Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

Internal combustion engine cycles:

• Otto cycle : spark ignition engine

Combustion Engines Nikolaus August Otto

German (1832-1891)

Cycles
• Ideal cycle • Diesel cycle: compression ignition engine

• Real cycle
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel
German (1858-1913)

• Dual cycle : modern engines

Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

Combustion engine parameters Assumptions for the ideal cycle

• The combustion process in open cycle is assimilated by a heat addition

Geometrical parameters : from external source. No heat losses

• B : cylinder bore • Working fluid properties are those of AIR, as an ideal gas.
L • L : piston stroke
Piston
• R : connecting rod length • Constant specific heats Cp and Cv, no dependency with temperature,
• a : crank radius or offset used values correspond to ambient conditions.
• S : piston position
• q : crank angle • Instantaneous Combustion (heat addition)
• Vc : clearance volume
R • Instantaneous opening and closing of intake and exhaust valves
• Vd : swept volume (p.B2/4.L)
S
• VBDC : maximal volume (Vc + Vd) • All processes are reversible
• VTDC : minimal volume (Vc)
• No pressure loss during intake and exhaust strokes
 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4
Ideal OTTO cycle for spark ignition engines Thermal efficiency:
Pressure
From the 1st law in case of a closed system :
3 Working fluid = AIR

Qin  Qout   Wout - Win   U (J),
 
with : W  pdV
Qin Processes: Qnet Wcycle
2 • 0 – 1 : air intake Pr ocess 2 - 3 is isochoric : Win  Wout  0, with : Qout  0  Qin   23 U   U 3  U 2  mCv T3  T2 
• 1 - 2 : isentropic compression Pr ocess 4 - 1 is isochoric : Win  Wout  0, with : Qin  0  Qout   41U   U 4  U 1  mCv T4  T1 

4
• 2 - 3 : isochoric combustion
T
Qout • 3 - 4 : isentropic expansion T1  4  1
Qout T4  T1  T1 
0 1 • 4 - 0 : exhaust We obtain :  Otto  1   1 1
Qin T3  T2 T
Volume • Qin : heat addition (2 – 3) T2  3  1

• Qout : heat rejection (4 –1)  T2 
 1 
T V 
V V Process 1 - 2 is isentropic : 2   1  
Compression ratio : rv  BDC  1 T1  V2   T2 T3
TDC VTDC V2
BDC
 1
  T  T , since : V3  V2 and V4  V1
T3  V4   1 4
Wcycle Qin  Qout Q Process 3 - 4 is isentropic :   
Thermal efficiency :Otto    1  out T4  V3  
Qin Qin Qin
 1  1
Wcycle Qin  Qout T V  V  1
Indicated Mean effectice pressure : IMEPOtto   Finally :  Otto  1  1  1   2   1   TDC    Otto  1 
Vd VBDC  VTDC  T2  V1   V BDC  rv  1

Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

Indicated Mean effective pressure: IMEP
High efficiency sensibility with specific heat ratio ( g ) : From the 1st law in case of a closed system :

Qin  Qout   Wout - Win   U (J), with : W  pdV
 
Qnet Wcycle
Pr ocess 1 - 2 is isentropic : Qin  Qout  0 , with : Wout  0  Win  U 2  U 1  mCv T2  T1 
r
 Win  mCv T2  T1   m T  T   1 mrT2  mrT1    1 1  p2V2  p1V1 
 1 2 1  1
Pr ocess 3 - 4 is isentropic : Qin  Qout  0 , with : Win  0  Wout  U 4  U 3  mCv T4  T3 
r 1 1
 Wout  mCv T3  T4   m T  T   mrT3  mrT4     1  p3V3  p4V4 
 1 3 4  1
1 1
We get for the cycle : Wcycle  Wout  Win   p V  p4V4     1  p2V2  p1V1 
 1 3 3
pV  p3V3  pV  p V  pV  1  pV  1 
or : Wcycle  4 4   1  1 1  2 2  1  4 4  rv   1  1 1  rv   1
 1  p4V4    1  p1V1   1  rv   1  rv 
Finally : Wcycle 
1
 1
   V
 
rv  1  1 . p4V4  p1V1   1 rv  1  1 . p4  p1 , sin ce : V1  V4
 1

  1 
rv  1  1 . p4  p1    1 1 rv  rv r  1 1 . p4  p1 
Wcycle
IMEPOtto 
V1  V 2
 V1  1
 
 V1  V2    1
  v
 
 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4
Ideal Diesel cycle for compression ignition engines Thermal efficiency:
From the 1st law in case of a closed system:
Pression Working fluid = AIR
Qin 
Qin  Qout    Wout -Win   U (J),
 
with: W  pdV
2 3 Processes:
Qnet Wcycle

• 0 – 1 : air intake
• 1 - 2 : isentropic compression Pr ocess 2-3 is isobaric : P2  P3  cst,Qout  0, Win  0
4
Qout • 2 - 3 : isobaric combustion  Qin  P2 V3  V2    23 U   mCv T3  T2 
• 3 - 4 : isentropic expansion
0 1
• 4 - 0 : exhaust  Qin  P2 V3  V2   mCv T3  T2   m.r. T3  T2   mCv T3  T2 
Volume
• Qin : heat addition (2 – 3)  Qin  mC p T3  T2  , since : C p -C v  r
• Qout : heat rejection (4 –1)
Pr ocess 4-1 is isochoric : dV  0  Q out   41 U   U 4  U1  mCv T4  T1 
T
TDC BDC T1  4  1
Q mCv T4  T1  T1
Wcycle Qin  Qout Q We obtain :  Diesel  1  out  1  1  
Thermal efficiency : Diesel    1  out Qin mC p T3  T2  T3
Qin Qin Qin T2   1

 T2 
Wcycle Qin  Qout P2V2 P3V3 T3 V3
Indicated Mean effectice pressure : IMEPDiesel   Process 2 - 3 :  and P2  P3    rc cut  off or load ratio   1
Vd VBDC  VTDC  T2 T3 T2 V2

Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

Indicated Mean effective pressure: IMEP
1 1
P4V4 P1V1 T P Cycle net work : Wcycle  
p . V3  V2
2 
  
p V  p4V4 
 1 3 3

p V  p V1
 1 2 2 1 
 
Process 4 - 1 :  and V4  V1  4  4 Isobaric combution   
T4 T1 T1 P1 Expansion Compression
p .V  V   V1 . p4  p1 
Process 1 - 2 is isentropic : P1V1  P2V2  P4V4 P3V3 P V 
 or : Wcycle  p2 .V3  V2   2 3 2
 1
, sin ce : p2  p3 and V4  V1
   4   3   rc  ,
Process 3 - 4 is isentropic : P4V4  P3V3  P1V1 P2V2 P1  V2  V2  p2 . rc  1  rv . p4  p1  V V
 p2 .V2 .rc  1  , sin ce : rc  3 , and : rv  1
 1 V2 V2
since : P3  P2 and V4  V1  V
 p2 .V2 .rc  1  2  p2 .rc  p2  rv . p4  rv . p1 
T  1
T1  4  1   
Finally :  Diesel  1   T1  
  1  1 T1  rc  1  sin ce : p4  p3 (
V3 
V4
V V
V2 V1
V
)  p 2 ( 3 2 )  p 2 ( rc rv1 ) , and : p1  p 2 ( 2 )  p 2 ( rv1 )
V1
T  T  r  1 
T2  3  1 2 c  We get :
p .V

Wcycle  p2 .V2 .rc  1  2 2 rc  1  rv .( rc rv1 )  rv .( rv1 ) 
 T2   1
 1
T V 
Process 1 - 2 is isentropic : 1   2  
1 
p2 .V2
 1
 
  1rc  1  rc  1  rc .rv1  rv1 
T2  V1  rv  1
  Diesel  1 
1  r   1 
 c 
p .V
 
Finally : Wcycle  2 2  rc  1  rv1 rc .  1
 1

rv  1   ( rc  1 ) 
Wcycle  1  p2
IMEPDiesel   
V 1  V 2  rv  1    1
 
 rc  1  rv1 rc .  1 
 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4
Diesel efficiency analysis:
V3 V V
This is given by : Case 2 : rc  rv (rc approaches rv) In this case :  1  4  V3  V4
V2 V2 V2
1  r   1 
 Diesel  1   c  with : r  T3  V3 Cutoff or load ratio  and : r  V1   VBDC   r   1 
1 1 
c T v V   1  rv 
rv  1   ( rc  1 )  2 V2 2  VTDC   Diesel  1   v   1 1  
Efficiency :
r  1
rv  1   ( rv  1 )    1 1
 rv

V V V  
Since : V2  V3  V4 (  V1 ), so : 2  3  1  1  rc  rv . 2 cases of interest :  c
V2 V2 V2 rc  rv
Cycle net work : Pression
Case 1 : rc  1 (rc approaches 1)
  
Qin
 rc  1  r   1  1  (rc  1)   1 34
Considering the term in brackets :
 ( rc  1)
, which can be written as : c
 (rc  1)  ( rc  1)
p .V
 1

Wcycle  2 2  rc  1  rv1  
r .  1
c
2




1  (rc  1) 

1 1
  
  (  1) 
dWcycle
drc

d
drc

 rc  1  rv1 r .  1
c Qout
 1   ( rc  1)  (rc  1) 2  ......  1  1 as rc  1
 (rc  1) 
 (rc  1)

2! 

d
drc
  
 rc  1  rv1 rc .  1    rv1 . .rc 1
0 1
Volume
1
 Diesel  1   1   Otto dWcycle
 rv   0  rc  rv : the maximum of the net work
drc
 Diesel   Otto as rc  1
TDC BDC

Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

Efficiency variation with compression ratio: rv Dual cycle
Pressure
V V Working fluid = AIR
Compression ratio : rv  1 and cut - off ratio : rc  3
V2 V2
3 4
Qin Processes:
2 • 0 – 1 : air intake
Diesel GAMA = 1.4
Otto (rc = 1) • 1 - 2 : isentropic compression
5
• 2 - 3 : isochoric combustion
Qout • 3 - 4 : isobaric combustion
0 1 • 4 – 5 : isentropic expansion
rc = rv
Volume • 5 - 0 : exhaust
• Qin : heat addition (2 – 3 & 3 - 4)
• Qout : heat rejection (5 –1)
Otto Diesel
As rc increases,
TDC BDC
efficiency reduces
Wcycle Qin  Qout Q
Thermal efficiency :  dual    1  out
Qin Qin Qin
Wcycle Wi
Indicated Mean effectice pressure : IMEPdual  
Vd VBDC  VTDC 
 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4
Thermal efficiency:
V V
Compression ratio : rv  1 , Cutoff ratio : rc  4 , Pressure ratio :   3
p 1   .rc  1 
V2 V2 p2 After substitut ing, we get :  dual  1   
rv 1  (   1 )   . .( rc  1 ) 
Added heat calculation : Qin
From processes 2 - 3 and 3 - 4 : Qin  mCv T3  T2   mC p T4  T3  1
For rc  1 :  dual  1   Otto
Rejected heat calculation : Qout rv
From process 5 - 1 : Qout  mCv T5  T1  1  rc  1 
For   1 :  dual  1      Diesel
Q mCv T5  T1  T5  T1  rv 1   .( rc  1 ) 
Efficiency : dual  1  out  1   1
Qin mCv T3  T2   mC p T4  T3  T3  T2    T4  T3 
Indicated Mean effective pressure: IMEP
P2 P3 T
Process 2 - 3 :   T2  3 ,
T2 T3   
p .r   . ( rc - 1)  (  - 1) - rv1 (  .rc  1 )
It can be shown that : IMEPdual  1 v
V V (   1 )( rv  1 )
Process 3 - 4 : 4  3  T4  rcT3
T4 T3 1  r  1  1 
For rc  1 : IMEPdual  r  v . p  p   IMEP
 -1  1 v  rv  1  4 1 Otto
T V  T r  1 T3rc  
Process 4 - 5 : 4   5   T5  4 c  p
T5  V4  r  1
v r  1
v 2

T
 -1
T3 For   1 : IMEPdual  1 v
 
p .r   ( rc - 1) - rv1 (rc  1 )  1  p2
     
 rc  1  rv1 rc .  1  IMEPDiesel
V  (   1 )( rv  1 )  rv  1    1
Process 1 - 2 : 2   1   T1 
T1  V2   .r  1
v

Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

Real fuel-air cycle Actual P-V diagram
• Actual cycle differs significantly from the ideal one (efficiency is about twice atcual one)

• Assuming constant specific heats Cp and Cv, is a serious error. Cp and Cv have a fairly
strong dependency on T .

• Working fluid : 1 / INTAKE : mixture of air + fuel (7 %) for SI engine + residual gas of
combustion at the end of combustion. 2/ EXPANSION and EXHAUST : mixture of gas
resulting from combustion (CO2, CO, H2O, Nox, solid particles, and air in excess ).
Efficiency reduces.

• Compression and expansion are polytropic ( P vn = cst, with n ≠ g )

• Opening and closing of intake and exhaust valves require a finite time to actuate due the
geometry of the camshaft. Intake stroke takes place below atm. pressure and exhaust
stroke above atm. pressure, causing the PUMPING LOSSES. Early exhaust valve causes
the BLOWDOWN phenomenon reducing rapidly temp. and pressure.

• There are heat losses during the cycle to the surrounding . Heat loss lowers the max of
temperature and pressure in the ideal cycle which lowers the thermal efficiency

• Combustion requires a short time to occur. A fast but finite speed flame is desired in an
engine

• Friction losses take place, reducing the mechanical efficiency

 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4
Cp dependency on temperature High efficiency dependency on f

Lean

V
Compression ratio : rv  BDC
VTDC

Equivalent ratio :
h Rich ( FA )act ( AF )stoich
 
( FA )stoich ( AF )act
f

Fuel mass m f m f 1
FA     FA 
Air mass ma m a AF

Compression ratio rv

Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

Cycle losses Combustion Engine system

EVO

EXHAUST
IVO
IVC

EVC
INTAKE

TDC BDC
 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4
Intake and exhaust valve arrangement Camshaft geometry

Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

4S / SI Valve timing profile Actual timing diagram (Spiral)
Combustion begins
before the completion
of the compression
stroke.
Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4
Adjusting Exhaust valve opening Camshaft timing synchronization

Early EVO bBDC

Optimum EVO bBDC

EVO just at BDC

Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

Influence of spark advance Residual mass
Products of combustion: CO2, H2O, CO, Nox, O2, N2 (Mixture)
Pressure

Residual mass m6
Spark advance 35° bTDC
(optimum) Blowdown

Spark advance 17° bTDC

4
Pext 6 5
5a
Spark advance 0° at TDC

State 4 at BDC State 5 at BDC State 6 at TDC

Ideal Volume : V4 Volume: V5 > V4 Volume: V6 V6 (TDC) V4 (BDC) V5
cycle Mass: m4 Mass : m6
Mass fraction :
Q56  W56  U 6  U 5  1 m V v 1 v4 1 T4 Pexh
Q56  0 and W56  Pexh V6  V5  P   f  6  6 6  
Texh  T4  exh  m4 V4 v4 rv v6 rv Texh P4
U 6  PexhV6  U 5  PexhV5  h6  h5  P4  1

Vol or : T5  T6  Texh
with : P5  Pexh 1  Pexh  
f   P 
rv
TDC BDC.  4 
 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4
Turbocharging system Turbocharging

Turbine
Propeller
Compressor

Turbine
Compressor

Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

Cycle with turbocharger : use of blowdown energy Combustion delay

Combustion end

Pressure increase
due to combustion
Combustion start

Positive work
 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4
Part throttling (Pumping loss) Pext Throttling vs. Pumping losses
Pext
 
 
(WOT)  
Pumping work : WP   Pi  Pext .Vd
 
 int ake 
 pressure external
pressure 

Pi ≈Pout Pi < Pout
Wide open throttle Part
(WOT) throttle

Pext
Pext
Throttle Pumping loss
Pi
Pumping loss
(Butterfly type)

Running at less than WOT (Wide-Open Throttle) conditions, the air-fuel input reduces by
partially closing the throttle and the pumping loss increases

Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4

IMEP (Production vs. Consumption) Blowby loss
Compression stroke Expansion stroke
Wide open throttle (WOT) Part throttle

Escaping air
(CI) or air-fuel
(SI) Escaping
exhaust gases

IMEP
(production)
IMEP
(production)
IMEP
(consumption) IMEP
(consumption)
 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4 Combustion Engines / AERO - 4
Piston seal to reduce blow-by loss Clearances for ring mounting

Gas pressure

Piston
Cylinder wall

Gas fow
Ring