Laboratory Manual

Telecommunication Technology

BS Electrical Engineering Technology

(2018-2022)

Submitted By
Name:
Roll No:

Submitted To
Engr. Yasir Salam

Department of Engineering Technology

College of Engineering & Technology
University of Sargodha
Lab Safety and Tools
If proper procedures are followed, the electronics lab is a safe place in which to work. There are some
basic rules:

1. No food or drink is allowed in lab at any time.

2. Liquids are of particular danger as they are ordinarily conductive.
3. While the circuitry used in lab is normally of no shock hazard.
4. Spilling a bottle of water or soda onto such equipment could leave the experimenter in the
receiving end of a severe shock.
5. Similarly, items such as books and jackets should not be left on top of the test equipment as it
could cause overheating.
6. In the event of an emergency, all test equipment may be powered off through this one switch.
Further, the benches are controlled by dedicated circuit breakers in the front of the lab. Next
to this main power panel is an A/B/C class fire extinguisher suitable for electrical fires.
Located at the rear of the lab is a safety kit.
7. This contains bandages, cleaning swaps and the like for small cuts and the like. For serious
injury, the Security Office will be contacted.
8. A lab bench should always be left in a secure mode. This means that the power to each piece
of test equipment should be turned off, the bench itself should be turned off, all AC and DC
power and signal sources should be turned down to zero, and all other equipment and
components properly stowed with lab stools pushed under the bench.
9. It is important to come prepared to lab. This includes the class text, the lab exercise for that
day, class notebook, calculator, and hand tools.
 Lab Contents

Lab
Title Page
No.

1 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB 1

2 GENERATION OF SIGNALS USING MATLAB 5

3 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 9

4 FREQUENCY MODULATION 12

5 SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION 15

6 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION 19

7 GSM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE 22

8 LOW PASS FILTER 25

9 HIGH PASS FILTER 28

10 BAND PASS FILTER AND BAND STOP FILTER 31

11 FIBER OPTICS LOSSES 35

12 SPLICING TECHNIQUES FOR OPTICAL FIBER 39

Lab Manual Telecommunication Technology

LAB SESSION 1
INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB
WHAT IS MATLAB?

MATLAB stands for MATRIX LABORATORY. MATLAB is a high-performance language for

technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use
environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation.
Typical uses include:
- Math and computation
- Algorithm development
- Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
- Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
- Scientific and engineering graphics
- Application development, including graphical user interface building
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially those
with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in
a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.
MATLAB features a family of application-specific solutions called toolboxes. Toolboxes are
comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-files) that extend the MATLAB
environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which toolboxes are available
include signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation,
and many others.
MATLAB TUTORIAL 1
This tutorial covers basic MATLAB commands that are used in introductory signals and systems
analysis. An easy way to learn MATLAB is to sit down at a computer and follow along with the
examples given in this tutorial and the examples given in the textbook. The topics covered in this
tutorial are:
1. MATLAB Basics
A. Definition of Variables
2. Plotting

1. MATLAB BASICS
MATLAB is started by clicking the mouse on the appropriate icon and is ended by typing exit or
by using the menu option. After each MATLAB command, the "return" or "enter" key must be
depressed.

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A. DEFINITION OF VARIABLES
There are several predefined variables which can be used at any time, in the same manner as
user- defined variables:
i sqrt(-1)
j sqrt(-1)
pi 3.1416...
For example,
y= 2*(1+4*j)
yields: y= 2.0000 + 8.0000i
There are also a number of predefined functions that can be used when defining a variable.
Some common functions that are used in this text are:
abs magnitude of a number (absolute value for real numbers)
angle angle of a complex number, in radians
cos cosine function, assumes argument is in radians
sin sine function, assumes argument is in radians
exp exponential function
For example, with y defined as above,
c = abs(y)
yields: c = 8.2462
c = angle(y)
yields: c = 1.3258
With a=0 as defined previously,
c = cos(a)
yields: c = 1
c = exp(1)
yields: c = 2.7183

2. PLOTTING
Commands covered:
plot
xlabel
ylabel
title

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axis
stem
subplot
The command most often used for plotting is ‘plot’, which creates linear plots of vectors and
matrices; plot(t,y) plots the vector t on the x-axis versus vector y on the y-axis.
To label your axes and give the plot a title, type;
xlabel('time (sec)')
ylabel('step response')
title('My Plot')
For discrete-time signals, use the command ‘stem’ which plots each point with a small open
circle and a straight line. To plot y[k] versus k, type
stem(k,y)
To plot more than one graph on the screen, use the command subplot(mnp) which partitions the
screen into an mxn grid where p determines the position of the particular graph counting the
upper left corner as p=1. For example,
subplot(211),
subplot(212),
This has 2 rows, one column, and one plot in each row.

Task 1:
Find the Area of Triangle by using MATALB
Area=√𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)
Where s = (a+b+c)/2.

Note: Write the MATLAB code for Task 1 in Comments and Discussion Section.

COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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LAB SESSION 2
GENERATION OF SIGNALS USING MATLAB
OBJECTIVE
To generate signals using MATLAB and visualize the characteristics of signals by changing
parameters
REQUIREMENTS
➢ Intel based computer
➢ MATLAB
THEORY
The MATLAB signal processing toolbox has a large variety of functions for generating
signals, most of which require that we begin with a vector representation of time t to n. To
generate a vector t of time values with a sampling interval t of 1 ms on the interval from 0
to 1s, for example, we use the command: T = 0: .001:1;
PROCEDURE

Generating sinusoidal waveforms

Consider first the generation of a square wave of amplitude A, fundamental frequency w0
{measured in radians per second), and duty cycle (d). That is, rho is the fraction of each
period for which the signal is positive. To generate such a signal, we use the basic command:
Matlab Code :
t = 0:0.001:0.3;
y = square(2*pi*10*t);
figure(1)
plot (t,y)
title(‘Square Wave With 10 Hz Frequency’)

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y = square(2*pi*10*t, 20); % with 20 percent Duty cycle

Generating sinusoidal waveforms

close all
clear all
% generating sinusoidal waveform for continuous time
w0 = 10.8 % rad/sec
t = -0.5:0.01:0.5;
f = 3.17*cos( w0*t+pi/6);
figure(1)
plot (t,f)
grid

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%to change the amplitude to a convergent form

W0 = 10.8 % rad/sec
t = -0.5:0.01:0.5;
f = 3.17*exp(1.3*t).*cos( W0*t+pi/6);
figure(2)
plot (t,f)
grid

LAB WORK
Task 1
𝑓 = sin 20𝑡𝑒 −𝑡
For the function 𝑓(𝑡), write the MATLAB code to plot 𝑓(𝑡) and place the plot in Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1

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COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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LAB SESSION 3
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
OBJECTIVE
To perform the amplitude modulation using MATLAB and visualize the characteristics of
signals by changing parameters
REQUIREMENTS
➢ Intel based computer
➢ MATLAB
THEORY
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication,
most commonly for transmitting messages with a radio carrier wave. In amplitude modulation,
the amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to that of the message
signal, such as an audio signal. This technique contrasts with angle modulation, in which either
the frequency of the carrier wave is varied as in frequency modulation, or its phase, as in phase
modulation.
AM was the earliest modulation method used for transmitting audio in radio broadcasting. It
was developed during the first quarter of the 20th century beginning with Roberto Landell de
Moura and Reginald Fessenden's radiotelephone experiments in 1900. This original form of
AM is sometimes called double-sideband amplitude modulation (DSBAM), because the
standard method produces sidebands on either side of the carrier frequency. Single-sideband
modulation uses bandpass filters to eliminate one of the sidebands and possibly the carrier
signal, which improves the ratio of message power to total transmission power, reduces power
handling requirements of line repeaters, and permits better bandwidth utilization of the
transmission medium.
The carrier wave (sine wave) of frequency fc and amplitude A is expressed by
𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

The message signal, such as an audio signal that is used for modulating the carrier, is m(t), and
has a frequency fm, much lower than fc:

,
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)

where m is the amplitude sensitivity, Am is the amplitude of message signal. If m < 1, (1 +

m(t)/A) is always positive for under modulation. If m > 1 then overmodulation occurs and
reconstruction of message signal from the transmitted signal would lead in loss of original
signal. Amplitude modulation results when the carrier c(t) is multiplied by the positive
quantity (1 + m(t)/A):
𝑚(𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = [1 + ] ∗ 𝑐(𝑡)
𝐴

In this simple case m is identical to the modulation index, discussed below. With m = 0.5 the
amplitude modulated signal y(t) thus corresponds to the top graph (labelled "50% Modulation")
in figure 4.

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PROCEDURE

Generating message and carrier signals

Matlab Code :
m=1;

Am=10;

fa=1000;

Ta=1/fa;

t=0:Ta/99:6*Ta;

y1=Am*sin(2*pi*fa*t);

subplot(3,1,1)

plot(t,y1)

fc=fa*10;

Ac=Am/m;

Tc=1/fc;

y2=Ac*sin(2*pi*fc*t);

subplot(3,1,2)

plot(t,y2)

y=y1.*y2;

subplot(3,1,3)

plot(t,y)

y=Ac+(1+m*sin(2*pi*fa*t)).*(sin(2*pi*fc*t));

plot(t,y)

LAB WORK
Task 1
Generate the message signal with 100 Hz frequency and modulate it to the carrier with 1000
Hz frequency. Plot the message signal, carrier and modulated signal in single figure and place
the plot in Figure 3.1. The plot should contain student ID and Name as title of the figure.

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Figure 3.1

COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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LAB SESSION 4
FREQUENCY MODULATION
OBJECTIVE
To perform the frequency modulation using MATLAB and visualize the characteristics of
signals by changing parameters
REQUIREMENTS
➢ Intel based computer
➢ MATLAB
THEORY
Frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying
the instantaneous frequency of the wave. The technology is used in telecommunications, radio
broadcasting, signal processing, and computing. In analogue frequency modulation, such as
radio broadcasting, of an audio signal representing voice or music, the instantaneous frequency
deviation, i.e. the difference between the frequency of the carrier and its centre frequency, has
a functional relation to the modulating signal amplitude.
Frequency modulation is widely used for FM radio broadcasting. It is also used
in telemetry, radar, seismic prospecting, and monitoring newborns for seizures via EEG, two-
way radio systems, sound synthesis, magnetic tape-recording systems and some video-
transmission systems. In radio transmission, an advantage of frequency modulation is that it
has a larger signal-to-noise ratio and therefore rejects radio frequency interference better than
an equal power amplitude modulation (AM) signal. For this reason, most music is broadcast
over FM radio.
The message signal, such as an audio signal that is used for modulating the carrier, is m(t), and
has a frequency fm, much lower than fc:

,
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)

The carrier wave (sine wave) of frequency fc and amplitude A is expressed by

𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡)

The expression of modulated signal y(t), can be written as,

𝑓∆
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))
𝑓𝑚
where 𝐴𝑚 is the amplitude of the modulating sinusoid is represented in the peak 𝑓∆ = 𝑘𝑓 ∗ 𝐴𝑚
deviation and 𝑘𝑓 is the sensitivity of frequency modulator.

PROCEDURE

Generating message and carrier signals

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Matlab Code :
clc

close all

t = 0:0.001:1; %upto 1000 samples

vm = input('Enter Amplitude (Message) = ');

vc = input('Enter Amplitude (Carrier) = ');

fM = input('Enter Message frequency = ');

fc = input('Enter Carrier frequency = ');

m = input('Enter Modulation Index = ');

msg = vm*sin(2*pi*fM*t);

subplot(3,1,1); %plotting message signal

plot(t,msg);

xlabel('Time');

ylabel('Amplitude');

title('Message ');

carrier = vc*cos(2*pi*fc*t);

subplot(3,1,2); %plotting carrier signal

plot(t,carrier);

xlabel('Time');

ylabel('Amplitude');

title('Carrier Signal');

y = vc*cos(2*pi*fc*t+m.*sin(2*pi*fM*t));

subplot(3,1,3);%plotting FM (Frequency Modulated) signal

plot(t,y);

xlabel('Time');

ylabel('Amplitude');

title('FM Signal');

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LAB WORK
Task 1

Generate the message signal with 8 Hz frequency and amplitude 5, and modulate it to the carrier
with 100 Hz frequency and amplitude 8. Enter the modulation index 10. Plot the message
signal, carrier and modulated signal in single figure and place the plot in Figure 4.1. The plot
should contain student ID and Name as title of the figure.

Figure 4.1

COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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LAB SESSION 5
SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION
OBJECTIVE
To Demonstrate the effects of sampling and quantization through Analogue to Digital
Converter.
THEORY
Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) are an important component when it comes to dealing with digital
systems communicating with real-time signals. With IoT developing quickly to be applied in everyday
life, real-world/time signals have to be read by these digital systems to accurately provide vital
information. We’ll take a dive into how ADCs work and the theory behind them.

In the real world, analog signals are signals that have a continuous sequence with continuous values
(there are some cases where it can be finite). These types of signals can come from sound, light,
temperature and motion. Digital signals are represented by a sequence of discrete values where the
signal is broken down into sequences that depend on the time series or sampling rate (more on this
later). The easiest way to explain this it through a visual! Figure 1 shows a great example of what analog
and digital signals look like.

Figure 5.1: A continuous signal (analog) turning into a digital signal

Microcontrollers can’t read values unless it’s digital data. This is because microcontrollers can
only see “levels” of the voltage, which depends on the resolution of the ADC and the system
voltage. ADCs follow a sequence when converting analog signals to digital. They first sample
the signal, and then quantify it to determine the resolution of the signal, and finally set binary

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values and send it to the system to read the digital signal. Two important aspects of the ADC
are its sampling rate and resolution.

a. Sampling Rate/Frequency

The ADC’s sampling rate, also known as sampling frequency, can be tied to the ADC’s
speed. The sampling rate is measured by using “samples per second”, where the units are in
CPS or C/s (or if you’re using sampling frequency, it would be in Hz). This simply means
how many samples or data points it takes within a second. The more samples the ADC takes
the higher frequencies it can handle.

One important equation on the sample rate is:

fs = 1/T

Where,

fs = Sample Rate/Frequency

T = Period of the sample or the time it takes before sampling again

For example, in Figure 1, it seems fs is 20 C/s (or 20 Hz), while T is 50 ms. The sample rate is
very slow, but the signal still came out similar to the original analog signal. This is because the
frequency of the original signal is a slow 1 Hz, meaning the frequency rate was still good
enough to reconstruct a similar signal.

b. Resolution of ADC

The ADC’s resolution can be tied to the precision of the ADC. The resolution of the ADC can
be determined by its bit length. A quick example on how it helps the digital signal output a
more accurate signal is shown in Figure 3. Here you can see that the 1-bit only has two “levels”.
As you increase the bit length, the levels increase making the signal more closely represent the
original analog signal.

Figure 5.2: Example on how resolution affects the digital signal

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If you need accurate voltage level for your system to read, then the bit resolution is important
to know. The resolution depends on both the bit length and the reference voltage. These
equations help you figure out the total resolution of the signal that you are trying to input in
voltage terms:

Step Size = VRef/N

Where,

Step Size = The resolution of each level in terms of voltage

VRef = The voltage reference (range of voltages)

N = Total level size of ADC

To find N size, use this equation:

N = 2n

Where,

n = Bit Size

For example, let’s say that a sine wave with a voltage range of 5 needs to be read. The ADC
has a bit size of 12-bit. Plug in 12 to n on equation 4 and N will be 4096. With that known and
the voltage reference set to 5V, you’ll have: Step Size = 5V/4096. You will find that the step
size will be around 0.00122V (or 1.22mV). This is accurate as the digital system will be able
to tell when the voltage changes on an accuracy of 1.22mV.

If the ADC was a very small bit length, let’s say only 2 bits, then the accuracy would reduce to
only 1.25V, which is very poor as it will only be able to tell the system of four voltage levels
(0V, 1.25V, 2.5V, 3.75V and 5V). Figure 4 shows common bit length and their number of
levels. It also shows what the step size would be for a 5V reference. You can see how accurate
it gets as the bit length increases.

Figure 5.3 4: Bit Length and their number of levels

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LAB TASK

Task 1: Calculate the step size if reference voltage is 10V and resolution of ADC is 16 bits.
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Task 2: Calculate the step size if reference voltage is 10V and resolution of ADC is 10 bits.
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COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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LAB SESSION 6
ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
OBJECTIVE
To perform the analog to digital conversion using MATLAB SIMULINK and visualize the
characteristics by changing parameters
REQUIREMENTS
➢ Intel based computer
➢ MATLAB
THEORY
In electronics, an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC, A/D, or A-to-D) is a system that
converts an analogue signal, such as a sound picked up by a microphone or light entering
a digital camera, into a digital signal. An ADC may also provide an isolated measurement such
as an electronic device that converts an input analogue voltage or current to a digital number
representing the magnitude of the voltage or current. Typically, the digital output is a two's
complement binary number that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities.
There are several ADC architectures. Due to the complexity and the need for precisely
matched components, all but the most specialized ADCs are implemented as integrated
circuits (ICs). These typically take the form of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) mixed-
signal integrated circuit chips that integrate both analogue and digital circuits.

Figure 6.1: Simulink Model of A/D Convertor

PROCEDURE

1. Construct the Simulink model as shown in the Figure 6.1.

2. Change the amplitude and frequency of sign wave block to 5 and 10 rad/s respectively.
3. View the output of the signal through the oscilloscope.

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4. Change the amplitude and period of pulse to 2 and 0.05s respectively.

5. View the output of the signal through the oscilloscope.
6. Change the quantization interval according to the 8, 16 and 32 bits accordingly.
7. View the output of the signal through the oscilloscopes.
8. Place the outputs of the quantizer and endecoder for 16 bits in the figure 6.2 and 6.3.
9. Write your Observations in the comment section.

Figure 6.2: Output of Quantizer

Figure 6.3: Output of Encoder

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COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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LAB SESSION 7
GSM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
OBJECTIVE
To study the architecture of GSM communication network.
THEORY
The GSM network architecture provided a simple and yet effective architecture to provide the
services needed for a 2G cellular or mobile communications system. There were four main
elements to the overall GSM network architecture and these could often be further split.
Elements like the base station controller, MSC, AuC, HLR, VLR and the like are brought
together to form the overall system. The 2G GSM network architecture, although now
superseded gives an excellent introduction into some of the basic capabilities required to set up
a mobile communications phone network and how all the entities operate together.

GSM network architecture elements

In order that the GSM system operates together as a complete system, the overall network
architecture brings together a series of data network identities, each with several elements. The
GSM network architecture as shown in Figure 7.1 , is defined in the GSM specifications and it
can be grouped into four main areas:

1. Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

2. Base-Station Subsystem (BSS)
3. Mobile station (MS)
4. Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

Figure 7.1: Simplified GSM Network Architecture Diagram

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The different elements of the GSM network operate together and the user is not aware of the
different entities within the system. As the GSM network is defined but the specifications and
standards, it enables the system to operate reliably together regardless of the supplier of the
different elements. Within this diagram the different network areas can be seen - they are
grouped into the four areas that provide different functionality, but all operate to enable reliable
mobile communications to be achieved.

The overall network architecture provided to be very successful and was developed further to
enable 2G evolution to carry data and then with further evolutions to allow 3G to be established.

1. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The GSM system architecture contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed the
core network. It is essentially a data network with a various entity that provide the main control
and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The major elements within the core network
include:

• Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)

• Home Location Register (HLR)
• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
• Authentication Centre (AuC)
• Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC)

2. Base-Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the 2G GSM network architecture that is
fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network. It consists of
two elements:

• Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the
radio transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and receive to
directly communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the defining element for each cell.
The BTS communicates with the mobiles and the interface between the two is known
as the Um interface with its associated protocols.
• Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM
network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in
its group. It manages the radio resources and controls items such as handover within
the group of BTSs, allocates channels and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over
what is termed the Abis interface.

3. Mobile station (MS)

Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell or mobile
phones are the section of a GSM mobile communications network that the user sees and
operates. In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has
greatly increased. A further advantage is that the time between charges has significantly
increased. There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements
are the main hardware and the SIM.

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4. Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM mobile
communications network architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC.
It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control the
traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the scaling of
the subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, allowing
savings in the cost of ownership of the system.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between GSM and GPRS?

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2. What are the difference frequency bands supported in GSM?

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3. What is Erlangs In GSM Technology?

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LAB SESSION 8
LOW PASS FILTER
OBJECTIVE
To implement the first order low pass filter by using MATLAB SIMULINK and visualize the
characteristics by changing the parameters
REQUIREMENTS
➢ Intel based computer
➢ MATLAB
THEORY
Low Pass Filter
A low-pass filter (LPF) is a filter that passes signals with a frequency lower than a
selected cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff
frequency. The exact frequency response of the filter depends on the filter design. A series RC
circuit as shown in the Figure 8.1 also acts as a low-pass fillter.

Figure 8.2: RC Low Pass Filter

From the above circuit we can write,

𝑋𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = [ ]𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑋𝐶 𝑖𝑛

1/𝑗𝜔𝑐
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = [ ]𝑉
𝑅 + 1/𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑖𝑛

1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑗𝜔𝐶
=[ ]
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

1
𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = [ ]
1
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

In s domain, putting 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔

1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = [ 𝑠𝐶 ]
1
𝑅 + 𝑠𝐶

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1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = [ ]
1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
Dividing and multiplying by RC

1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = [ 𝑅𝐶 ]
1
𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶
1
And 𝜔 = 𝑅𝐶

PROCEDURE

1. Construct the Simulink model as shown in the Figure 8.2.

2. Change the parameters of the transfer function block to 10 and [1 10].
3. Change the parameters of input signal (amplitude 5 and frequency 10).
4. View the output of the signal through the oscilloscope.
5. Change the frequency of the input signal to 20 and 30 and view the output accordingly.
6. Place the output of the signal recorded in step 5 in the Figure 8.3 and Figure 8.4
respectively.
7. Write your Observations in the comment section.

Figure 8.2: Simulink Model of Low Pass Filter

Figure 8.3: Output Signal at frequency (20 rad/s)

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Figure 8.4: Output Signal at frequency (30 rad/s)

COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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LAB SESSION 9
HIGH PASS FILTER
OBJECTIVE
To implement the first order high pass filter by using MATLAB SIMULINK and visualize the
characteristics by changing the parameters
REQUIREMENTS
➢ Intel based computer
➢ MATLAB
THEORY
High Pass Filter
A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic filter that passes signals with a frequency higher than
a certain cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff
frequency. The amount of attenuation for each frequency depends on the filter design. A series
RC circuit as shown in the Figure 9.1 also acts as a high-pass filter.

Figure 9.1: RC High Pass Filter

From the above circuit we can write,

𝑅
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = [ ]𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑋𝐶 𝑖𝑛

𝑅
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = [ ]𝑉
𝑅 + 1/𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑖𝑛

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅
=[ ]
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝑅
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = [ ]
1
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

In s domain, putting 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔

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𝑅
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = [ ]
1
𝑅 + 𝑠𝐶

𝑠𝑅𝐶
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = [ ]
1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶

Dividing and multiplying by RC

𝑠
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = [ ]
1
𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶
1
And 𝜔 = 𝑅𝐶

PROCEDURE

1. Construct the Simulink model as shown in the Figure 9.2.

2. Change the parameters of the Analog filter design block according to the following,
a. Design Method: Butterworth
b. Filter Type: High pass
c. Filter Order: 1
d. Frequency: 80 rad/s
3. Change the parameters of input signal (amplitude 5 and frequency 80 rad/s).
4. View the output of the signal through the oscilloscope.
5. Change the frequency of the input signal to 20 and 30 and view the output accordingly.
6. Place the output of the signal recorded in step 5 in the Figure 9.3 and Figure 9.4
respectively.
7. Write your Observations in the comment section.

Figure 9.2: Simulink Model of High Pass Filter

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Figure 9.3: Output Signal at frequency (20 rad/s)

Figure 9.4: Output Signal at frequency (30 rad/s)

COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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LAB SESSION 10
BAND PASS FILTER AND BAND STOP FILTER
OBJECTIVE
To implement the first order band pass and band stop filter by using MATLAB SIMULINK
and visualize the characteristics by changing the parameters
REQUIREMENTS
➢ Intel based computer
➢ MATLAB
THEORY
Band Pass Filter
A band-pass filter or bandpass filter (BPF) is a device that passes frequencies within a certain
range and rejects (attenuates) frequencies outside that range. Figure 10.1 shows the one pole
(1st order) RC band pass filter.

Figure 10.1: RC Band Pass Filter

Band Stop Filter

A band-stop filter filter (BSF) is a device that rejects (attenuates) frequencies of a certain range
and passes frequencies outside that range. Figure 10.2 shows the one pole (1st order) RC band
stop filter.

Figure 10.2: RC Band Stop Filter

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PROCEDURE

1. Construct the Simulink model as shown in the Figure 10.3.

2. Change the parameters of the Analog filter design block according to the following,
a. Design Method: Butterworth
b. Filter Type: Band pass
c. Filter Order: 1
d. Low Cutoff Frequency: 20 rad/s
e. High Cutoff Frequency: 50 rad/s
3. Change the parameters of input signal (amplitude 10 and frequency 5 rad/s).
4. View the output of the signal through the oscilloscope.
5. Change the frequency of the input signal to 10, 20, 30, 50 and 70 rad/s and view the
output accordingly.
6. Place the output of the signal recorded in step 5 at frequency 20 and 30 rad/s, in the
Figure 10.5.
7. Write your observations in the comment section.
8. Construct the Simulink model as shown in the Figure 10.4.
9. Change the parameters of the Analog filter design block according to the following,
f. Design Method: Butterworth
g. Filter Type: Band Stop Filter
h. Filter Order: 1
i. Low Cutoff Frequency: 20 rad/s
j. High Cutoff Frequency: 50 rad/s
10. Change the parameters of input signal (amplitude 10 and frequency 5 rad/s).
11. View the output of the signal through the oscilloscope.
12. Change the frequency of the input signal to 10, 20, 30, 50 and 70 rad/s and view the
output accordingly.
13. Place the output of the signal recorded in step 5 at frequency 30 and 70 rad/s, in the
Figure 10.6.
14. Write your observations in the comment section.

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Figure 10.3: Simulink Model of Band Pass Filter

Figure 10.4: Simulink Model of Band Stop Filter

Figure 10.5: Output Signals at Frequencies (20 and 30 rad/s)

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Figure 10.6: Output Signal at Frequencies (30 and 70 rad/s)

COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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LAB SESSION 11
FIBER OPTICS LOSSES
OBJECTIVE
To study and calculate the optical fiber cable losses.
THEORY

There are a number of ways to tackle the problem of determining the power requirements for
a particular optical fiber optic link. The easiest and most accurate way is to perform an Optical
Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) trace of the actual link. This will give you the actual loss
values for all events (connectors, splices, and fiber loss) in the link.
In the absence of an actual OTDR trace, there are two alternatives that can be used to estimate
the power requirements of the link.
1. Estimate the total link loss across an existing fiber optic link if the fiber length and loss
variables are known
2. Estimate the maximum fiber distance if optical budget and loss variables are known.
Loss variables are connectors, splices and attenuation per Kmof the fiber.
If actual values for all of the loss variables are not known, as estimation for each is needed to
complete the calculations. In this case, one would want to take a worst-case approach to assure
that there is adequate power available for the link. The Table 11.1, includes commonly accepted
loss values used in these calculations.

Table 11.1: TIA/EIA Loss Values

Fiber Type Wavelength Fiber Connector Splice

Attenuation Loss Loss
/km

850nm 3.5 dB 0.75 dB 0.1 dB

Multimode
50/125um
1300nm 1.5 dB 0.75 dB 0.1 dB

850nm 3.5 dB 0.75 dB 0.1 dB

Multimode
62.5/125um
1300nm 1.5 dB 0.75 dB 0.1 dB

Single
1310nm 0.4 dB 0.75 dB 0.1 dB
Mode 9um

Single
1550nm 0.3 dB 0.75 dB 0.1 dB
Mode 9um

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The IEEE also recommends maximum cable distances as defined in the Table 11.2 below.

Table 11.2: Maximum Cable Distances

Data Rate IEEE Standard

Standard Cable Type
(Mbps) Distance
850nm Multimode
10BASE-FL 10 50/125um or 2 km
62.5/125um
1300nm
Multimode
100BASE-FX 100 2 km
50/125um or
62.5/125um
850nm Multimode
100BASE-SX 100 50/125um or 300 m
62.5/125um
850nm Multimode
1000 550 m
50/125um
1000BASE-SX
850nm Multimode
1000 220 m
62.5/125um
1300nm
Multimode
1000 550 m
50/25um or
1000BASE-LX
62.5/125um
1310nm Single
1000 5 km
Mode 9/125um
1550nm Single
1000BASE-LH 1000 70 km
Mode 9/125um

PROCEDURE

External Total Link Loss

This calculation will estimate the total link loss through a particular fiber optic link where
the fiber length, as well as the number of splices and connectors, are known. This calculation
is simply the sum of all worst-case loss variables in the link.

Link Loss = [fiber length (km) x fiber attenuation per km] + [splice loss x # of splices]
+ [connector loss x # of connectors] + [safety margin]

Example:
Assume a 40km single mode link at 1310nm with 2 connector pairs and 5 splices.

Link Loss = [40km x 0.4dB/km] + [0.1dB x 5] + [0.75dB x 2] + [3.0dB] = 21.0dB

In this example. an estimated 21.0dB of power would be required to transmit across this
link. Of course, it is very important to measure and verify the actual link loss values one the
link is established to identify any potential performance issues.

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LAB TASK

Task 1: Calculate link loss for a 50km single mode link at 1310nm with 3 connector pairs and
4 splices.
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Task 2: Calculate link loss for a 60km multi mode(50/125um) link at 1300nm with 3 connector
pairs and 4 splices.
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Task 3: Calculate link loss for a 50km multi mode link at 850nm(62.5/125um) with 3
connector pairs and 4 splices.
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COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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LAB SESSION 12
SPLICING TECHNIQUES FOR OPTICAL FIBER
OBJECTIVE
To study the splicing techniques of optical fiber.
THEORY
Splicing of optical fibers is a technique used to join two optical fibers. This technique is used
in optical fiber communication, in order to form long optical links for better as well as long-
distance optical signal transmission. Splicers are basically couplers that form a connection
between two fibers or fiber bundles. At the time of splicing two optical fibers, the geometry of
the fibers, their proper alignment and mechanical strength must be taken into consideration.
There exist basically three techniques for splicing the optical fibers as shown in the Figure
12.1.

Figure 12.1: Splicing Techniques of Optical Fiber

1. Fusion Splicing
Splicing any fiber by making use of the fusion technique provides a permanent (long-
lasting) contact between the two fibbers. In the fusion splicing, the two fibbers are thermally
joined together. In this particular technique, an electrical instrument is necessarily used, that
acts as an electric arc so as to form a thermal connection between the two. First, the two fibres
are aligned and butted in the way of their connection, this alignment is done in a fiber holder.
After this, the electric arc comes into action as when it gets switched on then it produces some
energy, that heats the butt joint. The heating effect melts the ends of the fiber and then the two
gets bonded together.
After the two forms a bond then their junction is covered with either polyethylene jacket or
plastic coating so as to protect the joint as shown in Figure 12.2.

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Figure 12.2: Fusion Splicing of Optical Fiber

By making use of fusion splicing technique, the splice generated losses are very less. The loss
range lies between 0.05 to 0.10 dB, both in case of single mode as well as multimode optical
fibres. The technique that provides this number of losses is very practical and useful. As only
very little portion of transmitted power gets lost. However, when fusion splicing is done, then
the supply of heat that is to be provided must be in adequate amount. This is so because
sometimes excess heat can generate fragile (delicate) joint.
2. Mechanical splicing
There are two categories comes under mechanical splicing.
a. V-Grooved Splicing
In this splicing technique, initially a V-shaped substrate is taken and the two fiber ends are
butted in the groove. Once the two gets placed inside the groove in proper alignment then they
are bonded by an adhesive or index matching gel. This adhesive provides proper grip to the
connection. The V substrate can be either composed of plastic, silicon, ceramic or any metal
as shown the Figure 12.3.

Figure 12.3: V-Groove Splicing of Optical Fiber

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However, the fiber losses are more in case of this technique as compared to the fusion
technique. Also, these losses majorly depend on the core and cladding diameter as well as core
position with respect to the centre. It is to be noted here that the two fibres do not form a
continuous smooth connection as in the previously discussed case. Also, the joint is semi-
permanent.

b. Elastic-Tube Splicing
It is a technique of splicing the fiber with the help of the elastic tube and majorly finds its
application in case of the multimode optical fiber. The fiber loss, in this case, is almost similar
to that of the fusion technique. However, the need for equipment and skill is somewhat less
than the fusion splicing technique.
Basically, the elastic material is rubber, inside which a small hole is present as shown in the
Figure 12.4. The diameter of this hole is somewhat less than the diameter of the fiber to be
spliced. Also, tapering is done at the ends of both the fibres in order to allow easy insertion
inside the tube. So, when the fiber with a slightly larger diameter than the hole is inserted inside
the hole then, it eventually gets expanded as a symmetrical force is exerted by the material on
the fiber. Due to this symmetricity, proper alignment between the two fibres is achieved. In
this method, different diameters of fiber can be spliced as here the fiber moves according to
the axis of the tube.

Figure 12.4: Elestic Tube Splicing of Optical Fiber

COMMENTS & DISCUSSION

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