1771), to use a revised form of the
Oath of Allegiance (1778), to open schools with the
consent of the local Protestant bishop (1782), and to be
admitted to the bar and to public offices, excepting mem
bership in Parliament and certain specified high positions
EUROPE 283
(1793). The independent Irish Parliament lasted from

1782 to 1800, without effecting much ;
nor did the United
Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland, in 1801, give
Catholics the freedom they had anticipated. Henry Grat-
tan led a movement to obtain Catholic Emancipation in
return for a recognition of the government s right to veto

the appointment of bishops but the plan was denounced
;
by the Irish hierarchy and by the English bishop, Dr.

Milner (1815).
Emancipation was granted freely, when the election
of DanielO Connell to Parliament forced the Govern
ment to yield in 1829. In 1838, Catholics were ex
empted from the payment of tithes for Protestant
churches. In 1869, Gladstone undertook the further re
lief of Catholics. With their help, he succeeded in dis
establishing the Episcopalian Church in Ireland and laws
;
were passed favorable to Catholic schools.

The educational system of 1831, although it pro
fessed to be impartial, excluded religion from the pub
lic schools. Catholics, who formed five-sixths of the
population, had a representation of two-sevenths on the
board. This was assailed as unfair by Archbishop Mac-
Hale of Tuam (1838) and by Cardinal Cullen, Archbishop
of Dublin (1852). The Act of 1860 gave Catholics a
representation of one-half on the local school boards and
;
in 1879 other concessions were granted. At present, con

ditions in the elementary schools are fairly satisfactory to
Catholics.
In 1793, Trinity College began to admit Catholic
students to its halls, although not on an equal footing
with Protestants. Sir Robert Peel established the

Queen s Colleges of Galway, Cork and Belfast in 1845,
but the Irish bishops condemned them as unsafe for
Catholics (1850). A
Catholic university, with Dr. New
man as rector, founded at Dublin in 1854, did not flourish.
It was handed over and the build
to the Jesuits in 1882,
ings now belong Dublin

to University. Catholic oppor
tunities for taking academic degrees were improved in
1908, when the government founded the National Uni

versity which includes Maynooth College among its af
filiated institutions.In 1908 there were 8,538 national
board schools; and of the 3,057 "managers" of these
schools, 1,307 were Catholic priests. Catholics are still
excluded by law from the office of lord-lieutenant, and
excluded in fact from the higher civil and military posi
tions. The clergy are under certain disabilities, not being
eligible for election to Parliament, or membership in
county councils. Between 1845 an d 1851, death and emi
gration, due to terrible famines, lessened the population
of Ireland by millions, nine-tenths of the immigrants go
ing to America.
At present the country contains some 4,000,000, of
whom nearly three quarters are Catholics. There are
four archbishops, 23 bishops and 1,000 parishes; with
about 3,000 secular, and almost 700 religious priests.
329. Scotland. After the ruin of the Stuarts at the
Battle of Culloden (1746), Catholics, who had been
identifiedwith the lost cause, were cruelly persecuted.
As many emigrated to Canada and, in 1775, not
a result, ;
more than 25,000 Catholics were left in Scotland. Bishop

Hay was unsuccessful in his attempt to have the benefits
of the English Relief Act of 1778 extended to Scotland ;
but a Scottish Relief Act was passed in 1793. After

Catholic Emancipation (1829), the Church grew rapidly.
Great work was done in Glasgow by Bishop Scott (1805-
1845) an d in the Eastern District by Bishop James Gil-
EUROPE 285
lis(1835-1864). The Education Act of 1897 placed the

Catholic schools on a satisfactory basis and the Govern
;
ment grant pays about three quarters of the cost of main

tenance.
Irish immigration has increased the percentage of
Catholics who now number about 500,000, in a total
population of nearly 5,000,000. The hierarchy was re
established by Leo XIII in 1878; and there are at pres
ent, six bishops, with about 600 priests.
330. Gibraltar. When occupied by the British
(1704), Gibraltar lost most of its Spanish population,
but received many new Italian and Maltese settlers.
It was separated from the see of Cadiz and made into a
vicariate apostolic in 1806, and since 1840 the vicar has
always been a titular bishop.
The vicariate contains about sixteen priests; and
Catholics number 1,500 in a total population of 25,000.
331. Malta. Some years after the temporary occu
pation of Malta by Napoleon (1798-1799), a British
protectorate was established (1814). This was done at
the request of the Maltese, who stipulated that their re
ligion should not be disturbed. Since that time the bish
ops have always been natives. A see was erected on the
island of Gozo in 1864.
Malta (including Gozo) has now two bishops and
about 1,000 priests. The population of 200,000 is en
tirely Catholic.
CHAPTER XXIII
OCEANIA, ASIA AND AFRICA

I. OCEANIA
332. Australia. The Commonwealth of Australia,

constituted in 1900, embraces the six original states
of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South
Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania. The
population of 5,000,000 is almost entirely derived from
the British Isles, not more than 100,000 aborigines now
remaining. The large Irish immigration caused the
Church to grow rapidly, so that the three hundred Aus
tralian Catholics at the beginning of the nineteenth cen
tury had become more than a million at its close. After

the enactment of Catholic Emancipation in England
(1829), religious toleration was the law of the land; and
in 1833, Dr. Folding arrived at Sydney, as the first Catho
lic bishop.
Australia now contains 20 bishops with over 1,200
priests, and 1,000,000 Catholic people.
333. New Zealand. The total population of 1,000,-
ooo includes 100,000 Catholics, with 100 priests.
The remainder of Oceania, including British, French,
German and American possessions, contains a population
of over 2,000,000, of whom 200,000 are Catholics, with
500 priests.
286
OCEANIA, ASIA AND AFRICA 287
II. ASIA
334. General View. Asia has a total population

of some 800,000,000. Of these, 300,000,000 are Chinese
Buddhists; and nearly 300,000,000 are Hindu Buddhists
and Brahmins. There are 100,000,000 Mohammedans
(two-thirds in India and one-third in China), and about
100,000,000 members of other pagan religions. Chris
tians of all kinds (Catholics, schismatics and Protestants)
number less than 20,000,000.
Excluding the Philippine Islands, with their 7,000,000
Catholics, Asia contains nearly 6,000,000 Catholics dis
tributed through the different countries.
335. India. Despite the successful beginning of the
Catholic missions political rivalries, together with na
tive hostility, interfered so seriously with religious de
velopment, that there were less than 400,000 Catholics
in the country at the beginning of the nineteenth cen
tury. One of the greatest obstacles was the dispute be
tween the Portuguese clergy, expelled from Bombay by
the British in 1720, and the missionaries who were sent
from Rome to replace them. This conflict of jurisdiction
finally developed into the schism of Goa (1838-1886). It
was settled in 1886, and the hierarchy of India was regu

larly organized. There are now eight ecclesiastical prov
inces, with nearly 3,000 priests, almost half of them na
tive.
The Catholic population is some 2,000,000 in a total

population of 300,000,000. The province of Goa in
cludes about 300,000 Portuguese Catholics and the prov ;
ince of Pondicherry about 25,000 French. Most of the

Catholics are in British India which contains also about
1,000,000 Protestants. Colombo, in Ceylon, is one of the
eight ecclesiastical provinces and contains about 250,000

Catholics.
336. China. The missionary church in China suf

fered a century of persecution after the death of the
Emperor K
hang-hi in 1722. In 1860, freedom for
Catholics was secured by the French protectorate; but
there were many martyrs in the Boxer rebellion of 1900.
China and Indo-China, with a combined population
of some 350,000,000, contain about 2,000,000 Catholics.
There is a bishop at Macao; and at Hong-Kong resides
the superior of the Chinese missions. There are nearly
2,000 foreign, and almost 1,500 native priests. The first
Protestant missionary arrived in China in 1801 and Pro
;
testants of all denominations number now about 200,000.
337. Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. In a population of

40,000,000, there are some 40,000 Catholics, half of
them natives, with 100 foreign, and two native priests.
338. Philippine Islands. In a total population of
perhaps 9,000,000, almost all of Malaysian stock, Catho
lics are reckoned at 7,000,000, with nine dioceses and
nearly 1,500 priests. There are 1,000,000 pagans and

perhaps 300,000 Mohammedans.
339. Japan. The Japanese missions were all de
stroyed in the persecutions of the seventeenth century ;
but, to the wonder of the world, missionaries who en

tered Nagasaki, in 1861, discovered a small group of
Catholics there. They had been entirely cut off from
communication with the rest of Christendom, and yet had
inherited and preserved the faith from generation to gen
eration for two hundred years. A short time after the
reopening ofthe missions, persecution was renewed
(1868-1873), but through the interference of the Eu
ropean governments, toleration was finally established.
OCEANIA, ASIA AND AFRICA 289
An archbishopric was erected at Tokio in 1891, with

suffragan sees at Osaka, Nagasaki and Hakosate.
Japan now contains over 60,000 Catholics and about
100,000 Protestants, in a population of some 50,000,000,
and priests number nearly 200.
340. Korea. The Catholics now number 80,000, in

a population of 14,000,000, with fifteen native and fifty
foreign priests. The Protestants number 200,000. A
vicariate was established in 1831 but persecution broke
;
out in 1839 and again in 1866. Since 1879 the Church

has prospered.
341. Asiatic Turkey. Most of the population of 20,-
000,000 are Mohammedans; Catholics number about
700,000, Protestants about 100,000, and schismatics
nearly 3,000,000. There is a Catholic patriarch at Jeru
salem, an archbishop at Smyrna, and a bishop at Bagdad.
Of the 500 priests, half are in Jerusalem and one-third
in the vicariate of Aleppo. Arabia is totally Moham
medan, except for the 1,500 Catholics in the vicariate of
Aden.
342. Persia. Persia, with a population of nearly
10,000,000, nearly all Mohammedans, contains a few
hundred Latin Catholics, about 20,000 Uniat Catho
licsand 100,000 schismatics; and there are 25 priests,
and a Latin Catholic archbishop at Ispahan.
343. Asiatic Russia. In a total population of some
25,000,000, there are about 14,000,000 Christians, al
most all schismatics; and Catholics number less than
100,000.
III. AFRICA
344. General View. The Catholic missions of Africa

revived about 1840, when the exploration of the in-
terior began. At the same date, Protestant missionaries

entered the Dark Continent for the first time. Bishop
(later Cardinal) Lavigerie, of Algiers, organized the
work of the French missionaries, known as the White
"
Fathers," in the Sahara and Sudan (1867). The Jesuits

resumed their labors along the Zambesi River the Fran
;
ciscans returned toUganda and missions were reopened

;
in Angola and Zanzibar. At present there are about

2,000 foreign and 100 native priests in Africa.
The total population is estimated variously to num
ber from 140,000,000 to 200,000,000. Perhaps three-
fifthsare black. Distributed according to religion, the
population included upwards of 90,000,000 pagans, 40,-
000,000 Mohammedans and 300,000 Jews.
The Christians number less than 5,000,000, including
about 3,000,000 schismatics, 500,000 Protestants and
less than 1,000,000 Catholics.
North Africa, with a population of 70,000,000, has in
the western part, 125,000 Catholics, including 6,000 Eu
ropeans, and in the eastern, 140,000 Catholics, including
4,000 Europeans.
Central Africa, with a population of 56,000,000, has
340,000 Catholics, including 6,000 Europeans.
South Africa, with a population of 12,000,000, has 100,-
ooo Catholics, of whom half are Europeans. Under the
Dutch rule Catholicism was prohibited and, although the
;
English occupied the Cape in 1806, they did not allow a

Catholic vicar apostolic until 1837.
Madagascar s population of over 3,000,000 includes
240,000 Catholics.
CHAPTER XXIV
EASTERN CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
345. General View. TheEastern Christian
churches are
twenty-eight number.
in Besides the
seven Uniat churches in communion with the See of
Rome, there are two great groups of schismatical
churches, namely, the sixteen Orthodox churches, in com
munion with the patriarch of Constantinople, and the
five lesser churches, the Nestorians in Turkey and Per
sia, the Copts in Egypt, the Abyssinians in Ethiopia, the
Jacobites in Syria and Malabar, and the Armenians.

346. The Sixteen Orthodox Churches. The "
Ortho
dox churches once consisted of the four ancient
"
patriarchates, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and

Jerusalem, together with the Church of Cyprus. In
accord with the schismatical principle of ecclesiastical
nationalism, new churches were formed as national inde
pendence was acquired by various races; and there are
now sixteen churches in the Orthodox group. These are
the five churches just named, also the six national
churches of Russia, Montenegro, Greece, Servia, Ru
mania, and Bulgaria, and also the four churches formed
in Austria-Hungary for the convenience of several races
living there, namely, theChurch of Carlo witz for the

Serbs, theChurch of Hermannstadt for the Rumanians,
the Church of Czernowitz for the
"
Little Russians," and

the Church of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Finally there is the
291
independent church of the Monastery of Mt. Sinai. Since

these sixteen churches describe themselves as
"
Ortho
dox," it is usual to classify them by that name.
The Orthodox churches include about 110,000,000
members, of whom 90,000,000 belong to the Russian
Church. More than 5,000,000 belong to the Rumanian
Church, andless than 5,000,000 to the Bulgarian Church.
Montenegro has about 2,000,000, Greece and Servia have

less than 3,000,000 each. The Austro-Hungarian
churches collectively have about 3,000,000.
347. The Five Lesser Churches. This group of
schismatical churches contains less than 10,000,000
members. The Nestorian Church has possibly 100,000
members, chiefly in Turkey and Persia. The other four
(Monophysite) Churches include less than 3,000,000 Ar
menians, 5,000,000 Abyssinians, and 500,000 each of
Copts and Jacobites (Syrians).
348. The Uniats. The seven eastern churches in
communion with the See of Rome, and hence called
Uniat churches are the Greek, Armenian, Coptic,
" "
Abyssinian, and three Syrian churches. Nearly all the

Uniat churches use the same liturgies as the neighbor
ing schismatical churches. The Uniat churches are un
der the jurisdiction of the Propaganda. Together, they
have a membership of about 7,000,000, of whom about
6,000,000 follow the Greek Rite, nearly 1,000,000, the
three Syrian Rites, 100,000, the Armenian Rite, and per
haps 25,000, the Abyssinian and Coptic rites.
349. The Eastern
Rites. The following are the
seven used by the Catholic and schismatical churches
rites
of the Orient:
The Greek, or Byzantine Rite. This rite was de
veloped by the Church of Constantinople in the fourth
EASTERN CHRISTIAN CHURCHES 293
and following centuries; and at first existed only in

the Greek language. It was translated into Slavonic by
Sts. Cyril and Methodius, for the use of the Bulgars, in
the ninth century and from Bulgaria it spread into Servia
;
and Russia. It was translated into Arabic for use in

Syria, Palestine, and Egypt; and into Rumanian for the
natives of Rumania.
It is now used by 110,000,000 Orthodox in Russia, Ru
mania, Bulgaria, Greece and Servia and by 30,000 Ortho
;
dox in America. It is also used by some 6,000,000 Uni-

ats, and celebrated in four different languages,
is in
Greek, by 50,000 Italo-Greeks of southern Italy and 1,000

Greeks of Constantinople; in Slavonic, by 10,000 Bul
garians and Servians, and 4,000,000 Ruthenians (includ
ing 500,000 in America) in Rumanian, by 1,300,000 Ru
;
manians of Hungary; and in Arabic, by 170,000 natives

of Syria, Palestine and Egypt.
The Armenian Rite. The Armenian rite is cele
brated only in the Armenian language and is used only
by Armenians. The Armenians, who were Eutychians
(i.e., extreme anti-Nestorians), became schismatics in
A. D. 415. They returned to the Church in the fourteenth
century, but soon seceded again, and formed a national
church independent of both Constantinople and Rome.
Some 100,000 are now united with Rome but the rest of ;
the population of Armenia are all schismatics, except some

50,000 who are Protestants. The 100,000 Catholics are
descendants of a section of the nation converted in the
seventeenth century. The Armenian schismatics call
themselves Gregorians. In the United States there are

about 20,000 Gregorians and about 2,500 Catholic Ar
menians.
The Three Syriac Rites. These rites are celebrated
in theAramaic, or Syriac, language and are used by the

Syrians, the Chaldeans and the Maronites.
1. The Syrian Catholics are from western Mesopotamia
and the Syrian plains. Syrian Catholics number perhaps

25,000, and Syrian schismatics, or Jacobites, 80,000.
There are less than a hundred of each group in the United
States. The Syrian rite is used also by 450,000 Syrian
Catholics and by nearly an equal number of schismatics
on the Malabar coast of southwestern India.
2. The Syro-Chaldeans are Eastern Syrians, belong
ing to the borderland of Persia. The Catholics number

about 50,000 and the schismatics, who are Nestorians,
number 140,000. There are about 100 Chaldean Catho
lics, in the United States.
3. All Maronites are in union with Rome. They are
of the Syrian race. They number about 330,000 and are
distributed through Syria, Palestine, Cyprus and Egypt.
Over 100,000 live in the United States.
The Coptic Rite. The Coptic rite is used in Egypt
by 600,000 schismatics and 20,000 Catholics. The litur
gical language a dialect of the ancient Coptic.

is A very
few Copts reside in the United States.
The Abyssinian Rite. Ethiopia contains about
3,000 Catholic Abyssinians who use the Roman liturgy
translated into their own language. There are 200,-
ooo Mohammedans and 100,000 pagans in the country;
and nearly all the rest of the population of 3,000,000 be
longs to the schismatical Church of Abyssinia.
CHAPTER XXV
SPANISH AND BRITISH AMERICA
I. SOUTH AMERICA
350. The Revolutionary Movement. Napo When

leon, in 1808, forced Ferdinand VII to abdicate the
Spanish throne, there began in Spain s American colo
nies a revolutionary movement which converted them
all into independent republics within a few years. The
entire population of the country was, at least nominally,
Catholic; and the new states established Catholicity as
the official religion. Many of the new governments,
however, soon fell under the control of Freemasons who
violated the rights of the Church and not infrequently
inaugurated active persecutions.
351. Religion. The population of South America is
about 50,000,000. With

the exception of perhaps 6,000,-
ooo, all are classed as Catholics; and there are 10,000
priests. The following table contains approximate re
ligious statistics for the different countries.
Countries Population Non-Catholics Dioceses Priests

Brazil 23,000,000 2,000,000 37 3,400
Colombia 5,000,000 1,500,000 15 1,150
Venezuela 2,700,000 500,000 6 400
Guiana 425,000 350,000 o 100
Ecuador 1,270,000 70,000 7 550
Peru 4,500,000 400,000 10 1,100
Bolivia 2,200,000 500,000 4 640
Uruguay 1,200,000 400,000 3 175
Argentine 7,100,000 100,000 n 1,500
Chile 3,500,000 100,000 4 1,500
Paraguay 800,000 100,000 I 80
295
352. Brazil. The Portuguese colony of Brazil be

came a kingdom and an empire in 1822, under
in 1815,
Dom Pedro, son of the Portuguese king. The Church
was established by law but during the reign of Pedro II
;
(1840-1889), the government was controlled by Free

masons, and the Church suffered many hardships. The
republic, established in 1889, decreed the separation of
Church and state ; and under the new regime, the Catholic
religion has prospered greatly.
353. Colombia. Colombian independence was at
tained in 1819. The present dates from
constitution
1886. The Church is established by law; and the eccles
iastical authorities enjoy practical freedom. The pub
lic school system is based upon Catholic principles.
354. Venezuela. Independence was attained in
1819. Since the first days of the Republic, disputes be
tween the civil and ecclesiastical authorities have been
frequent. In 1876, President Guzman Blanco commenced
a religious persecution and tried to form a national schis-
matical church. In recent years the situation of the
Church has become more satisfactory. The Catholic
schools are subsidized by the government. Non-Catholic
refrain
religions are tolerated on the condition that they
from propaganda.
355. Guiana.This region includes a British, a
Dutch and a French colony, each of which contains
some 20,000 Catholics. There are two vicariates, and
one prefecture apostolic. In Dutch and in French
Guiana, the Catholics and non-Catholics are about equal in
number. In British Guiana, the Catholics are about one-
fifth of the population.
356. Ecuador. Independence was attained in 1823.

During the earlier years, the government of the republic
SPANISH AND BRITISH AMERICA 297
was controlled by men who showed strong hostility to

the Church. President Garcia Moreno (1861-1875), an
ardent promoter of the Catholic religion, effected a con
cordat with the Holy See, and shortly after the occupa
tion ofRome by the Italians in 1871, induced the Gov
ernment to vote one-tenth of the state income to the
pope. Moreno s assassination (1875) was followed by
a period of religious persecution, which has been re
newed more than once since then. The present constitu
tion dates from 1897. Civil marriage was made obliga
tory in 1904. Catholicism is established by law ; and other

religions are not tolerated.
357. Peru. Independence was attained in 1824.
The Catholic Church is established by law; and no other
religion obtains official recognition. In virtue of a con
cession made by Pius IX, the president has a certain
voice in ecclesiastical appointments. Recently, the Liber
als have stirred up considerable agitation against religious
orders.
358. Bolivia. Independence was attained in 1825.
Bolivia prohibits the exercise of any but the Catholic re
ligion, except in the colonies. The state does not recog
nize divorce, and refers to an ecclesiastical tribunal all
disputes between married persons. For a while religious
orders suffered persecution but lately they have been left
;
in peace.
359. Uruguay. Independence was attained in 1828.

The Church is established as the state religion ;
the spirit
of the government has been unsympathetic, or hostile, in
many respects, and religious orders have been persecuted.
Civil marriage was made obligatory in 1885.
360. Argentine. Independence was attained in 1816.
The Church suffered severely in the earlier years of the
republic; but the Constitution of 1853 introduced bet

ter conditions. The Church is established; and only
Catholics are eligible to the offices of president, and vice-
president. When a bishop is to be appointed, the senate
makes a list of three names, from which the pope chooses
one. Religious instruction is given daily, in the public
schools, to those pupils who voluntarily remain after the
regular session. Civil marriage has been obligatory since
1888.
361. Chile. Independence was attained in 1818.
The Church, which established by law, suffered con
is
siderably at the hands of the revolutionary party for

many years. In 1883, there was a serious breach be
tween the government and the Holy See, with regard
to the appointment of bishops. The dispute was settled
in 1888. Civil marriage became obligatory in 1884. Pat
agonia, the home of the Araucanian Indians, contains
about 75 Salesian missionaries.
362. Paraguay. Independence was attained in 1811.
The present constitution dates from 1870. The Church
is established. In 1898, civil marriage was made obliga
tory, but the law became inoperative through the influ
ence of the clergy. The chief Catholic prelate of Para
guay is required by law to be a native. In 1909 the gov
ernment decided upon the conversion of the Indians and
now subsidizes both Catholic and Episcopalian missions.
II. CENTRAL AMERICA

363. General View. When Central America was
subdued by Cortes in 1525, a Spanish colony, or cap
taincy,was formed, including the five divisions of
Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa
Rica. These five states formed a union with the Mexican
SPANISH AND BRITISH AMERICA 2Q9
Empire, established by Iturbide in 1822; but separated

from it in the following year and constituted themselves
into the Republic of Central America. The new govern
ment was in the hands of the Federal, or Liberal party,
which was strongest in Honduras. The union was op
posed by the Conservative party which included the clergy
and was strongest in Guatemala. The federation was
dissolved by the victory of the Conservatives in 1839; but
the struggle between these two factions has continued
down to the present day; and there have been repeated
attempts to establish a federation of the Central American
States. Costa Rica, for the most part, has stood apart
from these contests. In 1850 an effort made by Hon
duras, Salvador and Nicaragua to restore the federation
was put down by Guatemala. Barrios, President of Gua
temala, died in the attempt to force a federation in 1815.
Indians and half-caste whites form the greater part
of the 5,000,000 inhabitants of Central America, and
all but a meagre two per cent, are classed as Catholics.
Religious orders are prohibited in all the five states.

There is a metropolitan see in Guatemala, with four
suffragan sees in the other statesc. British Honduras
is a separate vicariate; and Panama has a see suffragan
to Bogota in Colombia. The following table gives a gen
eral view of the official religious status of the people of
Central America:
States Population Non-Catholics Priests
Guatemala 2,000,000 10,000 120
Honduras 600,000 100
Salvador 1,200,000 100,000 150
Nicaragua 600,000 5,ooo 90
Costa Rica 230,000 5,000 120
Panama 425,000 60
364. Guatemala. The Liberals who effected the fed-

eration of Central America (1822-1839), subjected the

Church to considerable persecution. The Catholic re
ligion was established by law in 1853, and a concordat was
then arranged with the Holy See ; but its provisions were
grossly violated, especially by President Barrios, who sup
pressed the religious orders in 1873.
365. Honduras. Here too, the Church was perse
cuted by the Liberal Party. A concordat was effected
in 1861, and Catholicism was established as the state re
ligion. In 1894 religious orders were prohibited by law ;
but the prohibition is not strictly enforced.

366. Salvador. The concordat with the Holy See
dates from 1862. The Church is established by law.
Religious orders are nominally prohibited.
367. Nicaragua. A
concordat was effected in 1862.
The Church is established by law. Religious orders were
prohibited in 1893.
368. Costa Rica. A
concordat was arranged in 1853.
The Church was established in 1870. In various ways
the government has manifested hostility towards the
Catholic religion. Missions are forbidden by law; and
religious orders not engaged in external works of charity
are illegal.
Panama. Panama, which seceded from Colombia in
1903, in the following year, adopted a constitution pro

viding for the toleration of all religions.
III. THE WEST INDIES
369. General View. Catholics amount to more than

two-thirds of the 7,000,000 people of various races,
who inhabit the different states and colonies of the West
Indies. There are 15 bishops and more than 1,000 priests.
The table presents a general view.
SPANISH AND BRITISH AMERICA 3 O1
States Population Non-Catholics Dioceses Priests

Cuba 2,000,000 100,000 4 400
Haiti 2,000,000 15,000 5 220
Santo Domingo . . . 600,000 5,000 I 80
Colonies
Porto Rico 1,000,000 5,ooo i 125
British Lesser An
tilles 350,000 100,000 2 125
Jamaica 800,000 775,ooo . .
25
Bahamas 50,000 49,600 . . 2
French West Indies 450,000 50,000 2 100
Dutch West Indies 50,000 10,000 . .
35
370. Cuba. Nearly sixty per cent, of the inhabitants

are of Spanish descent, and most of these are Catholics.
The constitution adopted in 1901 made all religions
equally free. The temporary administration of Cuban
affairsby the United States secured payment to the
Church of a compensation for the ecclesiastical property
seized years before.
many
371. Haiti and Santo Domingo. The greater part of
the inhabitants especially in Haiti, are negroes, and
nearly all are Catholics. Independent since the begin-
ing of the nineteenth century, the island has been di
vided into the two republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo
since 1864. In both states, the Catholic Church is es
tablished.
372. Colonial Possessions. American. The United

States territory of Porto Rico is almost entirely Catho
lic; and the see is suffragan to Santo Domingo. The
Bahama Islands are politically British, but ecclesiastically
under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of New York.
British. Less than 20 per cent, of the people are
Catholics. In Trinidad, there is an archbishop at Port
of Spain, with a suffragan at Roseau. Including British
Guiana and British Honduras, the British colonies have

a population of 2,000,000, of whom 300,000 are Catholics.
French. Nearly all the people are Catholics. The
two sees of Guadeloupe and St. Pierre are attached to
the Metropolitan See of Bordeaux in France. The
French colonies, including French Guiana, contain a
Catholic population of 400,000 in a total of 430,000
Dutch. The two vicariates of Curagao and Suri
nam contain 75,000 Catholics in a total population of
150,000.
IV. MEXICO
373.The Republican Movement. The revolution
began in Mexico at the same date as in the rest of
Spanish America, that is to say, when Napoleon made
Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain (1808). The first in
surgents were led by a priest, Hidalgo (1810), and his
successor in the leadership was another priest, Morelos
(1811). The revolutionists at first planned to make
Mexico a constitutional monarchy, under the rule of Fer
dinand VII, the dethroned king of Spain; but the plan
failed. In 1822, Mexico became an independent empire
for a few months, under Iturbide; and in 1824, the re
public was proclaimed.
374. The Religious Situation. The Constitution of
the Republic of Mexico established Catholicism as the
state religion. As time went on, the interests of the
Church became more and more identified with those of
the Centralist Party, which had organized the government,
and more and more diverse from those of the opposite
party, the Federalists. When the government concluded
a concordat with the Holy See in 1831, there was consid
erable agitation. Finally the Freemasons, aided largely
by Joel Poinsett, the first diplomatic representative of
the United States at Mexico City, gained complete con

trol, and passed anti-clerical laws.
Santa-Anna, a strong anti-clerical, dominated the

country from 1829 to 1845, and did much to demoralize
the nation. Juarez, the remarkable Indian, who in vari
ous capacities exercised control over Mexico from 1857
to 1872, was also actively opposed to the Catholic religion,
and atone time even attempted the formation of a na
tional schismatical church. The short-lived empire of
Maximilian (1864-1867) was supported by the Catholic
party but they gained little from the emperor, who tried
;
to mollify the Liberals by his attitude on religion. After

the fall of Maximilian, the Church was again subjected
to active persecution. In 1874, Catholicism ceased to be
the state religion.
The constitution proclaimed in 1857, the same which
is now in force, prohibited religious institutions from
acquiring or
administering property. In 1859, all
church property was confiscated by the state ; and all re
ligious orders of men were suppressed. In 1863 all re

ligious orders of women were suppressed. In 1873 a ^ re ~
church build
ligious rites or demonstrations, outside of
ings, were prohibited by law.
375. Modern Mexico. With the disestablishment

of the Church in 1874, a better era began. During the
long rule of Diaz (1877-1910), the economic develop
ment of the country was paralleled by its ecclesiastical
prosperity. In 1905 diplomatic intercourse with the Holy

See was resumed. Various laws oppressing the Church
and the religious orders were ignored.
After the forced resignation of Diaz in 1911, Madero
ruled for a short period and was then deposed. His suc
cessor,Huerta, resigned in July, 1914, and within a
month, the office of president devolved upon Carranza,
"
First Chief of the Constitutionalist Army." The out

rages committed by the Constitutionalists against the
clergy and the religious orders of Mexico are beyond
description.
The population of Mexico is about 15,000,000, and
nearly all are classified as Catholics. There are 30 sees,
including the eight archbishoprics of Oaxaca, Durango,
Guadalajara, Linares (at Monterey), Michoacan, Mexico,
Puebla, Yucatan. In 1910, the country contained about
3,300 diocesan priests, and about 500 priests of religious
orders.
V. BRITISH AMERICA
376. Catholic Canada. The Dominion of Canada,

embracing all of British America, except Newfound
land, has almost 3,000,000 Catholics in a total popu
lation of 8,000,000. There are 32 dioceses, containing
3,400 priests. The following table gives a general view of
the distribution of the Catholics in Canada:
Provinces Population Catholics

Quebec 2,000,000 1,700,000
Ontario 2,500,000 500,000
Nova Scotia 500,000 150,000
New Brunswick 250,000 150,000
Manitoba 500,000 75,ooo
British Columbia 400,000 60,000
Alberta 375,ooo 60,000
Saskatchewan 500,000 90,000
Prince Edward s Island 100,000 45,ooo
Territories 25,000 7,000
The following list of dates indicates the stages in the

development of the Canadian hierarchy :
Quebec (Que.) became a see in 1674 and a province in 1844

" " "
Kingston (Ont.) 1826 1889

SPANISH AND BRITISH AMERICA
Montreal (Que.) became a see in 1836 and a province in 1886
Toronto (Ont.) "
1841 1870
Halifax (N. S.) "
1842 1852
Ottawa (Ont.) 1847 1886
Boniface (Man.)
" "
St. 1847 1871

Edmonton (Alb.)
"
"
1871 1912
Vancouver (B. C.) " "
1890 1908
377. Growth of the Church. By the Treaty of 1763,

the British Government acquired Canada, with a popu
lation of 70,000 French Catholics, settled mainly in the
vicinity of Quebec. The treaty expressly stipulated

the maintenance of religious freedom; but the agree
ment was continually violated by the British Govern
ment, which discriminated against Catholics, suppressed
religious orders, and confiscated church property. Dur
ing the American Revolution, however, the loyalty of
the French Catholics to the British Crown lessened the
prejudice of the government; and the Constitution Act
of 1791 guaranteed the civil and religious rights of the
French Catholics of Canada.
Early in the nineteenth century, Irish and Scotch Catho
licsbegan to settle in Upper Canada. By the year 1820,
they numbered 20,000 and had a priest at Toronto and an
other at Glengary. Strong race jealousy existed between
the Irish and the French Catholics and not until the year
;
1833 could the Irish obtain ecclesiastical permission to

erect a church in Montreal.
In 1840 the union of Upper and Lower Canada was
effected, largely for the purpose of making Catholic
Quebec subject to the control of Protestant Ontario.
As it happened, however, the union really secured religious
freedom for all. This fact, combined with the rapid in
crease of the French Canadians, and the continued influx
of Catholic immigrants, especially after the Irish famine

of 1847, made tne growth of the Church steady and
strong. By were nearly 1,000,000 Catholics
1861, there
in Canada. In Ontario, they increased from 75,000 to
250,000 within twenty years (1841-1861).
378. Races. Quebec, Ottawa, and Montreal are still
occupied mainly by French Catholics. The Irish and
Scotch are most numerous in the provinces of Nova
Scotia and Ontario. About 200,000 Ruthenian Greek
Catholics settled in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Al
berta, have 23 priests, with a bishop who resides at Win
nipeg. Besides the 3,000 Indians of Alaska and Labra
dor, there are about 75,000 Indians in Canada, of whom
some 15,000 are Catholics and the
; priests laboring among
them number seventy-five.
379. Religious Disputes. Educational differences
have occasioned various disputes between the Catholic
and the Protestant Canadians. The rights of denomi
national schools were provided for in the Federal Consti
tution of 1867; and when, in 1871, the Province of New
Brunswick abolished these rights, the bishops of the
province promptly counseled their people to refuse to pay
the school-tax. The serious situation which arose forced
the government to arrange a compromise in 1874, so that
the Catholic children might be grouped in separate schools
and instructed by Catholic teachers.
The Protestant majority in Manitoba attempted in
1890 to deprive Catholic schools of the rights guaran
teed under the Act of Union of 1870. An appeal to the
Canadian Parliament and a hotly contested election ( 1896)
resulted in a compromise which assured religious instruc
tion to Catholic children, when demanded by a sufficient
percentage of parents. This arrangement is satisfac

tory to the Catholics in certain sections, but not in oth
ers.
The Northwestern Provinces were constituted in
1905. An attempt was then made to abolish the old law of

1875 which limited the school tax of Catholics to the sup
port of schools in which pupils and teachers
were Catholics.
The attempt failed and in Alberta and Saskatchewan, the
Catholic schools retain their ancient rights.
In Quebec, both Catholics and Anglicans control their
own schools; and, in each of the different districts, the
majority respects the claims of the minority.
In Ontario, Catholics enjoy the privilege of establish
ing separate schools, and of being exempt from
further
school taxation.
In Nova Scotia, the public schools are all undenomina
tional; but usage allows the appointment of a Catholic
staff to the schools where Catholics predominate.
In British Columbia, the schools are undenominational.
380. Newfoundland. When ceded to England, in
1763, Newfoundland contained about 5,000 Catholics,
mostly Irish. They were subject to the same persecu
tion as their brethren in other parts of the British do
minions, until 1784. The Franciscan missionary, James
O Donnell, who arrived in 1784, was made bishop in 1796.
St. John s became a see in 1847, and a province, with
two suffragan sees, in 1904.

In a total population of some 250,000, the Catholics
number about 80,000; and there are 64 priests. The
denominational school system is established by law, and
the government allows a certain sum for each child edu
cated.
CHAPTER XXVI
THE UNITED STATES
I. GROWTH OF THE CHURCH
381. From the Erection of the First See to the First

Provincial Council (1789-1829). Baltimore, the see
that possesses primacy of honor in the hierarchy of
the United States, was erected in 1789, six years after
the close of the American Revolution. In 1808 were
erected the four sees of New York, Boston, Philadelphia,
and Bardstown An idea of the rapid
(later Louisville).
growth of the Church may be gathered from the dates
of erection, and of elevation to metropolitan rank, of the
present fourteen archiepiscopal sees of the United States :
Baltimore became a see in 1789, an archdiocese in 1808

New Orleans 1 "
1793 1850
New York 1808 1850
Boston
"
1808
"
Philadelphia 1808 i875

"
Cincinatti 1821 1851

St. Louis 1826 1847
Chicago 1843 1880
Dubuque 1837 1893
Milwaukee 1843 1875
"
Oregon City 1846 1850

St. Paul 1850 1888
Santa Fe 1850 1875
San Francisco 2 "
1853 1853
1 NewOrleans was included in the Louisiana Purchase and
thus became part of the United States, in 1803.
1853 San Francisco was part of the Diocese of
2 Previous to
Both Californias, erected in 1840.
309
3IO A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
ct KTWAI oo. co. rr. LOUIS, no.
MAP XI. SEES IN THE UNITED STATES (i)

THE UNITED STATES 3 11
In 1790, when John Carroll, the first bishop in the

United States, took possession of the See of Baltimore,
his diocese comprised all the present territory of the
United States, east of the Mississippi, except Florida,
part of Louisiana and a section near Detroit. The
numbered upwards of 30,000, more than half of
Catholics
them Maryland, and one-quarter in Pennsylvania.
in
They were ministered to by about twenty-five priests.

The development of the United States during
political
the quarter of the nineteenth century was marked by
first
the admission to the Union of the States of Ohio (1802),

Louisiana (1812), Indiana (1816), and Missouri (1821) ;
by the exploration of Oregon (1805) ;

and by the pur
chase of Florida (1812). The total population grew to
thirteen millions.
The First Provincial Council of Baltimore was held
in 1829. By that time the Catholics had increased to
360,000; and Baltimore, an archdiocese since 1808, pos
sessed six suffragan sees, Boston, New York, Philadel
phia, Bardstown (later Louisville), Charleston and Cin
cinnati. Dependent immediately upon Rome were
the
two dioceses of New Orleans and St. Louis, and the
vicariate of Alabama and Florida. During these early
years, Bishops Carroll, Cheverus, Flaget and England
were among the great religious pioneers. Father Gallit-
zin, a Russian prince, did splendid missionary work in
Pennsylvania, where he founded the town of Loretto in

1799.
382. From the First Provincial to the First Plenary
Council (1829-1852). In the second decade of the
nineteenth century, the tide of colonization began to
flow strongly westward. Missouri became a state in
1821. The war with Mexico greatly expanded territory;
Texas was admitted to the Union in 1845, New Mexico

in 1846, and Arizona in 1853. European immigration
very largely Catholic became enormous.
The Catholic population numbered about two mil
lions, at the time of the First Plenary Council (1852).
There were then over thirty sees including the six arch
dioceses of Baltimore, New Orleans, New York, Cin
cinnati, St. Louis,and Oregon City. Conspicuous among
the leaders of the Church were Archbishop Francis Pat
rick Kenrick, and Bishops Loras and Rosati. Promi
nent among the missionaries was Father Peter De Smet,
Rocky Mountains," who served
"
S.J., the Apostle of the

the Indians of the Middle West from 1821 to 1871.
383. From the First to the Third Plenary Council
(1852-1884). Religious persecutions, political dis
turbances, and especially the Irish famines, impelled
immense numbers of Irish and Germans to emigrate
toAmerica about the middle of the century. When the
Second Plenary Council met in 1866, under Archbishop
Spalding, Catholics numbered some four millions.
They had become eight millions in 1884, when the
Third Plenary Council assembled under the presidency
of Archbishop (later Cardinal) Gibbons. The spread
of the faith naturally followed the lines of the national
expansion, phases of which may be seen in the purchase
of Alaska (1867), and in the rapid colonization of Okla
homa, North and South Dakota, Montana, Washington,
Idaho and Wyoming, all of which became states of the
Union in 1889 and 1890. Notable churchmen were Arch
bishops Hughes, Spalding, McCloskey and Purcell, and
Bishops Cretin, Neumann and Baraga. A convert,
Father Hecker, founded the Paulist Community in 1858;
and another convert, the controversialist, Orestes A.
THE UNITED STATES 313
314 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC* CHURCH
Brownson, won praise for his writings from the Council

of Baltimore in 1852, and from Pius IX in 1854.
Council (1884-1914).
384. Since the Third Plenary
The closing years of the nineteenth century and the
have seen the Church
opening years of the twentieth,
continue her steady progress. Catholics in the Conti
nental United States, according to some calculations,
3
number 17,000,000; and even those enumerations which

exclude young children, place the Catholic population at
over 13,000,000. In the fourteen ecclesiastical prov
of whom
inces, there are 100 sees, with 19,000 priests,
communities. The Ameri
5,000 are members of religious
can Federation of Catholic Societies, organized to op
and policies, has
pose immoral, or intolerant, legislation
above four million members. The Holy Name So
counts a mem
ciety, composed of regular communicants,
bership approaching a million. In the 5,500 parochial
schools, there are nearly 1,500,000 children.
The missionary activity of the Church in the United
States has assumed remarkable proportions. Among
the larger congregations of priests engaged in missionary
Alaska, which became a territory of the United States

8 in
was part of the Diocese of Vancouver until 1894, when it

1867,
became a prefecture apostolic. The population of 70,000, includes
7,000 Catholic whites and 4,000 Catholic natives. The missions
are in thecharge of 20 Jesuit Fathers.
In the year 1899, the American occupation of the Philippines
added 7,000,000 Catholics to the 15,000,000 already under the
hierarchy of the United States.
Porto Rico contains 1,000,000 Catholics, with a bishop and 125
with a bishop and 40
priests; Hawaii about 40,000 Catholics,
priests; Guam about 14,000 Catholics,
with a bishop and 6
priests; Samoa 1,000 Catholics with 4 priests; and the Canal
Zone about 1,000 Catholics, with 4 priests.
THE UNITED STATES 3J5
and educational work are the Benedictines (numbering

about 700), Dominicans (250), Franciscans (600), Jesu
its (1,100), Redemptorists (400), and Vincentians (250).
Among the smaller congregations are the Augustinians
(100), Carmelites (35), Holy Cross Fathers (125), Holy

Ghost Fathers (80), Josephites (60), Oblates (125),
Marists (125), Passionists (125), Paulists (65), Precious
Blood Fathers (125), and Premonstratensians (25).
For work among the colored races, there has been or
ganized a Catholic Board for Mission Work, and a Bu
reau of Catholic Indian Missions. The Church Exten
sion Society, founded in 1905, helps to erect churches and
support priests in poor districts, and the Catholic Mission

ary Union directs a propaganda of the Catholic faith
among non-Catholics. Many converts are brought into
the Church each year; and a calculation, made in 1906,
placed the number for that year as high as 25,000. A
system of missions to non-Catholics," was organized by
"
Father Hecker, founder of the Paulists, and this work is
now carried on, not only by the various preaching or

ders, but also by missionary bands of diocesan priests
in a number of dioceses. The Apostolic Mission
House at Washington, D. C., prepares priests for this
work.
The growth of interest in foreign missions is note
worthy. There is now a training school at Ossining, N.
Y., besides those at Techny, 111., and Girard, Pa., to pre

pare priests for the foreign missions. In contributing
money to the Society for the Propagation of the Faith,
the New York Centre has led all the other centres in the
world for the past six years.
On the other hand, of course, losses have been suf
fered by the Catholic Church in the United States dur
ing the nineteenth century. For a period they were
very considerable, owing to the scarcity of priests in newly

settled districts, the lack of Catholic organizations among
non-English speaking immigrants, the scattering of Cath

olic orphans among Protestant guardians, the absence of
Catholic education, and the social persecution directed to
ward poor or illiterate Catholics. But, considering the
dangers encountered, the Church has really suffered very
and the writers who have magnified the leakage
" "
little ;
to startling proportions, are not justified by facts.
II. THE HIERARCHY

385. DistinguishedBishops. The American hier
archy included a number of illustrious men during the
nineteenth century. The fourteen named below may be
regarded as the most prominent in the period 1789-1884.
The dates indicate the length of their rule as bishops.
Archbishop John Carroll (1789-1815), Bishop Louis de
Cheverus (1808-1836), Bishop Benedict Joseph Flaget
(1810-1850), Bishop John England (1820-1842), Bishop
Joseph Rosati (1827-1843), Bishop Pierre Loras (1837-
1858), Bishop Joseph Cretin (1851-1857), Bishop Fred
ericBaraga (1853-1868), Bishop John Neumann (1852-
1860), Archbishop Francis P. Kenrick (1830-1863),
Archbishop John Hughes (1838-1864), Archbishop John
B. Purcell (1833-1883), Archbishop Martin J. Spalding
(1850-1872), John Cardinal McCloskey (1844-1885).
386. Archbishop John Carroll (1735-1815). John
Carroll, born in Maryland, was a Jesuit until the society
was suppressed in 1773. In 1776, he went with Franklin,
Chase and Charles Carroll to Canada, in a vain*attempt to
win back the Canadian sympathy alienated by the pro
test of John Jay and other bigots against the Quebec Act
which gave justice to the Catholics of Canada. Imme-
diately after the close of the American Revolution, Father

Carroll was appointed Superior of the Catholic clergy
in the United States; and in 1789, he was conse
crated bishop of Baltimore, the first see erected in this
country. In 1798 he won an important lawsuit in a
Pennsylvania court, receiving a verdict to the effect that
without the authority of the Bishop of Baltimore, no
"
Catholic priest can exercise any pastoral function over any

*
congregation within the United States." In 1808, he
became archbishop of Baltimore, with suffragan sees at
New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Bardstown (later
Louisville). Both his patriotism and his exceptional
ability were universally recognized; and by unanimous
resolution Congress invited him to pronounce the pane
gyric on Washington, on February 22d, 1800. In 1802,

he officiated at the famous marriage of Jerome Bonaparte
to Miss Paterson, which later occasioned such difficulty
between Napoleon and Pius VII.
387. Bishop Louis de Cheverus (1768-1836). Louis
de Cheverus, born in France, was appointed bishop of the
new see of Boston in 1808. For the preceding twenty-
seven years he had done heroic missionary work as priest
and bishop throughout New England. He was often con
sulted by the Legislature of Massachusetts, and was so
esteemed by his Protestant fellow-citizens that they pro
tested against his retirement in 1823.A famous preacher
and controversialist, he received and accepted many in
vitations to explain Catholic doctrine, and for this purpose
made use even of Protestant churches. Speaking of the
bishop, William Ellery Channing said,
"
How can we shut

our hearts against this proof of the Catholic religion to
form good and great men ?
"
4 This is known as the Fromm Case.

388. Bishop Benedict Joseph Flaget (176^-1850).

Benedict Joseph Flaget, born in France, became the first
bishop of Bardstown, Kentucky, in 1810. He did zeal
ous missionary work among the Indians and the pioneers
in the immense territory under his jurisdiction. One of
his diocesan visitations was a voyage of over two thou
sand miles.
389. Bishop John England (1786-1842). John Eng
land, born in Ireland, was made the first bishop of
Charleston in 1820. Before coming to America, he had
been allied with Daniel O Connell in working for Catholic
Emancipation. As bishop, despite the opposition of his
trustees, he obtained a diocesan charter for Charleston
from the South Carolina Legislature. In 1822, he es
tablished the first Catholic newspaper. He was noted
for his patriotism and, in 1826, he was invited to make
an address before Congress. In preaching and contro
versy, he was particularly effective. Chancellor Kent
said of Bishop England that he had revived classical
learning in South Carolina.

390. Bishop Joseph Rosati (1789-1843). Joseph
Rosati, born in Italy, became the first bishop of St. Louis
in 1827. In the organizing of his diocese and in per
sonal apostolic labor, he achieved remarkable success.
It is recorded that in one year his converts numbered close
to three hundred.
391. Bishop Pierre Jean Mathias Loras (1792-1858).

Pierre Loras, born in France, became the first bishop
of Dubuque in 1837, with a diocesan force of one priest.
He promoted Catholic immigration, organized settlements
and parishes, gained control of considerable land, and
acted as leader of the Catholic settlers, Irish, German,
and French. His efforts wrought great and permanent
benefits for the material and spiritual prosperity of Iowa.

392. Bishop Joseph (1799-1857). Cretin
Joseph
Cretin, born in France,was appointed the first bishop of
St. Paul in 1851. He was very successful in promoting
Catholic immigration, and in organizing parishes and
schools. Within a period of six years, his flock grew
from one thousand to sixty thousand.
Bishop Frederic Baraga (1797-1868).
393. Frederic
Baraga, born in Austria, was appointed the first bishop
of Marquette in 1853, after he had labored for twenty-
two years as a missionary among the Indians of Michi
gan. He was the author of the first Chippewa grammar,
and of the best Chippewa dictionary and his writings still ;
rank among the best authorities on the languages of the

American Indians.
394. Bishop John Nepomucene Neumann (1811-
1860). John Neumann, born in Bohemia, became the
fourth bishop of Philadelphia in 1852. One of his notable
achievements was that he learned Gaelic in order to be
able to hear the confessions of the Irish members of his
flock. An educator, and
of great ability, he
linguist
was famous also for his missionary zeal and for rare
sanctity of life.
395. Archbishop Francis Patrick Kenrick (1796-

1863). Francis Patrick Kenrick, born in Ireland, was
made bishop of Philadelphia in 1830. He at once put
down- trusteeism
"
at St. Mary s by proclaiming an

"
interdict on the church. 5 His fellow-citizens honored

5 The
trustee system (with laymen placed in chief control of
church property) existed from an early period in the United
States. It occasioned grave scandals, for the trustees often at
tempted to appoint a pastor against the will of the bishop. The

most serious trouble was the Hogan Schism in St. Mary s parish,
Philadelphia, which ultimately caused the retirement of Bishop
him for his zeal during the cholera plague, and for the tact
he displayed during the troublesome days of the Native
American Riots, when forty persons were killed in Phila
His scholarship and his eloquence were of an
delphia.
exceptionallyhigh order. He became
Archbishop of
Baltimore in 1851 and, a year afterwards, presided
over the First Plenary Council held in the United
States.
Archbishop John Hughes (1797-1864).
396. John
born in Ireland was consecrated bishop in 1838,
Hughes,
and became the first archbishop of New York in 1850.
When Philadelphia, in 1832, he de
pastor of St. Mary s,
feated his rebellious trustees; and in New York, he in

duced the congregation of St. Patrick s to displace his op
ponents and to elect trustees who supported his views.
During another war of his with some trustees
in Buffalo,
State Senator Brooks persuaded the New York Legisla

ture of 1855 to pass a church-property law unfavorable
to the bishop; but it was repealed in 1863. After long
in 1842, effected the dissolution of
struggle, the bishop,
the Public School Society, a private corporation control
of the common schools.
ling the funds and management
he successfully
Although unable to obtain a state subsidy,
inaugurated a of
system schools.
parochial Through his
Conwell (1828). Most of the rebellious trustees were ultimately

reduced to submission by vigorous action on the part of men
like
Carroll, England, Kenrick and Hughes. Court decisions upheld

control
the Canon Law and recognized the bishop as in legal
of the property of each congregation. The Third Plenary Coun
cilruled that the trustees could be dismissed at the will of the
bishop; and, in 1911, the Roman Congregation
of the Council
recommended that church property should be held by a board

of trustees made up of the bishop, the vicar-general, the pastor,
and two laymen named by the bishop.
influence, the Sisters of Charity organized an independent

province at Mt. St. Vincent (1846). In 1847 ne de-
livered an address on
"
The Christian Religion before

"
the Congress of the United States. He engaged in sev

eral famous controversies, notably with the Presbyterian
minister, Reverend John Breckenridge in 1830 and 1834;

and with Kirwan
" "
(Reverend Nicholas Murray) in

1850. The agitation of the Native Americans, in 1844,
and of the Knownothings, in 1854, melted away before
He was largely responsible for
his fearless readiness.
the founding of the Emigrant Savings Bank of New
York in 1851. His visit to Napoleon III had much to
do with France s refusal to recognize the Confederacy;
and his last public speech was made in an attempt to
quell the Draft Riots of 1863. A strong patriot, a per
sonal friend of President Polk, honored and trusted by
Lincoln and Seward, he contributed greatly to the dif
fusion of general popular respect for Catholics. During
his rule, the Catholics of New York grew
from two hun
dred thousand to twice that number, and the priests from
forty to one hundred and fifty.
397. Archbishop John Baptist Purcell (1800-1883).
John Purcell, born in Ireland, was made bishop of
Cincinnati in 1850. It was under his leadership that Ger
man and Irish Catholics overawed the Knownothing mobs
of Cincinnati in 1854. During the very first days of the
Civil War, he flew the Union flag from his cathedral
spire. His famous seven day debate in 1837 with Alex

ander Campbell, the founder of the sect of Campbellites,
attracted wide attention and made many people acquainted
with the true teachings of the Church. At the Vatican
Council, Archbishop Purcell held to the inexpediency of
explicitly defining the Papal Infallibility, but of course
accepted the decision of the Council, once it had been

made. The unfortunate institution of a diocesan bank,
under the management of his brother, Father Edward
Purcell, led to a financial crash in 1878; and the arch

bishop died a few years later. A
court decision of 1892
fixed the amount of the diocesan liabilities and the whole
debt was paid off during the administration of Archbishop
Elder.
398. Archbishop Martin John Spalding (1810-1872).
Martin Spalding, born at Bardstown, became bishop
of Louisville, in 1850, and archbishop of Baltimore in
1864. Two years later, he presided at the Second Plenary
Council of Baltimore. He is famed for his controversies
with the champions of Knownothingism, and for his able
lectures in various cities of the Eastern States. He was
among the founders of the Catholic Publication Society,
and one of the first in the hierarchy to suggest the es
tablishment of a Catholic university. At the Vatican

Council, he stood with the bishops who favored the
policy of defining the dogma of Papal Infallibility im
plicitly, rather than explicitly. Greatly esteemed by men
prominent in Church and state, he was instrumental in
placing the Catholic Church in a very favorable light be

fore the American people.
399. John Cardinal McCloskey (1810-1885). John
McCloskey, born N. Y., was appointed co
in Brooklyn,
adjutor bishop to Archbishop Hughes in 1844, and suc

ceeded to the see of New York in 1864. He was an elo
quent preacher and able administrator, and in 1875, be
came the first American cardinal.
III. RACIAL ELEMENTS
400. Immigration. Immigration has been the chief

factor in the development of the Church in this coun

try. In 1790, Bishop Carroll calculated that there were
about 30,000 Catholics under his jurisdiction, in Mary
land, Pennsylvania and New York. The next thirty
years saw almost no Catholic immigration and indeed few
immigrants of any kind; but territory continued to ex
pand, and in 1820, the Catholic population of the United
States (including Louisiana and the West) was reckoned
by Archbishop Marechal at 245,000.
Beginning about 1840, a vast stream of Irish and
German immigrants kept pouring into the country for
a half century, so that in 1890 German stock formed
over ten per cent, and Irish nearly eight per cent, of
the total population. Almost all the Irish, and a large
proportion of the Germans, were Catholics. In the ex
isting conditions, it was a most difficult task to keep these
scattered people firm in the faith and to weld them into
unity, but the task was accomplished; and, although ra

have become serious enough at times, they
cial disputes
have caused no permanently serious evils.

The racial constitution of the Catholic population
has varied greatly of late years. The preponderance,
once possessed by the Irish, is now passing to the Slavs ;
and, at the same time, the Italians aregrowing steadily

in numerical importance. In 1890, the Slavs were less
than one per cent, and the Italians less than one-half of
one per cent, of the total population of the United States ;
whereas they are now respectively nearly five, and nearly

two per cent. Being Catholic by inheritance, all the Ital
ians, and almost all the Slavs, are classified as members
of the Church, although both races include a large number
who are indifferent, or even hostile, to Catholicism. The
religious future of the Italians and the Slavs is one of
the most serious problems confronting the Church in the

United States.
401. The Present Catholic Population. The follow
ing is a rough classification of the Catholic population
of the Continental United States at the present time:
English speaking races:

Irish and English 5,000,000
German :
Germans, Swiss, and Austrians ^,500,000

Italian 1,800,000
French :
Canadians, Louisianians, Belgians, and French 1,200,000

Hungarians (Magyars) 400,000
Slavs (Austria-Hungary) :
Poles 3,000,000
Bohemians 550,000
Slovaks 46o,ooo
Croatians 280,000
Slovenians 120,000
Ruthenians 500,000
4,910,000
Rumanians, Albanians, Syrians and Armenians 80,000

Spanish and Portuguese 30,000
Indians and Negroes 160,000
Total 17,080,000
402. The There are nearly five million Catho

Irish.
race in this country. During the early years
lics of Irish
of the nineteenth century, most of the Irish immigrants
in this country were Protestants from the North of
Ireland. Later, vast multitudes of Catholic Irish were
drawn to America, both by the promise of religious free
dom and by the prospect of escaping famine. About a
million arrived between 1820 and 1850, and three million
more before 1900 and they played a

; larger part than any
other race in the building up of the Catholic Church here.
In 1908, three- fourths of the bishops in the United States,
and nine out of fourteen archbishops, were of Irish stock.
Catholics of Irish birth or extraction number now about
five million.
403. The Germans. The United States contains

some twelve million Germans, of whom perhaps one-
fourth are Catholics. As early as 1785 we find mention
of German Catholic congregations in Pennsylvania, and
a few were organized in New York and Ohio in the first
years of the nineteenth century but it was only towards
;
1848 (the time of the European revolutions) that the

German immigration began to assume importance. About
1850, Germans formed one-seventh of the 70,000 Catho
licsof Albany, one-third of the 50,000 Catholics of Mis
souri, and one-half of the 40,000 Catholics of Buffalo.
Later, the great majority settled in the Middle West.
The Catholic Germans deserve great credit for their
loyalty, since in sparsely settled districts they were at a

particular disadvantage because of their inability to as
sociate with their English speaking co-religionists. The
greater number of the German immigrants were Protes
tants who were able to form congregations, with pastors
and churches of their own, and to give a Protestant tone
to most of the German communities, so that the turn-
vereins, and other societies, were often strongly anti-
Catholic in spirit. In these circumstances, mixed mar
riages were especially disastrous. Aptitude for organiza
tion, and zeal for religious education, however, have en
abled German Catholics to influence greatly the develop
ment of the Church in the United States, They publish
twenty-five Catholic weekly newspapers and two Catholic

dailies (in St.Louis and in Buffalo). It is said that one-
third of our priests bear German names.
404. The French. There are in the United States
over 1,000,000 persons of French origin, and four-
fifths of these are Canadians who are almost all Catho
lics. Canadians were among the earliest settlers in
Maine, Vermont and northern New York, and in the
Middle West; but the great influx of immigrants came
after the Civil War, and was directed to New England
which now contains two-thirds of all the Canadian stock-
in the United States. Priests were called from Canada
to take charge of the flourishing parishes which were
organized on the model of those at home; and in New

England there are now over two hundred such parishes,
with more than four hundred priests. The French Cath
olic press includesseven daily and fifteen weekly news
papers. French Catholics have exercised a vigorous in
fluence for good upon both the civil and the religious life
of the country.
405. The Italians. Since the year 1880, the Italians
have formed a considerable percentage of the annual
immigration, and now number nearly two millions.
This includes perhaps 700,000 in the State of New York,
300,000 in Pennsylvania, 250,000 in New Jersey, 200,000
in the New England States and 100,000 in Illinois. There
are over 600 Italian priests in this country. In some
quarters a very active Protestant propaganda has been
carried on among the Italians; but nearly all are still
classified as Catholic.
406. The Hungarians. The total number of Mag

yars* (or Hungarians proper) in this country is less
6 The Magyars, who are a Finnish tribe, now form less than
than a million; and of these about 400,000 are Catho
lics belonging to the Latin Rite. The remainder are
chiefly Protestants, but many are Jews and unbelievers.
Magyar immigration to the United States began with the
arrival of Louis Kossuth and his fifty companions in 1851,
but did not assume importance until 1880. The first
Magyar priest, Charles Bohm, commenced work in Cleve
land in 1851. At present there are about 30 Magyar
priests laboring in the different States, the largest con
tingent being in Pennsylvania.
407. The Slavs. The Slavs in America have been
growing steadily in importance since the year 1880;
and at present, the Catholic Slavs amount to nearly
7
5,ooo,ooo. This includes 3,000,000 Poles, 1,000,000 Bo
hemians and Slovaks, 250,000 Croatians, 125,000 Slove
nians, and 500,000 Ruthenians.
The Poles. Practically all the 3,000,000 Poles in the
United States are Catholics. They have 750 priests,
more than 500 churches, and 20 Catholic newspapers.
Polish congresses, held between 1896-1904, tried to per
suade the Holy See to adopt the policy of appointing
Polish bishops, but without success. A
schismatical Pol
ish Church was founded in 1895, but it contains not more
than 30,000 members.
-- The Bohemians. There are over 500,000 Bohem
ians in the United States, and the majority are Catho
lics. About 250 Bohemian priests serve 100 Bohemian
churches.
half the population of the kingdom of Hungary, being outnum

bered by the members of the Slavish races dwelling there.
The Slavs belonging to the Orthodox Communion number
7
about 275,000 in the United States, including 150,000 Serbs, 75,-

ooo Bulgars, and 50,000 Russians, and they have 100 churches, with
more than 100 priests.
The Slovaks. These people, who come from north

western Hungary, near Bohemia, number some 500,-
ooo, almost half of them living in the State of Pennsyl
8
vania. Four-fifths are The Slovaks
Roman Catholic.
have over 100 priests and about 140 churches, and a
number of flourishing organizations.
The Croatians. Immigrants from the Hungarian
province of Croatia-Slavonia number almost 300,000
in the United States. They are nearly all Catholics, and
have sixteen churches, most of them in Pennsylvania.
The Slovenians. About 120,000 Slovenians have
come from the western provinces of Austria. Bishop
Baraga of Marquette, Michigan, was among the early
immigrants of this race (1830). Their first settlements
were in the Middle West; and in 1878 they began to
colonize New York State, where at present they have
several churches. Between 1890-1910, they entered the
country in now amount to
considerable numbers and
120,000, one-fourth of them in Pennsylvania. Practi
cally all are Catholics and they have
; nearly 100 priests.
The Ruthenians. The Ruthenians (or Little Rus
sians), inhabit southwestern Russia and the adjoining
Ruthen
"
part of Austria. By present usage, the term

ians
"
is applied to those who belong in Austria and are

members of the Catholic Church whereas ;
Little Rus "
sians
"
is restricted to those who belong in Russia and are

members of the Orthodox Church.
The Ruthenian immigration commenced to be important
about 1880, and was directed chiefly to Pennsylvania and
Ohio. It is now distributed over the whole country, with
8 About two per cent, are Greek Catholics, and about ten per
cent Protestants.
the chief colony in Pennsylvania, and the next largest

colonies in New York, New Jersey and Ohio. Practically
all Ruthenians are Uniats, that is members of the Catho
lic Church, but not using the Latin Rite. The Ruthen
ians use the Greek, or Byzantine, Liturgy in a Slavish
translation which was made by Sts. Cyril and Methodius
in 868 A. D.
Our
Catholic Ruthenians number about 500,000, and
have 150 priests, of whom 64 are married. In 1907,
Pope Pius X sent a Ruthenian bishop, Stephen Soter
Ortynsky, to take charge of the Ruthenians in the United
States and in 1913, he was given independent jurisdiction
;
over all his people, so that the Ruthenians now form a

sort of diocese scattered throughout the country. When
sending Bishop Ortynsky, the Holy See issued instruc
tions concerning the administration of the sacraments, and
also decreed that there should be no addition to the mar
ried clergy in this country, either by immigration or by
ordination. This action of the Holy See was distorted
into an attack upon ancient Ruthenian privileges; and
20,000 Ruthenians were induced to go over to the Rus
sian Orthodox Church. Most of them, however, soon
returned to the Roman Communion.
The Ruthenians have more than 150 churches and
several powerful organizations, one of which, the Greek
Catholic Union, possesses a membership of nearly 50,-
ooo. There are ten Ruthenian newspapers, and one of
these, The Dushpastyr, usually prints the official pro
nouncements of Bishop Ortynsky. Ruthenian Sisters of
the Order of St. Basil conduct two schools, one in Phila
delphia, and one in Chesapeake City, Maryland.
408. The Rumanians, Albanians, Syrians, and Armen-
ians. These four other groups of Oriental Catholics

also deserve mention, although they are very small in com
parison with the Ruthenians.
Rumanian Greek Catholics, from Transylvania in
Hungary, number about 50,000. Their first church was
erected in Cleveland in 1906. They are scattered through
the different states, and have very few priests of their
own.
Italo-Greek Catholics (or Albanians), from southern
Italy, number about 20,000,
and reside chiefly in New
York and Pennsylvania. They have one priest.
Syrian Catholics (or Melchites)
number about 10,-
ooo, and have fifteen priests. They are scattered
New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and the

through
.New England States.
Armenian Catholics number about 2,500, distributed
in small congregations throughout several states ; they
have several priests.
409. The Indians. The Continental United States
now contains over 300,000 Indians, of whom some
60,000 are Catholics ministered to by 160 priests.
Since the interests of Catholic Indians have been
1874,
looked after by a Catholic Bureau which works prin
cipally to establish
and support Catholic Indian schools,
and to defend the constitutional rights of Catholic In
dian children.
In 1879, a new policy, inaugurated by President
Grant, placed the seventy-two Indian agencies under
the religious control of the various denominations.
Catholic missionaries had been the earliest to establish
themselves in thirty-eight of the agencies, but the govern
ment them in control of only eight. By
distribution left
being forced to withdraw from the other thirty, where they

had been the to enter, the Catholic missionaries were

first
deprived of their influence over some 80,000 Indians.

The policy of excluding Catholics and Protestants from
each other s territory was followed for nearly ten years.
In 1877, was established the Contract School System,
under which the government began to subsidize the
schools of the various denominations ;

but the remarkable
success of the Catholic schools caused an agitation by the
American Protective Association, and in 1900 the Con
tractSystem was abolished.
A measure of the injustice that can be practised by
a bigoted administration is found in the rights of which
Catholic Indians have been deprived at various times.
In 1902, the Indian Office claimed the right to designate
the school for each Indian child, regardless of the wishes
of the parent. Before 1906, Indian children attending
mission schools were deprived of the rations to which
they were entitled by right of treaty with the United
States Government. Until recently, Catholic Indian chil
dren, assigned to certain of the government schools, were
denied the right of receiving instruction in their own re
ligion and were not permitted to
absent themselves from
Protestant worship, or instruction.
In each of the instances just enumerated, the persis
tent activities of the Catholic Bureau finally secured the
restitution of the rights denied; but there still remain
many other instances of violation of the rights of con

science in the government schools. The Catholic schools
for Indian children now number 80, and contain about
5,000 pupils.
410. Negroes. The total negro population of the
United States is about 10,000,000. Of these, more than
100,000 are Catholics, among whom 170 priests are labor-
33 2 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
ing. Catholic schools for negroes number about 150, and

contain nearly 15,000 children. Nine religious communi
ties of men and twenty-three of women are represented
in the negro work. A
Catholic Board, organized in 1907,
fosters missionary spirit in favor of the negroes, and helps
to provide for their spiritual and temporal welfare.
IV. PERSECUTIONS
411. Legal Intolerance. In 1774, after the passage

of the Quebec Act, the Colonial Congress issued a pro
test to the people of Great Britain against the recog
nition of the Catholic Church,
"
a religion fraught with

sanguinary and impious tenets." John Jay, the author
of the protest, expressed the fear that Catholics might
"
reduce the ancient free Protestant colonies to the same

state of slavery with themselves." This protest was part
of a widespread anti-Catholic agitation, the only practical
effect of which was to alienate Canadian sympathy from
the United States during the Revolution.
The Revolutionary War brought sufficient evidence
that the patriotism of Catholics was beyond question,
and the foundation of the Government of the United
States was laid on a basis of religious equality. The
Constitution of 1787 provided in the Sixth Article that
no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification
"
to any office or public trust under the United States." In

1789 was adopted the First Amendment, which declares
Congress shall make no law respecting an establish
"
that
ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof."
This attitude on the part of the government was
largely due to the influence of Washington who was
kindly disposed towards Catholics. In replying to the
address presented to him by the Catholics, after his elec

"
tion to the Presidency, he said I presume that your

:
fellow-citizens will not forget the patriotic part which you

took in the accomplishment of their revolution."
Nevertheless, it was slowly and despite much op

position that the individual states abolished intolerant
laws. Through the influence of John Jay, who wished to
exclude Catholics from citizenship, the Constitution of
New York (1777) required as a condition of naturaliza
"
tion the renouncing of all allegiances and subjection to
all and every foreign king, prince, potentate, and state, in

9
allmatters, ecclesiastical as well as civil." Until 1833,
Catholic citizens of Massachusetts had to pay taxes for
the support of the Protestant Church which was there
established by law. The political disabilities of Catholics
in New Jersey remained until 1844, and in New Hamp
shire until 1877.
412. Political Bigotry. After the Revolution, the

Tories allied themselves with the Federalists, and op
posed the abolition of Catholic disabilities. Naturally,
the Catholics joined the opposite political party and their ;
influence in the elections still further provoked their

enemies. The policy of intolerance was continued by tho
Native American party, which sprang up in New York
about 1834, when
Protestant pulpits and newspapers re
peatedly denounced Catholics, and instigated acts of vio
lence. In 1834, a mob burned the convent of the Ursu-
lines at Charlestown, Mass. In Philadelphia during Na
tiveAmerican riots, in 1844, two Catholic churches were
burned, and a number of people were killed.
After the Native American party, came the Know-
9 This clause was omitted in later constitutions.
nothings, organized in New York, in 1852. Bound by

an oath of secrecy, the Knownothings 10 aimed to exclude
from public office all Catholics and persons married to
Catholics. Between 1851 and 1855, they burned churches,
killed Catholic citizens, and committed numerous other
outrages in namely, New
at least ten different states,
York, NewJersey, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hamp
shire, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky and
Texas. They elected seventy-five members of Congress
in 1855, polling 146,000 votes in New York State. A few
years later the party went to pieces.
When in 1863 Archbishop Bedini, Papal Nuncio to
Brazil, visited the United States to investigate religious
conditions, Italian revolutionists formed a plot to as
sassinate him ; and Protestant bigots, seizing the oppor
tunity, gathered mobs in many cities. The editor of a
Cincinnati German newspaper succeeded in raising a riot,
and led an attack upon the nuncio in which eighteen
people lost their lives.
413. Recent Outbreaks. Now and again, there has

occurred a temporary renewal of the ancient bigotry.
Thus, for example, the American Protective Association,
a revival of the Knownothing party, was founded at
Clinton, Iowa, in 1887. The growth of the parochial
school system and the establishment of the Apostolic
Delegation in Washington (1893) were made the occasion
"
of agitation about and many

"
papal aggression ; vile

calumnies were circulated. By 1894 the A. P. A. con
trolled seventy weekly papers, claimed a million members,
and attempted to dominate the Republican party. It is
said to have elected twenty of its members to Congress in
1895, DUt it quickly lost power, because of the contempt

10 Their common answer to inquiries was
"
I don t know."
expressed by men of all parties for the A. P. A. principles

as soon as they were published.
414. The Present Day. To-day, there prevails a
general respect for Catholics and the Church. Scholars
in every department, churchmen of different denom
inations, statesmen of all political parties and the great

body of our citizens, have repeatedly expressed their con
fidence in Catholics and Catholic institutions, a proof of
the good influence that the Church has exercised on the
American people.
The chief occasion of religious dispute at present is
the Catholic protest at being obliged to support pub
lic schools which do not take into account the Catholic
demand for religious instruction. Having established
their own parochial school system to provide both secular
and religious instruction, Catholics commonly contend
that the secular instruction imparted by the parochial
schools, when up to the state standard, should in some
way be recognized by the state. This is done in certain
other countries; but in the United States no agreement
has yet been reached.
CONCLUSION
415. Present Religious Condition of the World.
Christians now constitute almost two fifths, and Catholics
constitute more than one fifth, of the total population of
the world. The following table gives in round numbers
a general idea of the religious distribution of the human
race, using one million as unit :
POPULATION AND RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

860 m. in Asia
,-750 m. Pagans, etc. PI9 5
m
390 m. in Europe 620 m. Christians J
m ôtestant,
190 m. in Africa V 1600 m. m Mohammedans 13S "
Schismatics
-j, 10 ]
155 m. in America I
(pop. of I
12 m j cws
8 m. in Oceania 1 world)
190 m. in Europe m. in South America*

f 70
90 m. in America / 17 m. in U. S. A.
295 m. Catholics -^
12 m. in Asia ^ 3 m. in British North America
a m. in Africa
i m. in Oceania
416. Retrospect. With this glance at the present ex

tension of we bring the history of the
Christianity,
Church to a close. From the small beginnings in and
around Jerusalem we have seen the divine organization
develop into a mighty Church which spread first through
out the Roman Empire, then into the territory occupied
by the mediaeval nations, and then into the remote regions
discovered in east and west, until finally the Gospel has
been preached in every tongue and Catholicism estab
lished in every land. During the different stages of her
*
Including Mexico and Central America.
336
CONCLUSION 337
growth, there is no sort of difficulty that the Church has

not faced; the nineteen centuries of her history make a
long story of obstacles encountered and dangers sur
vived, bloody persecutions, literary attacks, betrayal,
calumny, heresy, schism. So fierce and so continued has
been the opposition that long ago men began to perceive
in its very intensity an evidence of the divine origin of
the Church for only a supernatural entity could thus en
;
dure the endless hostility of the world, only God s institu

tion could so many times rise out of what seemed a death
agony into a new and fuller life. Over and over again,
as students have pondered this fact, the record of the
Church s triumphs has become a convincing argument of
her divine origin.
417. The Outlook. Through how many periods and
epochs the Church of Christ must still pass, no man can
foresee; but we know for certain that the divine life which
began on the first Christian Pentecost will not be inter
rupted until the end of time. Christ has promised that
the Church shall never fail; and as we have seen that
promise fulfilled in the chapters of church history already
written, so too it will surely be again fulfilled in those
which are still to be. This certainty will suffice to console
us in every temporary affliction, and to afford us a sure
ground of hope in the midst of whatever difficulties may
yet befall.
APPENDIX I
LIST OF THE ECUMENICAL COUNCILS.

Date. Reigning Pope. Decrees.
Where Held.
339
340 APPENDIX I
LIST OF ECUMENICAL COUNCILSC** tinned

No. Where Held. Date. Reigning Pop*. Decrees.
Memory Verse.
Ni-co-eph, Chal-co-co, Ni-co, La-la-la-la.
Li-li-vi, Co-ba-la, Tri-vat.
APPENDIX II
THE POPES
(Parentheses enclose names of anti-popes.)
341
APPENDIX II
343
INDEX
(Numbers refer to paragraphs)
Abnaki Indians, 267 Anastasius, Emperor, 39

Abyssinians, 347 Andre, 269
Abyssinia, Christianity in, 38 Anglican Orders, 183, Note, 282
Abyssinian Church, 347 Anicetus, Pope, 27
Abyssinian Rite, 349 Anselm, St., 108, 131, 132
Acadia, 266 Antoine, 220
Adrian IV, Pope, 109 Antonelli, Cardinal, 281
Adrianople, 74 Antoninus, Emperor, 18
Afra, St., 15 Antony of Padua, St., 128
Africa, Central, 344 Apocalypse, n
Africa, North, 344 Apostolic Delegation, 282
Africa, South, 344 Apostolic Fathers, 28
Agnes, St., 15 Arabia, Christianity in, 38
Alaska, Catholics in, 384, Note Aramaic Language, 349
Albania, 321 Argentine, 360
Albertus Magnus, 131 Arians, 41, 43
Albigenses, 112, 121, 122 Arizona, 262
Alexander of Hales, 131, 134 Aries, Council of, 82
Alexander Natalis, 220 Armenia, Christianity in, 38
Alexander II, Pope, 105 Armenians, 408
Alexander III, Pope, 109, 282 Armenian Rite, 349
Alexander IV, Pope, 153 Art, Christian, 152
Alexander V, Pope, 137 Asiatic Russia, 343
Alexander VI, Pope, 140, 144, Asiatic Turkey, 341
237, 248 Assemani, 220
Alexandria, School of, 28 Athanasian Creed, 57, Note
Allouez, 269 Athanasius, St., 57, 67
Alphonsus XII, King, 297 Attila, 54
Alphonsus Liguori, St., 219 Aubry, 267
Alva, Duke of, 199 Augsburg, Diet of, 165
Amadeo, King, 297 Augustine, St., 45, 63
Ambrose, St., 61, 63 Augustine of Canterbury, St., 82
America, Catholic Population Aurelian, Emperor, 27
of, 381, 382, 383, 384, 401, 403, Australia, 332
404, 405, 406, 407, 408 Austria, 315
American Protective Associ Avignon, 135, 137, 143
ation, 413
Anabaptists, 208 Baden, 305
Anacletus, Anti-Pope, 108 Baius, 229
345
346 INDEX
Balbo, Caesare, 287 Bismarck, 282, 300, 301

Balboa, 250 Bobbio, 83
Balde, Jacob, 223 Bohemians, Conversion of, 100
Ballerini, 220 Bolivia, 358
Balmes, 297 Bollandists, 220
Baltimore, I Plenary Council Bollandus, John van, 220
of, 382 Bonaparte, Jerome, 278, 291
Baltimore, II Plenary Council Bonaventure, St., 114, 132
of, 383 Boniface, St., 86
Baltimore, III Plenary Council Boniface VIII, Pope, 115, 133,
of, 383, 384 136, 143
Baltimore, I Provincial Coun Boniface IX, Pope, 137
cil of, 381 Boris, 326
Baptism, 29 Borneo, 337
Baptists, 208 Bosnia, 282
Baraga, Bishop Frederick, 393 Bossuet, 220, 228
Barnabites, 213 Bourbon, Constable of, 164
Bartholomew, St., II Bourdaloue, 220
Bartholomew s, Massacre of Bramante, 152
St.,176 Brazil, 248, 352
Basil the Great, St., 58, 67 Breboeuf, 266
Basle, Council of, 139 Brendan, St., 83
Bavaria, 302 Bressani, 268
Bede of Jarrow, 82 Breviary, 134
Bedini, Archbishop, 412 Britain, Conversion of, 82
British India, 282
Beethoven, 223
Brothers of Mercy, 213
Beguines, 126
Belgium, 199, 310 Brownson, O. A., 383
Belisarius, 77 Bulgaria, 326
Bellarmine, 220 Burial, 34
Benedict III, Pope, 96 Byzantine Rite, 349
Benedict IX, Pope, 97
Benedict XI, Pope, 115 Calderon, 223
Benedict XII, Pope, 135 California, 263
Benedict XIII, Pope, 137, 138 Calixtus II, Pope, 108
Benedict XIV, Pope, 211 Calmet, 220
Benedictines, 70 Calvin, John, 173
Benedict, St., 69 Canada, 376
Berengarius, 102 Canada, Peoples in, 378
Bernard of Clairvaux, St., 117, Canal Zone, Catholics in, 384,
132 Note
Berthier, 291 Cano, Melchior, 220
Bible before Luther, 150, 151 Canossa, 106
Bible, Complutensian, 150 Canute, King, 100
Bible, Gothic, 73 Capuchins, 213
Bible in Fourteenth Century, Carboneri, 2/8, 287
Cardenas, 270
Bible, Luther s, 161 Cardinals, 98, Note
Billuart, 220 Carlos, Don, 296
INDEX 347
Carolingians, 81 Clare of Assisi, St., 128

Caroline Islands, 282, 301 Clemens Augustus, 301
Carroll, John, 386 Clement of Alexandria, St., 18,
Carthage, Council of, 25 28
Carthusians, 126 Clement I, Pope, St., 27
Catechumens, 29 Clement II, Pope, 97
Catherine, Martyr, St., 15 Clement III, Anti-Pope, 107
Catharine of Siena, St., 135, Clement V, Pope, 135, 136
150 Clement VI, Pope, 135
Catholic Committee, 327 Clement VII, Pope, 137
Catholic Emancipation, 328 Clement VIII, Pope, 211
Catholic Missionary Union, Clement XI, Pope, 229
384 Clement XIII, Pope, 219
Catholic University, 282 Clement XIV, Pope, 219
Cavour, 281, 287 Clermont, Council of, 117
Cayugas, 268 Clovis, 79
Celestine I, Pope, 83 Cluny, 126
Celestine III, Pope, in Coimbra, University of, 298
Celibacy, 25 Collegium Urbanum, 235
Celsus, 17 Colombia, 353
Central America, 250 Columba, St., 83, 84
Center Party, 301 Columban, St., 83, 85
Ceylon, 243 Columbus, 250
Chalcedon, 49 Combes, 295
Champlain, 266 Communion, Annual, 112, 134
Charlemagne, 76, 87 Communion, Frequent, 66
Charles I, King, 187 Comte s Positive Philosophy,
Charles II, King, 187 294
Charles IV, Emperor, 143, 296 Concordat, French, 295
Charles IX, King, 175 Confession, Doctrine of, 112
Charles X, King, 292 Confession, Law of, 134, Note
Charles Borromeo, St., 211 Confirmation, 29
Charles Martel, 86, 92 Conrad III, Emperor, 117
Chateaubriand, 292 Conradin, 113
Chaumonot, 268 Consalvi, Ercole, 278, 300
Cheverus, Louis de, 267, 387 Constance, Council of, 138
Chile, 256, 361 Constantine, 16, 35
Chiliasts, 22 Constantine, Donation of, 91
China, Christianity in, 38, 245, Constantinople, II Council of,
336 43, 59
Chinese Customs, 245 Constantinople, III Council of,
Christ, Birth of, 6 50
Christina of Sweden, 200 Constantinople, IV Council of,
Church and State, 52, 88, 09, 101
109, 115, 142 Constantinople, Fall of, 139
Church Architecture, 65, 103, Constantinople, Foundation of,
133 35
Church Extension Society, 384 Constantinople, Latin Empire
Cistercians, 126 of, 112, 117
Civil Constitution, French, 277 Constitution of 1787, 411
348 INDEX
"Constitutional Clergy," 290 Douchet Island, 267

Coptic Rite, 349 Drouillettes, 267
Copts, 347 Dunin, von, Archbishop, 301
Corbie, 89 Duns Scotus, 131
Coronado, 250 Dupanloup, Mgr., 295
Correggio, 152 Diirer, Albrecht, 152
Cortes, 250
Cortes, Donoso, 297
Costa Rica, 368 Eck, John, 220
Eckhart, Master, 150
Councils, Pre-Reformation,
Ecuador, 254, 356
153
Education, Disputes about, 285,
Cranach, Lucas, 167
379, 414
Cranmer, Thomas, 179, 181 Education in Mexico, 258
Cretin, Joseph, 392
Education, Mediaeval, 89, 104,
Crispi, 289
130, 151
Cromwell in Ireland, 191
Education, Pre-Reformation,
Cross, Sign of the, 34
Cross of Christ, 65, 66 207
Edward VI, King, 181
Crusades, 104, 109, in, 112,
Egypt, 282
116-119
Einhard, 103
Cuba, 370
Elizabeth, 183
Curia, The Roman, 284
Elvira, Council of, 25
Cuthbert, St., 84
Emancipation Bill, 195
Cyril of Alexandria, St., 48
Ems, Congress of, 231, 277
Cyril, Apostle of the Slavs, St.,
100 Encyclicals, 281, 282
28 Encyclopaedists, 233
Cyprian, St., 18,
England, John, 389
English Hierarchy, 327
Dablon, 268
English Ladies, 214
Daillon, 268
Ephesus, Council of, 48
Dalberg, 300
Damasus I, Pope, St., 62 Ephesus, Robber, synod of, 49
Damasus II, Pope, 97 Erasmus, 151
Essenes, 5
Daniel, 266
Eucharist, Holy, 30, 31, 102
Dante, 133
Eudoxia, Empress, 60
Dead, Prayers for the, 34
De Eugene IV, Pope, 139
Allyon, 265
Eutyches, 49
DeBonald, 292
De Leon, 250, 265 Evangelical Union, 226
De Maistre, 292 Explorers, Early, 236-239
Extreme Unction, 33
De Narvaez, 265
Denmark, 311
Descartes, 232 Faber, Peter, 215
Desiderius, 76 Falk, 301
De Soto, 250, 265 Falloux, 293
Discipline of the Secret, 30 False Decretals, 55
Docetists, 31 Fathers of the Church, 28
Dollinger, 281 Febronianism, 230, 302
Dominic, St., 127 Felicitas and Perpetua, Sts., 15
Donatists, 22, 27 Fenelon, 220
INDEX 349
Ferdinand VII, King of Spain, Galileo, 222*

296 Galitzin, Prince Alexander, 317
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, Gall, St., 83, 85
326 Gallicanism, 228, 292
Ferraris, 220 Ganganelli, Lorenzo, 219
Festivals, Christian, 34 Gambetta, 295
Fiesole, John da, 152 Garacontie, 268
Fisher, John, 180 Garda, See of, 247
Flagellants, 134 Garibaldi, 287
Flaget, Benedict Joseph, 388 Gelasius I, Pope, St., 53
Flavian, Patriarch, 49 Genseric, 54
Flavius Clemens, II Gerbert, 97
Fleury, 220 Gerbillon, 245
Florence, Council of, 139 Gerdil, Cardinal, 220
Florida, 265 German Church, 300
Fonda, 268 Germany, Conversion of, 85
Fontainebleau, Concordat of, Gerson, 150
278 Gertrude, St., 150
Foreign Mission Society in Gibraltar, 330
America, 384 Gioberti, 280, 281, 287
France, 290 Giotto, 133
Francis I, King, 174 Gladstone, 327
Francis of Assisi, St., 128 Gnesen-Posen, 280
Francis Borgia, St., 216 Gnosticism, 20
Francis de Sales, St., 214 Godfrey de Bouillon, 117
Francis Solanus, St., 252 Goethe, 234
Francis Xavier, St., 215, 242, Golden Bull, 143
244, 245 Gordon Riots, 327
Franciscan Missions in Mex Goths, 73
ico, 258 Gotti, 220
Franks, 79 Gottschalk, 102
Frederick Barbarossa, Em Greece, 323
peror, 109 Greek Reunion, 114, 139
Frederick, Elector of the Pal Greek Rite, 349
atinate, 226 Greek Schism, 101
Frederick, Elector of Saxony, Green Bay, 269
168 Gregory the Illuminator, St.,
Frederick II, Emperor, 113, 38
117, 123, 143 Gregory of Nazianzen, St., 59
Frederick the Great, King, 301 Gregory of Nyssa, St., 58
Frederick William III, King, Gregory I (the Great), Pope,
301 St., 64, 82
Frederick William IV, King, Gregory II, Pope, 86
301 Gregory V, Pope, 97
Freemasons, 233, 296 Gregory VI, Pope, 97
Freemason-Liberals, 296 Gregory VII, Pope, St., 105,
French Revolution, 290 130
Friedrich, Professor, 281 Gregory IX, Pope, 113
Frisians, 86 Gregory X, Pope, 114
Fiirstenberg, 234 Gregory XI, Pope, 135, 137
350 INDEX
Gregory XII, Pope, 137, 138 Holy Roman Empire, 88, 96,
Gregory XIII, Pope, 211 300
Gregory XV, Pope, 211, 235 Honduras, 365
Gregory XVI, Pope, 280, 287, Honorius I, Pope, 50, 51
293 Honorius III, Pope, 113
Gregorian Calendar, 211 Honorius IV, Pope, 114
Grevy, President of France, Hrswitha, 103
295 Hughes, John, Archbishop, 396
Guam, Catholics in, 384, Note Huguenots, 174
Guatemala, 364 Humanism, 151
Gueranger Dom, 293 Humbet, King of Italy, 289
199
"Gueux," Hume, David, 233
Guiana, 355 Hungary, 316
Guizot, 293 Huns, 74
Gunpowder Plot, 186 Huron Country, 268
Gustavus Adolphus, 200 Hurons, 266, 269
Hus, 147, 149
Hadrian, Emperor, 18 Hussite War, 148
Hague Tribunal, 263, Note Hyacinth, Pere, 281
Haiti, 371 Hymns, 61, 103, 132, 133, Note,
Hardouin, 220 223, Note
Hawaii, Catholics in, 384, Note
Hay, Bishop, 329 Iconoclasts, 94
Haydn, John, 223 Ignatius of Antioch, St., II, 15
Haydn, Joseph, 223 Ignatius of Loyola, St., 215,
Hecker, Father, 383 220
Helena, St., 35, 66 Illuminati, 234
Hennepin, 269 Immaculate Conception, 281
Henschen, Geoffrey, 220 Immigration in U. S. A., 400
Henry II, King, no Immigrants, German, 400
Henry IV, Emperor, 106, 107 Immigrants, Irish, 400
Henry VI, Emperor, 109, in India, Christianity in, 38, 242,
Henry VIII, King, 179 335
Henry IV (of Navarre), King, Indians, Catholic, 409
176 Indian Revolt of 1680, 261
Heresies, Early, 40 Indulgences, 134
Heresies, Mediaeval, 122 Infallibility, Dogma of, 281
Hermes, 280 Innocent II, Pope, 108
Herod Agrippa, 7 Innocent III, Pope, 112, 113,
Herzog, 281 128
Hesse, 306 Innocent TV, Pope, 113
Hierarchy, 23 Innocent VI, Pope, 135, 143
Hilary of Poitiers, St., 64 Innocent VII, Pope, 137
Hildebrand, 97 Innocent XI, Pope, 227
Hildegarde, St., 150 Inquisition, 123, 124, 125, 260,
Hobbes, Thomas, 233 Note, 206
Hogan Schism, 395, Note Interim, 168
Hohenstaufens, 109, 113 Intolerance in America, 271,
Holbein, 152 395, 412, 413
Holland, 199, 309 Investiture, 105, 108
INDEX 35 1
lona, 83, 84 Josephine, Empress, 291

Ireland, 328 Josephism, 231, 277
Ireland, Conversion of, 83 Jubilee, 153
Irenseus, St., 15, 18, 28 Julian (the Apostate), 22, 36,
Irene, Empress, 95 37
Irish Catholics in U. S. A., 402 Julius II, Pope, 141
Iroquois, 266, 268, 269 Julius III, Pope, 210
Isidore of Seville, St., 55, 7& Justin Martyr, St., 18, 31
Justinian I, Emperor, 39, 75
Jacobites, 347, 349 Justinian II, Emperor, 39
James (the Elder) St., 7, n
James (the Younger) St., II Kant, Immanuel, 234
James I, King, 186 Katerkampf, 234
James II, King, 187 Keltigern, St., 84
Jansenism, 229 Kempis, Thomas a, 150
[ansenius, Cornelius, 229 Kenrick, Archbishop, 395
[apan, 244, 339 Kieran, St., 83
[ava, 337 Knights, Orders of, 119, 120
Jay, John, 411 Knights Templars, 136
Jerome, St., 62 Knights Teutonic, 163
Jerusalem, Council of, 8 Knownothings, 412
Jerusalem, Crusaders King Knox, John, 197
dom of, 117 Kopp, Cardinal, 301
Jerusalem, Destruction of, 12 Koran, 93
Jerusalem, Temple of, 13 Korea, 246, 340
Jesuits, 185, 215 Kossuth, 316
Jesuit Martyrs in America, Krafft, Adam, 152
145 Kiihn, 262
Jesuit Missions in Mexico, 259 Kulturkampf, 281, 301
Jesus, Society of, 278
Jews, 5 Lacordaire, 293
Jews, Persecution of, 125 Lacroix, 220
Jogues, 268, 269 Lactantius, 28
John Baptist, St., 6 Laderchi, 220
John Chrysostom, St., 60 Lambertini, Prospero, 220
John of the Cross, St., 220 Lambruschini, 280, 287
John Damascene, St., 95, 131 Lamennais, 280, 293
John, Dom, 298 Lan franc, 103
John Evangelist, St., n Langton, Stephen, 112
John Lackland, King, 112 Lapide, Cornelius a., 220
John Nepomucene, St., 142* La Pointe, 269
John of Piano, 245 Lapsed, 14, Note
John XII, Pope, 97 Las Casas, 250
145,
John XIX, Pope, 97 Lateran, I Council of, 108
John XXII, Pope, 135, 143 Lateran, II Council of, 108
John XXIII, Anti-Pope, 137, Lateran, III Council of, 109,
147 122, 123
John Scotus Erigena, 103 Lateran, IV Council of, 112,
Joseph II, Emperor, 231, 277, 123, 134, Note
310 Lateran, V Council of, 141
352 INDEX
Laval, 266 Luther s youth, 157

Lavigerie, Cardinal, 344 Luther s teaching of Indul
Law on Associations, 295 gences, 158, 171
Law of Guarantees, 281 Luther s marriage, 163
Lawrence, St., 15 Luther s death, 170
La Vendee, 291 Luxemburg, 308
Lazarists, 213 Lyons, I Council of, 113
Leakage, Catholic, 384 Lyons, II Council of, 114
Leander, St., 78
Ledochowski, Archbishop, 301 Mabillon, 220
Leibnitz, 234 Machiavelli, 151
Leipzig Disputation, 160 Macedonians, 43
Le Moyne, 268 Mackinac, 269
Leo I, Emperor, 39 Mac Mahon, President of
Leo III (the Isaurian), Em France, 295
peror, 39, 94 Madagascar, 344
Leo I (the Great), Pope, St., Magna Charta, 112
49, 54, 64 Magyars, Conversion of, no,
Leo II, Pope, 51 406, Note
Leo IV, Pope, 96 Maine, 267
Leo VIII, Pope, 97 Malabar Rites, 242
Leo IX, Pope, St., 97 Malay Archipelago, 243
Leo X, Pope, 125, 141 Maldonatus, John, 220
Leo XII, Pope, 279 Malta, 331
Leo XIII, Pope, 282, 289, 301 Manfred, 113
Lepanto, Battle of, 211 Manichaeism, 21
Leasing, 234 Manning, Cardinal, 327
Lessius, 220 Man si, 220
Liberius, Pope, 43 Manzoni, 287
Limerick, Treaty of, 192 Marcus Aurelius, 18
Lindesfarne, 84 Maria Francisca, Queen, 298
Locke, John, 233 Mark, St., 9
Lombards, 76 Maronites, 349
London Bible Society, 280 Marquette, 269
Loras, Bishop, 391 Martene, 220
Lothaire II, King, 96 Martin IV, Pope, 114
Loubet, President of France, Martin V, Pope, 138
295 Marriage, 33
Louis VII, King, 117 Martyrs, English, 185
Louis IX, King, St., 117 Martyrs of Gorkum, 199, Note
Louis XIV, King, 178, 228 Maryland, 272
Louis XVI, King, 290 Mary Stuart, Queen, 183, 198
Louis XVIII, King, 278, 292 Mary Tudor, Queen, 182
Louis Bertrand, St., 252 Massacre, St. Bartholomew s,
Louisiana, 266, 270 176
Louis Philippe, King, 293 Massillon, 220
Lucian, 17 Mathias, St., 7
Lucy, St., 15 Matthias. Emperor, 226
Lugo, 220 Mary, Blessed Virgin, n, 47,
Luis of Granada, 220 48, 103, 134
INDETX 353
Mass, Holy, 30, 31 Montanists, 22

Maximilian I, of Bavaria, 226 Monte Cassino, 69
May Laws, 301 Montenegro, 322
Mazenet, 264 Montfort, Simon de, 112
Mazzini, 281, 287 Moravian Brethren, 208
McCloskey, Cardinal, John, More, Thomas, 180
399 Moritz of Saxony, 168
Mechtilde, St., 150 Mosaic Law superseded, S
Memorare, 132, Note Mozart, 223
Menard, 269 Mun, Comte de, 295
Mendicant Orders, 129 Munich, 302
Mennonites, 208 Miinster, 234
Mesrop, St., 38 Muratori, 220
Methodists, 208 Murillo, 223
Methodius, St., 100 Mysticism, 131
Metternich, 280
Metz, 168 Napoleon, 277, 278, 291
Mexico, City of, 250 Napoleon III, 281, 294
Mexico, Development of the Natchitoches, 264
Church in, 260 Native American Party, 412
Mexico Early Dioceses of, Negroes, 410
257 Nero, 15
Mexico, Missions in, 258, 259 Nestorians, 48, 242, Note
Michaud, Abbe, 281 Nestorian Church, 347
Michelangelo, 152 Netherlands, The, 309
Miguel, Dpm, 298 Newfoundland, 380
Milan, Edict of, 16 Neumann, John Nepomucene,
Milner, Dr., 278 394
Minnesingers, 143 New Corbie, 100
Minucius, Felix, 18 New Italy and the Church, 289
Miollis, 278 Newman, John Henry, 282,
Missions Modern, 384 328
Missions to Non-Catholics, 384 New Mexico, 261
Missions in Africa and Asia, New Orleans, 270
235 New York, 268, 274
Mohammed, 92, 93 New Zealand, 333
Mohawks, 268 Niagara, 268
Monaco, 295 Nicaea, I Council of, 42
Monarchians, 22 Nicaea, II Council of, 95
Monarchy, French, 292 Nicaragua, 367
Monasteries, Irish, 83 Nicholas of Cusa, 150
Monasteries, Organization of, Nicholas I, Pope, 96, 101
69 Nicholas II, Pope, 98
Monasticism, Rise of, 67 Nikolai, 234
Monasticism, Services of, 70 Ninian, St., 84
Monica, St., 63 Nobili, Robert, 242
Monophy sites, 49, 240, Note Non-Expedit, 282, 289
Monophysite Churches, 347 Norbert, St., 126
Monothelites, 50 Normans, Conversion of, 100
Montalembert, 293, 294 Norridgewock, 267
354 INDEX
Norway, 312 Pepin, 90

Npvatians, 22 Perez, 258
Niza, Marcos de, 261 Perpetual Adoration, 214
Persecutions, 14, 15
Gates, Titus, 187 Persecutions by Protestants,
O Connell, Daniel, 327 124
O Donnell, Premier, 297 Persia, Christianity in, 38,
Old Catholics, 281, 307 Peru, 253, 357
Onate, 261 Pestalozzi, 307
Oneidas, 268 Petavius, 220
Onondagas, 268 Peter, St., 7, 9, 10, 35
Ontario Region, 266, 268 Peter Claver, St., 252
Optatus of Mileve, St., 53 Peter the Great, Czar, 203, 317
Orange, Council of, 46 Peter the Hermit, 117
Oratorians, 213 Peter Lombard, 131
Orders, Holy, 23, 33 Pharisees, 5
Origen, 18, 28 Philip, St., II
Orthodox Churches, 346 Philip Neri, St., 211, 213
Ostrogoths, 75 Philip the Fair, King, 115
Otto the Great, 97 Philip IV, King, 135, 143
Overberg, 234 Philippines, 243, 338
Oxford Movement, 327 Philippines, Catholics in, 384,
Ozanam, 293 Note
Photius, 101
Pacca, Cardinal, 278 Piarists, 213
Padilla, 261 Pie, Mgr., 295
Paganism, 3, 14 Piconio, 220
Palestrina, 223 Pious Fund, 263
Panama, 368 Pisa, Council of, 137
Papal States, 278 Pistoia, Synod of, 231, 277
Papenbroeck, Daniel von, 220 Pius V, Pope, St., 184. 211
Paraguay, 255, 362 Pius VI, Pope, 219, 231, 277
Parker, Matthew, 183 Pius VII, Pope, 278, 291
Parsifal, 133 Pius IX, Pope, 281
Paschasius Radbertus, 103 Pius X, Pope, 283, 289
Paschal II, Pope, 108 Pizarro, 250
Passaglia, 281 Pliny, Letter of, 15
Patrick, St., 83 Pneumatomachi, 43
Patterson, Miss, of Baltimore, Poland, 317, 319
291 Pole, Cardinal, 180
Paul, St., 8 Poles, Conversion of, 100
Paul the Hermit, St., 67 Polish Language, 301
Paul of Samosata, 27 Polycarp, St., II
Paul III, Pope, 145, 210, 216 Pombal, 219, 241, 255
Paul IV, Pope, 183 Pompadour, Madame de, 219
Paul V, Pope, 211 Ponte, Luis de, 220
Pedro, Dom, 298 Poor Clares, 128
Pelagians, 45 Pope Joan, 96
Penance, 32 Pope, Primacy of, 27, 53
Pennsylvania, 273 Pope, St. Peter, the First, 10
INDEX 355
Popes, Election of, 98 Renewal of the Church, 275

Popes, Temporal Power of, 90, Rerum Novarum, 282
9i Revival, Catholic, 275
Popish plot, 187 Ricci, Father, 219, 245
Porphyrius, 17 Ricci, Scipio, 231, 277
Porto Rico, 250, 251 Richard the Lion-Hearted, in,
Porto Rico, Catholics in, 384, 117
Note Robert Guiscard, 107
Portuguese Republic, 299 Robespierre, 291
Prague, University of, 150 Rodriguez, Alphonsus, 220
Predestinarians, 46, Note Rodriguez, Augustine, 261
Predestination, 102 Roger of Sicily, 108
Premonstratensians, 126 Rosati, Bishop, 390
Propagation of the Faith, Con Rose of Lima, St., 253
gregation of, 235, 293 Rosmini, 281, 287
Protestantism, Causes of, 154, Rossi, Count, 281
208 Rosweyde, 220
Protestantism, Effects of, 156, Rousseau, 233
206, 212 Rubens, 223
"Protestants," Origin of term, Ruinart, 220
164 Rumania, 325
Prussia, 300, 301 Russia, 317
Purcell, Archbishop, 397 Russia, Modern, 318
Purgatory, 34 Russians, Conversion of, 100
Ruthenians, 282
208
uanta Cura, 281
Buakers, Sabellius, 22
Quebec, 266, 270 Sadducees, 5
Queretaro, 258, 264 Sailer, Bishop, 234
Saints, Veneration of, 34
Rabanus Maurus, 103 Salamanca, University of, 220
Rale, 267 Salmeron, 215
Raphael Sanzio, 152 Salvador, 366
Rationalists, German, 234 Salvatierra, Juan, 263
Ratisbon, 300 Samoa, Catholics in, 384, Note
Rauscher, Cardinal, 315 San Antonio Mission, 264
Ravignan, 293 Sanchez, 220
Raymbault, 269 San Juan, 261
Raynaldus, 220 Santo Domingo, 250, 251, 371
Redemptorists, 213 Sault Ste. Marie, 269
Reductions, 255 Savonarola, 140
Reiffenstuel, 220 Saxony, 303
Reign of Terror, 291 Scandinavian Invasions, 84
Reinkens, 281 Scheffler, 223
Relief Act, 327 Schiller, 234
Religions of Europe, 280 Schism, Great Western, 137,
Rembrandt, 223 138
Remy, St., 79 Schmalkaldic League, 166
Renaissance, 151 Schmalzgreuber, 220
Renan s Life of Jesus, 294 Scholastica, St., 69
356 INDEX
Scholasticism, 131, 150, 151 Stuarts, 187

Schon, Martin, 152 Stylites, 68
Scottish Catholics, 329 Suarez, 220
Scottish Hierarchy, 282 Sumatra, 337
Sebastian, St., 15 Sunday, Institution of, 34
Semi-Arians, 43 Superstitions, 221
Semi-Pelagians, 46 Surius, 220
Senecas, 268 Suso, 150
Sergius, Patriarch, 50 Sutri, Council of, 97
Sermons, Pre-Reformation, Sweden, 313
Swedenborgians, 208
Serra, 263 Switzerland, Conversion of,
Servetus, Michael, 173 83
Servia, 324 Syllabus Errorum, 281
Sicilian Vespers, 114 Sylvester, Pope, 42
Sigismund I, Emperor, 138, 147 Sylvester II, Pope, 97
Simeon, St., 15 Sylvester III, Pope, 97
Simeon Stylites, St., 68 Symbols, 65
Simon de Montfort, 112 Syracuse, 268
Simon, Jules, 295 Syriac Language, 349
Simon Magus, 20 Syriac Rites, 349
Simon, Richard, 220 Syrian Catholics, 349
Simonv. 106 Syro-Chaldeans, 349
Sisters of Charity, 214
Sixtus II, Pope, 15 Taine, 294
Sixtus V, Pope, 211 Talmud, 17
Savery, 52, Note, 140, 145 Tasso, 223
Slavs, Conversion of, 100 Tauler, 150
Soto, Dominic, 220 Tegakwita, 268
South America, 250 Telemachus, 52
Sozomen 38, 43 Tertullian, 18, 22, 28
Spain and the Indians, 250, Test Act, 187
Note Tetzel, John, 158, 159
Spalding, Archbishop, 398 Texas, 264
Spanish Universities in Amer Theatines, 213
ica, 250, Note Theban Legion, 15
Spec, Frederich von, 221, Theiner, 220
223 Theodoric, 75
States of the Church, 90, 91 Theodosius I, the Great, 39, 61
St. Gall, 83, 89 Theodosius II, 39
St. Augustine, City of, 2^J Third Republic, 295
Stephen, St., 7 Thirty Years War, 225
Stephen, King, St., 100 Thomas Aquinas, St., 114, 132,
Stephen I, Pope, St., 27 ISO
Stephen II, Pope, 90 Thomas a Becket, St., no
Stephen IX, Pope, 97 Thomas Christians, 242, Note
Stolberg, 234 Tillemont, 220
Stoss, Viet, 152 Titian, 152
St. Peter s, 133, 152 Toledo, Council of, 78
Strabo, 103 Torgau, Treaty of, 163
INDEX 357
Tonsure, 70 Victor Emmanuel, King, 281

Tosti, 289 Victor, Emmanuel II, King,
Toulouse, Council of, 123 287
Tournely, 220 Vienne, Council of, 135
Transubstantiation, 112 Vincent de Paul, St., 213
Trappists, 213 Vincent de Paul St., Society of.
Treaty of Paris, 266 293, 294
Trent, Council of, 210 Vinci, Leonardo da, 152
Trinitarians, 126 Vinland, 100
Trullan Synod, Second, 39 Vio, de, Cardinal, 220
Tucson, 262* Vischer, Peter, 152
Turkey, 321 Visigoths, 74, 78
Turks, 166 Visitation, Sisters of the, 214
Turks in Constantinople, 139 Voltaire, 233
Tyrol, 302 Vulgate, 62
Ulfilas, 73
Uniats, The 348 Waldeck-Rousseau, 295
Unification of Italy, 288 Waldenses, 121
University, First American, 253 Washington, George, 411
Universities, Mediaeval, 150 Weishaupt, 234
Urban II, Pope, 117 Westphalia, Peace of, 227
Urban III, Pope, in Wilfrid, St., 82
Urban V, Pope 135 William I, Emperor of Ger
Urban VI, Pope, 137 many, 301
Urban VIII, Pope, 211, 235 William II, Emperor, 282, 301
Ursulines, 214 William III, King, 187
Uruguay, 359 William, of Orange, 187
Willibrord, St., 85
Valdivia, 250 Windthorst, 301
Vandals, 77 Wiseman, 281, 327
Van Eyck, 152 Witchcraft, 52
Vargas, 261 Wolf, Christian, 234
Vasa, Gustavus, 200 Wurtemberg, 304
Vasquez, 220 Xavier, Francis, St., 215, 242,
Vatican Archives, 282 244, 245
Vega, Lope de, 223 Ximenes, 140, 145, 150
Venezuela, 354 Young Italy, 287
Veuillot, Louis, 293 Zaccaria, 220
Vicari, Herman von, 305 Zacatecas, 258, 264
Victor I, Pope, 27 Zeno, Emperor, 39
Victor II, Pope, 97 Zwingli, Ulrich, 172

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A SHORT HISTORY

B. HERDER BOOK CO.

Archie pisco pus

All rights reserved

XX) and the chapters on the latest period of Church

New York, January, 1916.

II THE WORLD AT THE COMING OF CHRIST .... 3

FIRST EPOCH: CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITY

FKOM THE DEATH OF CHRIST TO THE EDICT OF MILAN

iv. Attacks by Pagan ....

IV LIFE OF THE CHURCH .......... 19

PERIOD II. A. D. 313-800

VI LIFE OF THE CHURCH ..... ..... 46

VIII THE EASTERN EMPIRE 83

SECOND EPOCH: THE MIDDLE AGES

FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO GREGORY VII

PERIOD II. A. D. 1073-1303

XII LIFE OF THE CHURCH . ... . . . . . . . . 108

FROM THE REIGN OF BONIFACE VIII TO LUTHER S REVOLT

XIV LIFE OF THE CHURCH 131

THIRD EPOCH: MODERN TIMES

XVI PROTESTANTISM 146

XVII THE CATHOLIC CHURCH 187

XVIII RELIGIOUS DISCORDS 201

XIX FOREIGN MISSIONS IN AFRICA AND ASIA .... 210

PERIOD II. A. D. 1789-1914

XXIII OCEANIA, ASIA AND AFRICA 286

XXV SPANISH AND BRITISH AMERICA . 295

APPENDIX I The Ecumenical Councils 339

APPENDIX II List of the Popes 34*

II Mediaeval Central Europe 7

III Mediaeval Western Europe 74

IV Central Europe in the Sixteenth Century .... 147

V Early Missions in Africa and India 212

VI Missions in China and Japan 215

VII Early Bishoprics in South America 221

VIII Early Missions and Bishoprics in Mexico . . . .226

X British America 305

XI Sees in the United States (i) 310

XII Sees in the United States (2) 3U

tory falls into the following divisions:

Second Epoch: The Middle Ages (800-1517) : Catho

1517) : Decline of the Papal Power.

3. Negative Preparation. The history of the pa

II. THE JEWS

prepared the Jewish people for the advent of Christ.

belief and licentious in conduct. 2. The Pharisees, lead

ers of the people, chiefly hypocrites, given to external

kind could be saved only by a Divine Mediator. The

upon the cross. Church history properly begins at the

7. First Years of the Church (A. D. 30-42). On

of the Apostles and in the communion of the breaking

imprisoned and scourged. The bitter opposition of the

and the first victim, St. Stephen, was stoned to death in

John, was put to death; St. Peter was imprisoned, but

place,&quot; probably Rome.

Damascus, Our Lord appeared to him and the violent

and then went to Jerusalem to see Peter.&quot; At Antioch

he was ordained and officially recognized as an Apostle of

place," probably Rome.

and then went to Jerusalem to see Peter." At Antioch

first used at Rome."

not more wicked to kill than to be killed." The Theban

whatever religion he professed." Constantine had

ev rouTw VLKO. In this conquer." Eusebius in his Life

Scripture and on secret traditions."