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Handbook of Clinical Skills

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Handbook of
Clinical Skills
Second Edition
Handbook of
Clinical Skills
Second Edition
Edited by
Peter Kopelman MD, DSc(Hon), FRCP, FFPH, FFacMEd(Hon)
Emeritus Professor of Medicine and Vice-Chancellor
University of London, UK
Dame Jane Dacre BSc, MD, FRCP
Professor of Medical Education, University College London
and Consultant Physician and Rheumatologist
Whittington Health NHS Trust, London, UK

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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Contents

Preface............................................................................................xi
Associate editors..........................................................................xiii
Contributors..................................................................................xv
Acknowledgements....................................................................... xvi
Video resources...........................................................................xvii
Clinical examination................................................................... xvii
Practical procedures.................................................................... xvii
List of video resources............................................................... xviii
Abbreviations...............................................................................xxi

1 History taking and examination.............................................. 1

History taking................................................................................. 4
Communication.............................................................................. 4
General advice............................................................................ 4
Spoken communication.............................................................. 6
Data gathering and assimilation..................................................... 8
Following an accepted structure.............................................. 11
History of presenting complaint.............................................. 11
Systems review.......................................................................... 12
Past medical history.................................................................. 13
Personal and social history....................................................... 13
Family history and treatment history ..................................... 15
The routine physical examination................................................ 16
Scheme for the routine physical examination......................... 17
General observation................................................................. 17
Hands and arms........................................................................ 18
Head and neck.......................................................................... 18
vi Contents

Chest and heart......................................................................... 18

Abdomen................................................................................... 19
Legs........................................................................................... 19
Nervous system......................................................................... 19
Formulating a diagnosis................................................................ 21
Writing it down........................................................................ 22
Presenting your findings to others.......................................... 22
Problem listing in the medical records.................................... 23
Initial investigation plan.......................................................... 24
General therapeutic and technical skills...................................... 27
Phlebotomy.................................................................................... 27
Preparing an intravenous cannula........................................... 28
Setting up ‘the giving set’ for intravenous administration..... 29
Preparing an antibiotic for intravenous infusion.................... 29

2 The cardiovascular system..................................................... 31

The heart.................................................................................32
Applied anatomy and physiology of the heart.............................. 32
Assessment and diagnosis of cardiovascular disease.................... 34
Taking the history.................................................................... 34
Examination of the patient....................................................... 38
Illustrated physical signs.......................................................... 59
Therapeutic and interventional skills...................................... 62
The arterial system................................................................ 70
Applied anatomy and physiology of the arterial system.............. 71
Aneurysms..................................................................................... 72
Assessment and diagnosis of aneurysms.................................. 72
Chronic arterial occlusive disease................................................ 74
Assessment and diagnosis......................................................... 74
Acute limb ischaemia.................................................................... 82
Varicose veins and venous insufficiency................................ 84
Applied anatomy and physiology of the venous system in
the legs...................................................................................... 84
Assessment and diagnosis of varicose veins.................................. 86
Taking the history.................................................................... 86
General observations................................................................ 88
Care of the patient with varicose veins.................................... 89
 Contents vii

Assessment of chronic venous insufficiency................................. 89

Taking the history.................................................................... 89
Physical examination................................................................ 90

3 The respiratory system.......................................................... 91

The nose................................................................................ 92
Applied anatomy and physiology.................................................. 92
Assessment and diagnosis............................................................. 93
Taking the history.................................................................... 93
Examination of the nose........................................................... 93
The lungs............................................................................... 93
Applied anatomy and physiology.................................................. 93
Assessment and diagnosis of respiratory disease.......................... 95
Taking the history.................................................................... 95
Examination of the patient..................................................... 103
Illustrated physical signs.........................................................119
Therapeutic and interventional skills.................................... 123

4 The abdomen....................................................................... 129

Applied anatomy and physiology of the gut............................... 129
Applied anatomy and physiology of the urinary tract................132
Assessment and diagnosis............................................................133
Taking the history...................................................................133
Examination.............................................................................141
Illustrated physical signs.........................................................155
Therapeutic and technical skills............................................ 156

5 The locomotor system......................................................... 163

Applied anatomy and physiology of the joints............................163
Assessment and diagnosis of joint disease...................................165
Taking the history...................................................................165
Examination of the patient......................................................170
Recording a normal locomotor system examination............ 180
Illustrated physical signs.........................................................181
Therapeutic and interventional skills.................................... 183
viii Contents

6 The nervous system..............................................................187

Applied anatomy and physiology................................................ 187
The motor system................................................................... 187
Coordination.......................................................................... 189
The sensory system................................................................ 190
Vascular supply........................................................................191
Assessment and diagnosis........................................................... 192
Taking the history.................................................................. 192
Examination of the nervous system....................................... 197
Assessment of mental state, personality and intellectual
function.............................................................................. 200
Examination of the cranial nerves......................................... 202
The motor and sensory systems..............................................215
Illustrated physical signs........................................................ 230
Abnormalities of the motor system........................................ 238
Therapeutic and technical skills............................................ 238

7 The female reproductive system......................................... 245

Obstetrics and gynaecology..................................................245
Applied anatomy and physiology................................................ 246
Assessment and diagnosis of obstetric and gynaecological
problems.................................................................................. 247
Taking the history.................................................................. 247
Examination of the patient..................................................... 253
Therapeutic and technical skills.............................................261
The breasts........................................................................... 264
Applied anatomy of the breasts and axillae................................ 264
Assessment and diagnosis of breast disease................................ 266
Taking the history.................................................................. 266
Examination of the patient..................................................... 269
Care of the patient with breast symptoms............................. 270

8 The male reproductive system and hernias........................ 273

The male external genitalia..................................................273
Applied anatomy and physiology.................................................274
Assessment and diagnosis............................................................276
Taking the history...................................................................276
 Contents ix

Examination of the patient..................................................... 280

Therapeutic and interventional skills.................................... 282
Hernias (males and females)................................................ 283
Types of abdominal wall hernia.................................................. 284
Applied anatomy..................................................................... 284
Assessment and diagnosis of groin hernias................................ 287
Taking the history.................................................................. 287
Illustrated physical signs........................................................ 291
Care of the patient with a hernia........................................... 292

9 The endocrine system.......................................................... 293

Applied anatomy and physiology of the endocrine system........ 293
The thyroid gland....................................................................... 294
Applied anatomy and physiology of the thyroid................... 294
Assessment and diagnosis of endocrine disease......................... 294
Taking the history.................................................................. 295
Examination of the patient..................................................... 297
Illustrated physical signs........................................................ 304

10 The skin................................................................................ 307

Applied anatomy of the skin....................................................... 307
Assessment and diagnosis........................................................... 307
Taking the history.................................................................. 308
Examination of the patient..................................................... 309
Key features of skin disease....................................................310
Illustrated physical signs.........................................................312

11 An introduction to the general practice consultation........ 321

The general practice setting........................................................321
Familiarity and continuity of patient care..............................321
The presenting complaint...................................................... 322
The clinical consultation in general practice............................. 322
The five steps of the Calgary–Cambridge Observation
Guide...................................................................................323
Building the relationship........................................................ 326
Red flags in general practice.................................................. 327
x Contents

Investigating the patient in general practice...............................333

Recording vital signs: an objective measure of health
and disease...........................................................................333
Investigations: choice, interpretation and application...........333
Biomarkers of disease and their use in general practice........336
Referring on: the structure and contents of an effective
referral letter............................................................................338
Safe prescribing in general practice........................................... 340
References.................................................................................... 341

12 Assessment of the psychiatric patient................................ 343

Assessment and diagnosis of psychiatric disorders.................... 347
Taking the history.................................................................. 347
Examination of the patient......................................................357
Key laboratory tests and investigations................................. 369

13 Paediatric history and examination..................................... 373

A scheme for history taking and examination of the child.........374
Taking the history...................................................................375
Examination of the child........................................................ 381
Conclusions................................................................................. 394

Index........................................................................................... 395
Preface

The most important clinical skills required for day-to-day medical

practice are the abilities to listen carefully, to observe, to take an appro-
priately comprehensive history, to examine a patient correctly and to
perform simple procedures in the clinic or at the bedside. Mastery
of these professional skills will enable clinicians to bring a reasoned
approach to the possible diagnosis and management of their patients.
Such skills, combined with care and compassion, respect of the con-
fidential nature of the interview, a constant awareness of infection con-
trol and the primacy of safe practice, provide the cornerstones of good
medical practice. The acquisition and constant perfecting of clinical
skills are a source of continuing enjoyment and challenge.
Although it is easy to request a long list of investigations, the good
clinician is often able to resolve complicated clinical problems quickly,
simply and satisfactorily after a thorough history and clinical exam-
ination and a small number of investigations focused on resolving a
diagnostic hypothesis. Any request for an investigation should take
account of potential discomfort and its cost against the likelihood of
its result contributing to the patient’s care. In short, competence in
clinical method is a major contributor to excellence in practice.
Our objective for the second edition of this handbook is to provide
a brief, readable introduction to these important skills, illustrated by
videos accessed online to demonstrate how they can be mastered and
how they may be applied. We continue to emphasise communication
skills and a respectful approach to every patient, recognising that poor
communication with patients and their relatives contributes to unsat-
isfactory clinical outcomes. This book is aimed primarily at those in
xii Preface

the early stages of their training, but we appreciate its relevance to all
those in medical practice.
The book begins with an overview of the general examination, fol-
lowed by chapters on the examination of the cardiovascular, respira-
tory, gastrointestinal (including the urinary), locomotor and nervous
systems. It includes chapters on the female and male reproductive sys-
tems, the endocrine system, the skin, child health and mental health.
There is in addition a chapter on the general practice consultation,
which collates the specialist clinical methods from previous chapters
into a single chapter that considers their application within an abbre-
viated timescale.
The book is intended as a practical manual of clinical methods,
designed to assist the learning clinician within every setting of patient
care. It is our sincere hope that use of the book will instil the fascina-
tion for clinical practice that remains evident in all of the contributing
authors.
The book’s underlying message is that of Sir William Osler: ‘The
art of the practice of medicine is to be learned only by experience; ’tis
not an inheritance; it cannot be revealed. Learn to see, learn to hear,
learn to feel, learn to smell, and know that by practice alone can you
become expert.’

Peter Kopelman
Jane Dacre
Associate editors

Claire Kopelman BMedSc, MBChB, MRCGP

GP Partner, Holt Medical Practice, Holt, Norfolk; and Honorary
Senior Lecturer and Associate Tutor, Norwich Medical School,
University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK

Iain MacPhee DPhil, FRCP

Professor of Renal Medicine, St George’s, University of London; and
Honorary Consultant Nephrologist, St George’s University Hospitals
NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

Deirdre Wallace MAEd

Lead for Clinical and Professional Skills and Leadership
and Management Development, University College London
Medical School, London, UK
Contributors

Julius Bourke MBBS MRCPsych

Honorary Clinical Senior Lecturer in Neurophysiology and Clinical
Psychiatry, Queen Mary, University of London; and Consultant
Liaison Neuropsychiatrist, Nightingale Hospital, London, UK

Stephen Brearley MA, MB, MChir, FRCS

Consultant General and Vascular Surgeon, Whipps Cross University
Hospital; Consultant Vascular Surgeon at the Royal London
Hospital; and Honorary Senior Lecturer, Queen Mary, University of
London, UK

Dame Jane Dacre BSc, MD, FRCP

Professor of Medical Education, University College London; and
Consultant Physician and Rheumatologist, Whittington Health
NHS Trust, London, UK

Robert Klaber OBE, MA, MBBS, FRCPCH, FHEA, FAcadMEd, MD

Consultant Paediatrician and Deputy Medical Director, Imperial
College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK

Claire Kopelman BMedSc, MBChB, MRCGP

GP Partner, Holt Medical Practice, Holt, Norfolk; and Honorary
Senior Lecturer and Associate Tutor, Norwich Medical School,
University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
xvi Contributors

Peter Kopelman MD, DSc(Hon), FRCP, FFPH, FFacMEd(Hon)

Emeritus Professor of Medicine, Vice-Chancellor, University of
London, London, UK

Iain MacPhee DPhil, FRCP

Professor of Renal Medicine, St George’s, University of London; and
Honorary Consultant Nephrologist, St George’s University Hospitals
NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

Clive Spence-Jones FRCS(Ed), FRCOG

Consultant Obstetrician and Gynaecologist with special interest in
Urogynaecology, Whittington Health NHS Trust; and Honorary
Senior Lecturer, University College London, London, UK

Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following who so willingly and enthusiastically
contributed their valuable time to the making of the videos:

Deirdre Wallace – Clinical Skills Manager, UCLMS

Catherine Phillips – Senior Clinical Skills Tutor, UCLMS
Tina Nyazika – Senior Clinical Skills Tutor, UCLMS
Emma Thompsett – Clinical Skills Tutor, UCLMS
Dr Saniath Akbar – Gastroenterology Specialist Registrar, UCLMS
Dr Kanika Sharma – Clinical Teaching Fellow, UCLMS
Dr Anjali Rajendra Gondhalekar – GP Specialist Registrar, UCLMS
Dr Jonathan Mayhew – Clinical Teaching Fellow, UCLMS
Dr Natasha Malik – Clinical Teaching Fellow, UCLMS
Mr Richard Laing
and
Matt Aucott – Video Producer, University College London
Brian Barnes – Editor, Osmium Films
Video resources

Clinical examination
The cardiovascular, respiratory and musculoskeletal system chapters
are accompanied by videos. The videos provide a step-by-step explana-
tion of the physical examination procedure, demonstrating how each
system examination is performed, what you are looking to elicit and
what might be a positive or a negative finding. The videos should not
be considered as an alternative to reading each chapter but a method of
complementing your knowledge of underlying principles – they pro-
vide a demonstration of how the text is put into clinical practice.
The reader is encouraged to work through the chapters with col-
leagues and then test out the procedure for each system on one another
prior to examining patients.

Practical procedures
Videos demonstrating important practical procedures are included at
the end of relevant chapters. For each procedure, you should know the
indications and contraindications and be able to:

• Explain the procedure to patients, including possible complications,

and gain valid informed consent.
• Carry out thorough hand washing and know how/when to use ster-
ile gloves and, when appropriate, masks and protective clothing.
• Prepare the required equipment, including a sterile field.
• Position the patient and ensure their comfort.
xviii Video resources

• Adequately prepare the skin using aseptic technique where relevant.

• Administer local anaesthetic correctly for the procedure if required.
• Recognise, record and be able to undertake emergency manage-
ment of common complications
• Safely dispose of equipment, including sharps.

List of video resources

The videos listed below and referenced in the text can be accessed via
the companion website that accompanies this text book by using the
following link:
https://www.crcpress.com/cw/kopelman
It will take you to a webpage where you can click on Downloads/
Updates to access the resources themselves. From the ebook click on
the above link to access the videos or use the link cited in the chapters.

Chapter 1 History taking and examination

Video 1.1 Venepuncture using a vacutainer
Video 1.2 Venepuncture/phlebotomy using the butterfly system
Video 1.3 Preparing an intravenous infusion
Video 1.4 Preparing an antibiotic for intravenous infusion

Chapter 2 The cardiovascular system

Video 2.1 The cardiovascular examination
Video 2.2 Measuring the blood pressure
Video 2.3 Recording an ECG
Video 2.4 Interpreting an ECG

Chapter 3 The respiratory system

Video 3.1 The respiratory examination
Video 3.2 ABG sampling with a local anaesthetic
 Video resources xix

Chapter 4 The abdomen

Video 4.1 The abdominal examination

Chapter 5 The locomotor system

Video 5.1 The GALS examination

Chapter 6 The nervous system

Video 6.1 The neurological examination

Chapter 7 The female reproductive system

Video 7.1 Inserting a female catheter
Video 7.2 Collecting and testing urine

Chapter 8 The male reproductive system and hernias

Video 8.1 Inserting a male catheter
Abbreviations

↑ increased
→ deviated towards the right
↓ decreased
A2 aortic component of the second heart sound
AAA abdominal aortic aneurysm
ACR/PCR albumin:creatinine ratio/protein:creatinine ratio
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone
ADH antidiuretic hormone
AF atrial fibrillation
ALP alkaline phosphatase
ALT alanine aminotransferase
aPTT activated partial thromboplastin time
ASD atrial septal defect
AST aspartate aminotransferase
AVF/AVL/AVR ECG leads looking from the right arm (AVR),
left arm (AVL) and feet (AVF)
AVP arginine-vasopressin
BCG Bacille Calmette–Guerin – the vaccination against
tuberculosis
BMI body mass index
BNP B-type natriuretic peptide
BP blood pressure
bpm beats per minute
BS breath sounds/bowel sounds
C/O complains of
xxii Abbreviations

CCF congestive cardiac failure

CCP cyclic citrullinated peptide
CEA carcinoembryonic antigen
CKD-EPI Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology
(Collaboration)
CMV cytomegalovirus
CNS central nervous system
CO2 carbon dioxide
COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CRP C-reactive protein
CT computed tomography
CVP central venous pressure
CVS cardiovascular system
CXR chest X-ray
DVT deep vein thrombosis
EBV Epstein–Barr virus
ECG electrocardiogram
EEG electroencephalogram
eGFR estimated glomerular filtration rate
ENA extractable nuclear antigen
ESR erythrocyte sedimentation rate
FBC full blood count
FH family history
FSH follicle-stimulating hormone
γGT gamma-glutamyl transferase
GALS gait, arms, legs, spine
GFR glomerular filtration rate
GI gastrointestinal
GIS/GIT gastrointestinal system/tract
GP general practitioner
GTN glyceryl trinitrate
Hb haemoglobin
HbA1c glycated haemoglobin test
HbeAg hepatitis B e antigen
HbsAg hepatitis B s antigen
HBV hepatitis B virus
HCO3 bicarbonate
HDL high-density lipoprotein
 Abbreviations xxiii

HIV human immunodeficiency virus

HPC history of the present condition
HPV human papillomavirus
Hx history
ICE ideas, concerns and expectations
Ig immunoglobulin
INR international normalised ratio
JVP jugular venous pressure
kPa kilopascals
LBBB left bundle branch block
LDL low-density lipoprotein
LMP last menstrual period
LMN lower motor neurone
LSD lysergic acid diethylamide
LVF left ventricular failure
LVH left ventricular hypertrophy
MCV mean corpuscular volume
MC&S microscopy, culture and sensitivity
MDRD Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (Equation)
MI myocardial infarction
mmHg millimetres of mercury
MMR measles, mumps, rubella
MRI magnetic resonance imaging
MSE mental state examination
NHS National Health Service
NSPCC National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Children
NT-proBNP N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide
O/E on examination
OFC occipital frontal (head) circumference
OS opening snap (heart sound)
P2 pulmonary component of the second heart sound
PA postero-anterior/pulmonary artery
PaCO2 partial pressure of carbon dioxide
PaO2 partial pressure of oxygen
PEs pulmonary emboli
PEFR peak expiratory flow rate
PERLA pupils equal, react to light and accommodation
xxiv Abbreviations

PEWS Paediatric Early Warning Score

PH personal history
PMH past medical history
PSA prostate-specific antigen
PT prothrombin time
PTT partial thromboplastin time
QRS the wave form of the ECG
RA rheumatoid arthritis
ROS review of systems
RS respiratory system
S1 first heart sound
S2 second heart sound
SBE standard base excess
SH social history
SIADH syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic
hormone secretion
SLE systemic lupus erythematosus
SMA smooth muscle antibody
SVC superior vena cava
TIBC total iron binding capacity
TSH thyroid-stimulating hormone
TT thrombin time
UMN upper motor neurone
VDRL Venereal Disease Reference Laboratory
VSD ventricular septal defect
WBC white blood cell (count)
 Chapter 1
History taking and examination

The outcome of a consultation is different for doctor and patient

because each has different objectives. The patient may have come sim-
ply to be given a diagnosis, may be in need of reassurance that all is
well physically, or may have a more complicated psychosocial prob-
lem that needs to be assessed. The doctor’s objective is to explore the
patient’s problems, decide whether or not there is a hidden agenda,
make a diagnostic hypothesis, and offer advice on the next steps that
need to be taken.
If the doctor recognises the pattern of the patient’s illness, the diag-
nosis may be quick and simple. If not, there is a need to expand the his-
tory with repeated checking, confirmation and rejection of diagnostic
hypotheses. In the majority of cases, the patient’s problem becomes
apparent during this process.
All patients must be examined. In some cases the diagnosis is only
made after physical examination with the interpretation of clinical signs
and/or with diagnostic test results and interpretation of investigations.
During the examination procedure, the doctor is considering and con-
firming or refuting the diagnostic hypothesis that they have made.
The three sources of information that are helpful for evaluating a
patient’s problems and for making a diagnostic hypothesis are:

• The history – this is the patient’s account of their illness or present-

ing complaint, including their reasons for visiting their doctor.
• The clinical signs – these include the abnormalities found on
examination.
• The results of initial investigations, which may include biochemi-
cal, haematological and imaging results.
2 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

Throughout this book, we will draw attention to these three

important areas. In most patients, the process of problem solving will
involve the sequence ‘history → signs → investigation’, but this may
not always be so. In some patients, it is immediately obvious that it
will either be extremely difficult, or even impossible, to obtain a his-
tory (e.g. following a stroke). In such circumstances, it is appropriate
to proceed to the examination, although it is always important to try
to obtain a collateral history from someone – a relative, witness or the
paramedics who have brought the patient to hospital.
There are some procedures that must be carried out routinely when
examining every patient, and others that are used only when there is
a special indication – these will be highlighted in the chapters of this
book. In taking the history, there are a number of routine questions
that must be asked of every patient, for example those which concern
past illnesses, while the questions relating to the present illness will
vary according to the problem. Similarly, certain examination proce-
dures, for example measuring the blood pressure, should always be
carried out during the clinical examination, whereas others, for exam-
ple a rectal examination, are carried out only when certain abnormal-
ities are anticipated. You will need to be able to identify the clues that
may be provided from the history and the examination.
You will need to keep your wits about you as you progress through
your assessment, making diagnostic hypotheses and refuting them. This
will enable areas to be identified which may require closer analysis during
the examination. You will learn best by witnessing as much as possible in
the clinical setting and thereby learning from experience. Do not cut cor-
ners as you are learning to apply the techniques of clinical examination.
The practice of history taking (Fig. 1.1) and examination varies
between clinicians, so you may see a number of slightly different tech-
niques applied. It is a good idea to discuss any variability that you see,
and decide on an appropriate method to fit in with your practice.
Finally, much of the basis of clinical medicine has evolved over sev-
eral hundred years, so there is a wealth of experience but a limited
evidence base for clinical method at the present time.
Remember – medicine is an art as well as a science. You may see
experts take short cuts in their assessment of patients, but this is
because experienced clinicians often work using pattern recognition –
you need to have enormous experience before you can do this reliably.
 History taking and examination 3

Fig. 1.1 Handwritten history of a patient with chest pain.

4 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

History taking
Several different processes should be going on in your mind while tak-
ing a history. The most obvious of these is forming a diagnostic hypoth-
esis, as outlined, or an impression about the patient and their problems.
In taking a history, follow each line of thought; ask no leading ques-
tions; never suggest. Try to include the patient’s own words in the
complaint.

BOX 1.1 HISTORY TAKING SKILLS

• Communication.
• Data gathering, assimilation and processing.
• Following an accepted structure.
• Forming a diagnosis and developing a plan of action.
• Writing it down.
• Presenting the history to others.

Communication
The consultation is a time when you develop your relationship with
the patient. You need to establish rapport and gain trust. You must
make patients feel comfortable talking about themselves. Good com-
munication, with careful formulation of questions and reflection of
emotions, helps the patient to tell you all the information you need.
The quality of your explanations helps the patient to trust your advice
and decision making.
Prior to examining patients, you must thoroughly wash your hands
with soap and warm water or apply an alcohol hand wash if a wash
basin is not easily available. Also, it is advisable to seek a chaperone
when examining a patient of the opposite sex.

General advice
Introduce yourself to the patient – include your title if qualified,
first name and surname. Address the patient by their title and name
(Mr, Mrs or Miss Smith) and not by their first name unless the patient
requests otherwise.
 Communication 5

Always try to be polite – never talk to a patient without first intro-

ducing yourself, and then asking permission to perform an exam-
ination. Explain why you want to talk to them. Students are often
embarrassed talking to patients because they feel they have nothing to
offer. However, if the patient is told the purpose of the encounter, they
very rarely object and often welcome the interest.
Be aware that most patients expect an appropriate appearance from
a professional person. Make sure that you dress in a way which you
believe a patient will expect of a doctor (i.e. neat, clean and conven-
tional). Very fashionable clothing is often inappropriate. Avoid terms
like ‘dear’. Do not continue if the patient is tired – and do not embark
on lengthy history taking sessions at mealtimes or when the patient
has visitors. Find times when patients are free and come back. You will
get a better history if they are not preoccupied.
The interviewer should guide the patient over the relevant areas of
enquiry, striking a balance between the need to collect information in
the time available and the wish to carry out the interview in a manner
the patient finds most comfortable.
Be aware of non-verbal signals and body language. Good eye con-
tact (i.e. looking at the patient as you speak to them), an appropriate
space between you, and mirroring the patient’s posture can encour-
age the patient to speak more freely and help develop trust. Adopt an
‘open’ posture (Fig. 1.2) so the patient is encouraged to talk to you.

Fig. 1.2 An ‘open’ posture.

6 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

Fig. 1.3 A ‘listening’ posture.

Make it obvious that you are listening (Fig. 1.3) by perhaps occasion-
ally leaning forward and putting your hand on your chin. Make sure
that you are sitting at the same level as the patient: it is intimidating
for the patient to be lying in bed with the doctor standing over them.
Make sure that you are at an appropriate distance – about an arm’s
length away. Make use of touch – you must find the degree to which
you feel comfortable touching the patient – decide whether you are the
kind of person who wants to shake the patient’s hand or put your hand
on their shoulder (Fig. 1.4). Recognise when a patient is indicating to
you that they do not regard shaking hands as culturally appropriate. If
you or the patient finds this uncomfortable, touch their hand or elbow
as this is less intimidating. Make eye contact regularly – do not just
look down at your notes – and interact with the patient by smiling or
by showing sympathy if sad things are discussed.

Spoken communication
Always ensure that you speak clearly, and avoid the use of jargon.
Do not use technical or ambiguous wording. Encourage the patient to
talk about their problems. It is best to ask as many open questions as
possible, especially at the start of the interview, to enable the patient
to tell you what is wrong in their own words. This enhances trust
and confidence, as the patient will feel you are listening and therefore
 Communication 7

Fig. 1.4 Appropriate use of touch.

taking them seriously. Closed questions are needed to direct the inter-
view and to explore abnormal experiences. Always try to open the
question again to clarify the response, for example:
‘Have you had the feeling, perhaps, that it is brought on by any-
thing in particular?’ (Closed)
‘Could you tell me something about that?’ (Open)
Leading questioning, in which there is an expectation of a partic-
ular response, should only be used to clarify an uncertain answer, for
example: ‘Your appetite’s been poor, hasn’t it?’, or ‘You’ve lost weight,
haven’t you?’
It is usually helpful to begin the consultation with an open ques-
tion (Table 1.1), such as ‘What exactly brought you into hospital/to
the clinic/for surgery?’ You should ensure that the patient replies by
describing the presenting symptoms or worries and not an eventual
diagnosis, for example angina or bronchitis.
It is useful in this context to use words such as ‘How?’ and ‘Why?’
For example, ‘How can I help you?’, ‘How does it affect you?’ In this
way, it is difficult for the patient to give a one-word answer, and they
have to describe the problem. If you use phrases such as ‘Do you have
a pain in your chest?’, the patient may just say ‘Yes’ – and tell you
nothing more.
8 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

Table 1.1 Useful phrases in open questioning

‘How can I help you?’ ‘Can you describe it?’
‘What can I do for you?’ ‘Where did …?’
‘Why did you …?’ ‘What is it like?’
‘Tell me about …’ ‘When did …?’

Try not to interrupt at the beginning of the history. Use tech-

niques like nodding and saying ‘I see’, or paraphrase the patient’s last
statement. Once you have the patient talking, you must listen to what
they say, follow their story and explore the problem. Only then can
you begin to concentrate on your own agenda and ask more direct or
focused questions, either leading or closed. Begin by reiterating the
patient’s phrases and checking your understanding of them: ‘You say
the pain felt like a band – what sort of band?’ Then move to direct
questions to elicit more specific information: ‘Did the pain go any-
where else?’, ‘Where?’, ‘Did it make you sweat?’ Try to show respect,
and be non-judgemental towards whatever the patient is telling you.
Be careful not to stop listening.

Data gathering and assimilation

It is important to keep your eyes open, as well as to listen attentively,
when taking the history – and to remember that you are gathering
information throughout the encounter. Physical signs may be observed
while taking the history, or an unexpected finding during the later
examination may require you to return to the history and reanalyse a
particular area.
The diagnostic value of the history will vary from patient to
patient, and is generally dependent on the patient’s presenting com-
plaint. A complaint of chest pain should trigger a series of questions
related to the possible causes, whereas a complaint of tiredness may
be less clear-cut. Some patients are naturally good historians, while
others will find it difficult to describe the problems.
Be aware that some patients will inadvertently select information
that they think you should know, and thereby present a somewhat false
 Data gathering and assimilation 9

BOX 1.2 EMPATHIC STATEMENTS

These can convey an acknowledgement of the patient’s problems
and may enable an inhibited patient to expand on a topic which is
difficult for them to discuss openly.
‘I can understand that this may be difficult for you but …’ (before
asking a question).
‘I can see that this is causing you distress.’
‘I can see you’ve been under a lot of stress.’

CLARIFICATION
‘I’m not entirely clear what you mean by …’
‘Could you tell me a little more about …’

REMARKS ON BEHAVIOUR
Made during the interview, these can help explore important areas
or, perhaps, defuse a difficult situation.
‘You seemed quite sad/angry/distressed when you talked about
…’

ENABLING STATEMENTS
‘It is not uncommon when under a lot of stress to experience
intense or strange feelings or worries. Has anything like this
been happening to you?’ The patient may then be asked to
elaborate.

CONTROLLING
This can be done during natural silences or by gently interrupting
at an appropriate point.
‘I hate to interrupt, but can you tell me more about …’
‘I’d like to move on, if I may …’
‘I’m sorry, but I need to know more about this’ (change topic).

(Continued)
10 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

BOX 1.2 (Continued) EMPATHIC STATEMENTS

SILENCES
A brief and well-timed period of silence can allow a patient
space to elaborate about a painful topic. Allow a patient time
to gather their thoughts – and do not be afraid to interrupt
and redirect them if they are getting away from the subject –
but beware of allowing long, embarrassing silences. Once you
feel confident with using this style and pattern of question, it is
possible to concentrate on the next stage of history taking and
data gathering.

picture of the complaints. Similarly, you may not pick up the clues
provided by other patients, and may fail to ask the right questions. It is
helpful to summarise your understanding of what you have been told,
and relay it back to the patient:
‘I understand the pain lasted about 2 hours, is that right?’
This checks for accuracy and completeness. It is always import-
ant when you are first taking a history to be prepared to go back to
the patient after you have finished the history if you realise that you
have omitted a vital point. Do not jump to conclusions during the
history ­taking, and avoid rationalising the different parts in order
to fit a s­pecific diagnosis you have in mind. You must explore every
­possibility – even an apparently straightforward history may have a
twist. This underlines the value of problem listing at the end of the
history taking and examination.
You should always create time for history taking, whether you are
a student or a doctor in training, and try to be as comprehensive as
possible. Although you may see senior colleagues cutting corners, it
is not advisable to do this yourself until you are experienced enough
to know what to leave out. They are using their clinical experience to
do this – it is not wise to follow that example until you have a similar
degree of expertise. Only with experience is it safe and permissible to
take a more focused history (see Chapter 11).
 Data gathering and assimilation 11

Following an accepted structure

The ability to take an efficient and accurate history will come only
with experience. Table 1.2 provides general guidance to enable you
to cover the important areas and collect the relevant data: you are
advised to follow the order of the topics whenever you write out a
history, although the information may not come from the patient in
that order.
There will be occasions when it is not appropriate to take a com-
prehensive history at the time you first see the patient. The patient in
cardiogenic shock will need immediate treatment, as will the patient
with a perforated peptic ulcer. A good general knowledge of medi-
cine is required to enable you to judge when it is important to take a
detailed history and when it is sufficient to question simply about the
immediate presenting complaint.

History of presenting complaint

Begin by listening to the patient’s own account, asking questions
around particular areas. This account may already suggest to you
possible causes for the patient’s problem and likely reactions to your
information and advice. Your intention with supplementary questions
should be to analyse such possibilities and deal with reactions and
responses. Once the patient has described the presenting problem(s),
you should try to establish more precisely the exact nature, severity
and timing of the symptoms.

Table 1.2 Following an accepted structure

• Name, age, etc
• Presenting complaint
• History of the present illness
• Past medical history
• Systems review
• Personal and social history
• Family history and treatment history
12 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

You must enquire whether the patient has ever experienced similar
symptoms in the past. If so, you must explore the relevant history.
Continuously analyse the patient’s symptoms (Table 1.3) and answers
to your questions, considering the various conditions that might
account for them. This will lead you to ask additional specific ques-
tions. Guidance about such questions will be provided in the history
sections of the following chapters, but be aware that some presenting
symptoms may reflect the involvement of more than one body system
(Table 1.4). Symptoms may reflect ill health in more than a ­single body
system.

Systems review
The next step is to ask questions about the presence or absence of
symptoms relating to all systems (review of systems) that have not been
touched on in the first part of the history. This routine enquiry is

Table 1.3 Ways of encouraging the patient’s

description of their presenting complaint

Location Can you point to it?

Radiation Does it spread anywhere?
Duration How long has it been present? Have you had
anything like this before?
Timing Is it there all the time, or does it come and go? If
it comes and goes, how long do you get it for?
Nature What sort of pain is it? Is it burning, stabbing,
gripping, etc.?
Severity How bad is it? Does it stop you working, or keep
you awake at night?
Precipitating/ Is there anything that makes it better or worse?
alleviating
factors
Associated Do you have any other associated symptoms?
symptoms
 Data gathering and assimilation 13

Table 1.4 Symptoms that may result from

an illness affecting one or more systems
Remember that a symptom may not be specific to a system
• Pain • Cough
• Fatigue • Shortness of breath
• Fever • Abdominal pain
• Nausea • Swelling
• Weight loss

designed not only to reveal additional symptoms or problems related

to the presenting illness, but also to uncover symptoms resulting from
other unsuspected disorders. The checklist will usually include ques-
tions covering the points shown in Table 1.5. Some clinicians prefer to
ask these questions at the end of the history – the timing is a matter of
personal preference.

Past medical history

Some aspects of the past medical history may have already been
obtained. Nevertheless, try to obtain more detailed information about
any serious illness or surgical operations in the past. It is helpful to
record the dates of the illness/operation and the hospitals that the
patient attended. It is also useful to check whether the patient has had
any previous medical examinations for insurance reasons, and the out-
come of those assessments. Finally, trips abroad and details of immu-
nisations are sometimes relevant, particularly in the case of a suspected
infectious disease. In a female patient, it is important to note, where
relevant, menstrual history or year of menopause. The history of the
presenting complaint may guide some specifically focused areas that
need to be explored with closed questioning.

Personal and social history

Ask about the patient’s social circumstances – marital status, what is
their occupation, and where do they live? An enquiry about the home
in relation to heating, sanitation and other facilities may be relevant.
14 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

Table 1.5 Systems review topics

Remember to ask these questions in language the patient can
understand

General Body weight – has there been a recent change?

Appetite, fever?
Respiratory Cough and sputum; haemoptysis; dyspnoea;
system chest pain?
Cardiovascular Dyspnoea on exertion; nocturnal dyspnoea;
system chest pain; ankle swelling; palpitations;
pre-syncope?
Gastrointestinal Indigestion; abdominal pain; nausea or
vomiting; constipation or diarrhoea; passing
blood in the motions?
Urinary Frequency of micturition; pain on urination
(dysuria); passing blood in the urine; nocturia;
difficulty in passing urine?
Nervous Headaches; disturbance of consciousness
system (faints or fits); disturbance of vision or hearing;
disturbance of limb function?
Locomotion Pain or stiffness in muscles or joints?
Menstrual Usual rhythm (duration of each period and length
function of cycle); disturbance of rhythm; excessive blood
loss; post-menopausal bleeding?
Allergies Urticaria; hay fever; specific allergies, in
particular to drugs?
Drugs Any drugs or medicines currently being taken
or taken in the recent past, including ‘over-the-
counter’ medications and recreational drugs;
abnormal reactions to drugs (e.g. reactions to
antibiotics)?
 Data gathering and assimilation 15

Always ask patients about smoking and drinking habits. Alcohol intake
should be recorded as units per week, where 1 unit is 10 ml of ethanol.
One glass of wine (175–250 ml) contains 2–3 units, 1 pint (500 ml)
of beer contains 2.5 units, and 1 measure of spirits (25 ml) contains
1 unit.
It is also helpful to enquire about eating habits, particularly if you
suspect a nutritional deficiency. It may sometimes be appropriate to
enquire whether the patient uses or has used recreational drugs. A sex-
ual history may be relevant in certain patients.
The social history often offers the interviewer an opportunity to get
to know the patient better, but can obviously be a sensitive area of
enquiry. It is important that you are aware of such sensitivities and use
common sense when asking questions. However, do not be reluctant
to enquire about the patient’s current or past occupations – it is some-
times fascinating to learn of a patient’s background and their skills.
A suggested general line of questioning is shown in Box 1.3. You may
begin, for example, with the patient’s occupation.
Try to ensure that you use your communication skills to explore
areas of concern, and follow the leads that the patient offers you.
While you are taking the history, you may become aware that the
patient is very anxious or unduly depressed by their situation. It is
appropriate to ask the patient whether they are worried about any-
thing or depressed – refer to Chapter 12 for guidance about taking a
psychiatric history.

Family history and treatment history

You should enquire about the health of parents, partner and siblings –
‘Are your parents still alive?’ ... ‘What did they die from?’ – and whether
there is any family history of particular illnesses. It is important to note
whether there is a family history of death at an early age from heart
disease. When you have completed taking the history, you should have
elicited some clues to the main causes of the patient’s problems. The
history may have indicated the system(s) that will require particular
attention during the examination. If no such clues have come to light,
a more detailed general examination is essential.
16 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

BOX 1.3 PERSONAL AND SOCIAL HISTORY:

QUESTIONS TO ASK

‘What is your occupation … describe your job to me … what do

you do during a normal day … can you manage it without any
difficulty? Do you drive a car?’
Then enquire about the patient’s home life, to assess whether the
illness has affected their ability to cope at home:
‘Where do you live … in a house or flat … do you own it … are
you up to date with the rent … how many stairs are there … can
you get up and down them OK … can you cope with the house-
work … do you have any help … who is it from … do you have
any social service support … who is at home with you … are they
fit … do they help you … are any relatives near you … do they
help you out … do you have local friends?’

The routine physical examination

Details of the various examinations you should perform are described
in the chapters of this book. This section will summarise a system
for performing a routine physical examination (Table 1.6). While
you are learning the system for clinical examination, it is important
to perform a complete examination as often as possible. This will
ensure that the scheme becomes second nature to you, and should
prevent you making serious omissions. You are strongly advised to
return to your patient if you find that you have omitted a part of
the examination – most patients will not mind this, providing that
you are ­honest. This will ensure that you remember that area of the
examination next time.
In the routine examination of each system, only certain assessments
are performed as a routine unless an abnormality is found. If anything
abnormal is found, additional tests or analysis is needed: an example
is the series of manoeuvres required if a heart murmur is heard (see
Chapter 2). You will find that the time you take to perform the general
examination will be within acceptable limits once you have perfected
the technique.
 The routine physical examination 17

Table 1.6 Checklist for the routine physical examination

• General observations (inspection)
• Hands and arms
• Head and neck, including lymph nodes, breasts and thyroid
• Heart and chest
• Abdomen
• Legs, including joints
• Nervous system

Scheme for the routine physical examination

Before you examine a patient, thoroughly wash your hands with soap
and warm water or apply an alcohol hand wash if a wash basin is not
easily available. In addition, it is advisable to seek a chaperone when
examining a patient of the opposite sex.
Ensure that you maintain the patient’s privacy as much as possi-
ble throughout the examination, and do not do anything ­w ithout
asking the patient first. Always be polite and considerate. Give clear
instructions about what you want the patient to do – they are unlikely
to be familiar with some of the actions that you request. It is conven-
tional to perform the examination from the patient’s right side.
Although it is possible to perform a full examination by considering
each system in turn, this is not recommended as it causes unnecessary
duplication. It is more logical to start by observing the patient’s general
appearance and then to examine the hands, the face and head, neck,
chest, abdomen, joints and finally the nervous system. Within the sys-
tems, follow the scheme: inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation.

General observation
A key initial assessment is whether or not the patient is acutely unwell,
as this will dictate the pace of assessment and management. You
should observe the patient’s gait and ability to perform coordinated
movements. While taking the history, you should note the patient’s
mental alertness and intelligence. You should also observe the
patient’s body build, their muscularity and the condition of the skin
18 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

(rashes, pigmentation, surgical scars, etc.). If the patient feels febrile,

or gives a history of fever, the body temperature should be taken.

Hands and arms

Look for finger clubbing and examine the nails – excessive brittleness
may reflect iron deficiency, whereas white nails (leuconychia) is a sign of
chronic liver disease. Look at the skin creases in the palms of the hands
for evidence of anaemia or pigmentation and any other abnormalities.
Note any wasting of the muscles of the hands or arms, and look for swell-
ing of the joints and limitation of movement. Feel the radial pulse and
note the rhythm and rate. Measure the blood pressure. Palpate the axil-
lae and epitrochlear regions for enlarged lymph glands, and note the
presence or absence of axillary hair. Ask the patient to hold their arms
out in front of them, and check for a tremor of the outstretched fingers.

Head and neck

Look at the sclerae of the eyes for jaundice and the conjunctiva for
anaemia. Examine the teeth, the tongue and the mouth, and look at
the fauces, noting the presence or absence of the tonsils. Look at the
buccal mucosa for evidence of hyperpigmentation. Examine the neck
for cervical and supraclavicular lymphadenopathy, and determine
whether the thyroid is palpable. You should examine the breasts in
women for any swellings, masses or tenderness.

Chest and heart

Estimate the central venous pressure by inspection of the internal
jugular vein. Locate the carotid arteries, and note their character and
whether they are equal in pulsation. Feel for the apex beat, and then
palpate and assess whether the left or right ventricle is enlarged. Listen
to the heart sounds and the presence of any murmurs – use the flat of
your hand to detect any palpable thrills.
Observe the movement of the chest, and use your hands to con-
firm its symmetry. Palpate the trachea and locate its position. Percuss
over the lungs on the front and sides of the chest, and then auscul-
tate over the front of the chest. Now sit the patient forward, looking
for any deformities of the chest or spine. Percuss and listen over the
back of the chest; concentrate particularly at the lung bases for any
added sounds such as crackles, and listen for vocal fremitus. While the
 The routine physical examination 19

patient is leaning forward, you must examine the sacral region for any
evidence of oedema.

Abdomen
Observe the general appearance of the abdomen, looking for disten-
sion, peristalsis, dilated veins, any obvious enlargement of the viscera
and abnormal masses. Palpate the abdomen gently and then more
deeply, feeling for the spleen, liver and left and right kidneys. Look
for enlargement of the inguinal glands and feel the femoral pulses.
Examine the hernial orifices in men and women and the external gen-
italia in men. Listen to the bowel sounds and listen over the aorta and
renal arteries. Consider a rectal examination.

Legs
You should examine the legs, looking for abnormalities such as wast-
ing, swelling of the ankles, varicose veins and tenderness of the calves.
You should also examine the joints for swelling or limitation of move-
ment. You should note the state of the circulation, feeling whether the
limbs are warm or unduly cold – feel for the femoral, popliteal, poste-
rior tibial and dorsalis pedis arterial pulses.

Nervous system
You will already have noted the patient’s appearance and intelligence –
if you suspect confusion or an impairment of mental function, more
detailed questioning is appropriate (see Chapter 6). Ask the patient
whether they are right- or left-handed. Test the cranial nerves, and look
at the fundi and eardrums. Test motor function in the upper and lower
limbs, including the tendon and plantar reflex responses, and follow
this by assessing sensation (pinprick and vibration sense). Finally, assess
the patient’s ability to perform coordinated movements and to stand
and walk. Ideally, you should examine the nervous system in detail
when you are learning because it is a useful way of gaining experience
of the wide range of normality for the many signs elicited.
Examples of examination findings written in the patient’s notes are
shown in Figs 1.5 and 1.6. In some clinical services, the record will
be entered into either a paper or an electronic integrated care pathway.
Although this will cue documentation of specific pieces of informa-
tion, it remains important that your full assessment is recorded.
20 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

Result type: General Clinical Note

Result date: 06 February 2018 13:57 GMT
Result status: Auth (Verified)
Result title: Physical Examination
Initiated by: Smith, Jane on 08 February 2018 14:31 GMT
Authorised by: Smith, Jane on 08 February 2018 14:31 GMT
Visit info: xxxyyy, Wd3, A Hospital, Inpatient 08/Feb/18
(nb: abbreviations shown in the appendix)
O/E
Looks well, moderately overweight, Thyroid impalpable
No cyanosis, clubbing, jaundice or lymphadenopathy
CVS
BP 120/70 P90 SR JVP not elevated
Apex beat not displaced
Heart sounds 1 and 2 present with no added sounds and no murmers
No ankle or sacral oedema
All peripheral pulses palpable with no audible bruits
RS
Chest symmetrical, trachea central
Percussion resonant throughout
BS vesicular with no added sounds
GIT
Mouth, fauces normal, normal dentition
Appendicectomy scar
Smooth liver edge palpable 2cm below the costal margin
BS present
Rectal examination normal

Fig. 1.5 Electronic medical records examination.

Cranial Nerves
I: Sense of smell intact
II: Visual fields full to confrontation, PERLA, fundoscopy normal
III, IV, VI: Eye movements full, no nystagmus/diplopia
V: Mastication/sensation intact, jaw jerk/comeal reflex normal
VII: Facial expression normal
VIII: Hearing normal
X, XI: palatal movement/gag reflex normal, sternomastoids normal
XII: Tongue symmetrical with no fasciculation
Motor system
Tone, power and deep tendon reflexes normal and symmetrical.
Bilateral downgoing plantars
Sensation
Pinprick, light touch, vibration and joint position sense all normal and
symmetrical in upper and lower limbs
Coordination
Finger/nose test normal Heel/shin test normal
Locomotor system
R L
G + +
A + +
L + +
S + +
Normal appearance and movement
Summary
75 year old man with ischaemic sounding chest pain. Risk factors: smoking/FH
Normal examination
Differential diagnosis
Acute coronary syndrome (Acute MI vs angina)
Plan
ECG, Troponin, CXR, fbc

Fig. 1.6 Electronic medical records examination.

 Formulating a diagnosis 21

Formulating a diagnosis
In some patients, the diagnosis is obvious. This is called a ‘spot diag-
nosis’, and it is based on pattern recognition, for example a child with
a fever, a vesicular rash and a history of a brother with chickenpox.
In these circumstances, the history and examination still need to be
completed to help manage the case appropriately.
In a more complex case, a more detailed history is necessary to allow
a diagnostic hypothesis to be formulated. For example, if a patient’s
joint pain is affecting several small joints, the diagnosis is more likely
to be an inflammatory arthritis. If it affects a small number of large
joints, it is likely to be degenerative. If the joints are stiff in the morn-
ings, there is a possibility of inflammatory arthritis; if they are stiff in
the evenings, the cause is more likely to be degenerative ... and so on.
The diagnosis is made by matching the history from your patient with
your knowledge of the pattern of the condition in your current diag-
nostic hypothesis. Eventually, you will come up with what you believe
to be the most likely diagnosis. A scheme for this kind of thinking is
shown in Fig. 1.7.

History
Further information:
from relatives, friends
from other health professionals

Examination

Refute
Observation over time
hypothesis

Diagnostic
hypothesis

Confirm hypothesis

Investigations

Fig. 1.7 Methods of clinical thinking to confirm or refute your diagnostic

hypothesis.
22 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

Writing it down
At the same time as taking the history, it is important to record the
findings in an ordered way. Do not forget to put the date, year and
time of the interview – this is a vital point of history recording that
has considerable medico-legal importance. In addition, make sure the
name of the patient is recorded at the top of every page. An example
of this is shown in Fig. 1.1 (see page 3). This enables you to use your
notes to present the patient to your colleagues, and acts as a prompt
aide memoire to you and a lead to others treating the same patient.
It is acceptable to use some abbreviations in your note keeping.
A list of those more commonly used is in the Glossary.
Finally, remember that you should be considering and refuting
diagnostic hypotheses throughout the history taking process –
it is worthwhile recording some of this process as an ‘impression’
or ‘summary’ section in the notes before recording the physical
­fi ndings. This helps you and your colleagues to understand your line
of thought.
Remember always to sign and date all your entries at the end.
Make sure that your writing is legible and that your status is
documented.

Presenting your findings to others

Presenting findings to colleagues You should speak clearly, and have
a clear summary of the patient’s problems in your head. Remember
that body language and eye contact are as important in presenting your
findings as they are in taking the history. People often have a problem
with what to do with their hands while presenting a history. It is good
advice to decide where you will put them beforehand – and perhaps
use them to illustrate a point – or gesture towards the patient – or even
hold your notes!
You must be able to reorder the information given to you in the
structure outlined above and summarise the most important points,
mentioning any relevant negative findings and all of your positive
findings. Then present and discuss your diagnostic hypothesis. For
example, from the history written down for Fig. 1.1, you might make
a verbal presentation along the following lines:
 Formulating a diagnosis 23

BOX 1.4 VERBAL PRESENTATION

‘Mr JS is a 75-year-old retired bus conductor who has presented

with his first episode of severe chest pain. It lasted for 2 hours and
made him feel sweaty. It radiated to his neck and jaw. A diagnosis
of angina was made a year ago. The pain was still there when he
arrived. He has a past history of jaundice and an appendicectomy.’
• Then continue with a summary of the relevant risk factors:
‘He smokes 20 cigarettes per day, and has a family history
of ischaemic heart disease. We do not know his choles-
terol level, and he is not hypertensive.’
• Continue with the findings:
‘On examination, he looked well. His blood pressure was
120/80 mmHg. General examination was normal. In his
cardiovascular system, his pulse was 80 beats per minute
and in sinus rhythm, and he was not in heart failure …’
• Then mention your diagnostic hypothesis:
‘I think he has acute coronary syndrome.’

Problem listing in the medical records

The purpose of problem listing is to structure the medical case history
to make it easier to interpret the relevant clinical information, and to
provide a framework for planning diagnostic tests and therapeutic
procedures. It will also help to remind you – the clinician – what is
troubling your patient and how such problems may be resolved.
The emphasis is the compilation of a list of problems based on the
clinical findings (history and examination). The diagnosis or diagnoses
will only be made if all problems are considered. If used appropriately,
problem listing will help you to make decisions about patient care; it
will also provide a structure that is very helpful in correspondence
about the patient to other health professionals involved in the patient’s
care, the patient’s personal record and any medical audit.
24 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

How to draw up a problems list

You should consider the presenting complaint, the pertinent aspects of
the history and the examination findings.
First, list the problems to formulate a differential diagnosis. You
should divide the problems into those which you consider to be ‘active’
and major contributors to the patient’s current symptomatology, and
those that are relevant to the patient’s overall health. Such problems
are likely to be ‘historic’ (part of the past history) and not considered
relevant to the presenting complaint.
Approach to problem listing In the case of the Mr JS (see Box 1.4),
the presenting problem is severe chest pain (problem 1, P1) and this
should be listed as ‘P1, Chest pain – past history of angina’. All the
problems should be listed, irrespective of whether they are currently
active or inactive, if you consider that they may have a bearing on the
patient’s well-being. For example, Mr JS is a cigarette smoker, which is
contributing to his coronary artery disease – P2 is therefore ‘Cigarette
smoker’. These are both active problems. He has a past history of jaun-
dice, which is important to document but is not relevant to the current
presentation – so P3 is ‘Past history of jaundice’.

Progress notes
Electronic medical records provide a structure for documenting a
patient’s progress once a presumptive diagnosis has been made. Such
records identify presenting problems and list them in automatically
generated correspondence. The inclusion of both active and inactive
problems is most helpful because it will alert a doctor to the entirety of
past problems at each consultation with the patient. During a hospital
admission, it is useful to follow the patient’s progress by continually
entering progress notes in a similarly structured fashion, addressing
each of the patient’s active problems in turn. These should be clearly
written, signed and dated.

Initial investigation plan

A diagnostic flow chart is shown in Fig. 1.8. The history, examina-
tion findings and clinic/bedside test results are used to create a prob-
lem list. The problems are then listed as active or past problems and
applied to establishing the differential diagnosis. This, in turn, will
determine the initial investigations.
 Formulating a diagnosis 25

History
Active
problems
Examination
findings

Diagnosis Differential Initial

Problem diagnosis investigations
hypothesis
list
Clinic/
bedside Relevant
tests past
problems Preliminary
diagnosis

Clinical evaluation and assessment Initial investigation plan

Fig. 1.8 Diagnostic flow chart.

Figure 1.9 illustrates a scheme for investigating a patient. It starts

with your diagnostic hypothesis, which usually will require testing
using a number of investigations. Much can be potentially achieved
in the clinic or at the bedside – measuring weight and height will
enable the body mass index (BMI) to be calculated, which tells you
about the patient’s nutritional status. BMI is the weight in kilograms
divided by the height in metres squared (Kg/M 2); the healthy adult
range is 20–25. The blood pressure should always be measured, and a
urine sample tested for glucose, blood and protein. Any suspicion of a
cardiac lesion requires an electrocardiogram (ECG); airways diseases
require a peak flow reading.
In some instances, a diagnosis can be made using these findings.
However, it may be necessary to request additional tests – selection
of a test should be based on the probability of the result contributing
to either confirming or refuting the diagnostic hypothesis. It should
never be based on ticking a request box. The potential discomfort
to the patient and the financial cost of the investigation should also
always be considered.
Figure 1.10 provides examples of possible general investigations,
more specific tests and highly specific investigations. Imaging may
be required but, again, it is important to consider the likelihood of
a positive finding from a specific imaging format (plain radiography,
26 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

Diagnostic hypothesis
Investigative plan
Plain Highly
X-rays specific
Clinic tests Diagnosis Ultrasound investigations

General investigations More specific

What result will tell Justify by results Imaging Diagnosis
you most? and reasoning

Remember: CT scan
potential discomfort MRI
to patient and
cost

Fig. 1.9 Scheme for investigating a patient.

General More specific Highly specific

Haematology Coagulation screen Tumour markers

Full blood count, Hb, MCV, INR AFP, CA125, CA19-9,
WBC neutrophilis, CEA, PSA
lymphocytes, eosinophils,
basophils, monocytes, Cardiac enzymes
platelets Creatine kinase Immunological
Troponin IgG, IgA, IgM,
complement C3, C4
Inflammatory markers
Metabolic
CRP, ESR
Glucose, HbA1c, total Viral serology
cholosterol, triglyceride, HIV, CMV, EBV, HBV
Biochemistry
HDL cholesterol,
Urea, creatinine, sodium,
LDL cholesterol
potassium, chloride, Miscellaneous
bicarbonate, calcium, Serum osmolality
phosphate, magnesium Endocrine Serum amylase
TSH, cortisol,
Liver function tests
gonadotropin levels,
Albumin, alanine
parathyroid hormone
transaminase, alkaline
phosphatase, bilirubin,
Nutritional
gamma glutamyl
Vitamin D, iron, ferritin,
transferase
TIBC, folate, vitamin B12

Fig. 1.10 Scheme showing the approach to general investigations, more

specific tests and highly specific (blood) tests.
 Phlebotomy 27

ultrasonography, computed tomography [CT] or magnetic resonance

imaging [MRI]). Requests for highly specific investigations will be
justified by narrowing down a differential to one or another diag-
nosis. The best clinicians continually test their hypothesis step-wise
­following investigation results.

General therapeutic and technical skills

Before watching the videos given below, it is worthwhile thinking about
the issue of informed consent (see Box 1.5). No procedure may be
attempted on a patient unless they agree to have it carried out. With
a conscious adult patient who is able to think rationally, the procedure
must be discussed before it is attempted. Before larger procedures such
as endoscopy or surgery, the patient is required to sign a form document-
ing their consent. With smaller procedures, verbal consent is adequate.
Only when the patient understands this information are they in a position
to decide whether or not they wish the procedure to be carried out.
There are several instances of medical litigation relating to patients’
lack of understanding of procedures and their outcomes ... so be careful.

BOX 1.5 INFORMED CONSENT MEANS

THE PATIENT NEEDS TO KNOW
• The procedure to be undertaken.
• The name of the person who will perform the procedure.
• The likely effects of the procedure (i.e. how will they feel
when they wake up; whether there will be drainage tubes,
catheters, etc.).
• The possible adverse (but unlikely) effects of the procedure.
• Any likely adverse effects of the procedure.

Phlebotomy
Always introduce yourself and explain what you are going to do, and
why. Outline how you will perform the procedure, and ask the patient
if they have any questions. Make sure that you have the patient’s verbal
consent before you start.
28 Chapter 1 History taking and examination

Always check that the patient is not allergic to the drugs/solutions

you are going to use. Before beginning any procedure, ensure that all
the necessary equipment is there. Check the request form, and make
sure you have the correct equipment, in a disposable tray, before you
start (i.e. syringes, needles, blood bottles, cotton wool, an alcohol swab
and a plaster).
Needles should be carefully disposed of either by clicking the nee-
dle off the syringe by using the keyhole-shaped opening in the top
of the sharps bin, and disposing of the syringe in a yellow clinical
waste bin, or by disposing of the waste needle and syringe in the
sharps container, whichever is appropriate. If this is not possible, for
example at the bedside, put all your instruments in the cardboard
tray and dispose of them as above at the nearest sharps bin. Never
re-sheath needles.
In most healthcare settings, blood will be collected directly into
the bottle using a vacuum-based or other closed system. Check that
you have filled the bottle to the line, and invert the bottle gently a
few times to ensure the blood is mixed with any anticoagulant in the
bottle. Finally, ensure that you label the bottle correctly. When taking
blood for microbiological culture, ensure that you follow specific local
guidelines for sample collection.
Use the links below for venepuncture using a vacutainer, and
­venipuncture/phlebotomy using a butterfly system.

VIDEO 1.1 Venepuncture using a vacutainer

https://www.crcpress.com/cw/kopelman

VIDEO 1.2 Venepuncture/phlebotomy using the

butterfly system
https://www.crcpress.com/cw/kopelman

Preparing an intravenous cannula

Intravenous cannulas are used for patients in whom constant venous
access is required. This is because they require frequent intravenous
 Phlebotomy 29

injections or may need urgent resuscitation. The cannula is left in situ

but sealed off with a rubber bung through which access is possible at
any time.
Always introduce yourself to the patient and explain what you are
going to do and why. Outline how you will perform the procedure,
and ask if the patient has any questions. Make sure that you have the
patient’s verbal consent before you start, and remember to wash your
hands and wear sterile disposable gloves.
This can be a painful procedure, so you need the patient’s full coop-
eration if possible. Only attempt cannulation three times at one sitting,
as it hurts and you may lose the patient’s cooperation. If you think it
will be a difficult cannulation, spend a long time locating the best vein,
use topical local anaesthetic cream applied at least 1 hour beforehand
and, if possible, get expert help.

Setting up ‘the giving set’ for intravenous

administration
This is a useful skill, seldom taught to doctors. The aim is to set up
a bag of fluid attached to an intravenous line containing no bubbles.

VIDEO 1.3 Preparing an intravenous infusion

https://www.crcpress.com/cw/kopelman

Preparing an antibiotic for intravenous infusion

Intravenous antibiotics are used to treat severe bacterial infections.
This video demonstrates the procedure to be followed.

VIDEO 1.4 Preparing an antibiotic for intravenous

infusion
https://www.crcpress.com/cw/kopelman
An introduction to the general practice consultation
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Silverman JD , Kurtz SM , Draper J (2013). Skills for Communicating with
Patients, 3rd edn. Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing.
Kurtz S , Silverman J , Benson J , Draper J (2003) Marrying content and
process in clinical method teaching: enhancing the Calgary-Cambridge
Guides. Academic Medicine 78:802809.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2005). Suspected cancer:
recognition and referral. NICE Guideline NG12. Available at:
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng12 (accessed 4 October 2017).

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