SOLVED PROBLEMS ON

TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN

SERIES
TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN
SERIES
Taylor Series of a function f at x = a is
f
(
( ) ( x a)
k)
a k

k =0
k!
It is a Power Series centered at a.

Maclaurin Series of a function f is a

Taylor Series at x = 0.
Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series
 BASIC MACLAURIN SERIES
x2 x3 xk
ex = 1 + x + + + =
2! 3! k =0 k!

( ) x3 x5
( 1) (2k + 1)! x 2k +1
k
sin x = x + =
3! 5! k =0

( 1) (2k )!
2 4 2k
x x x k
cos x = 1 + =
2! 4! k =0

(
1+ x )
p
= 1 + px +
(
p p 1 )x 2
+
2!
Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series
 USE TAYLOR SERIES
1 To estimate values of functions on an
interval.
2 To compute limits of functions.

3 To approximate integrals.

4 To study properties of the function in

question.

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 FINDING TAYLOR SERIES
To find Taylor series of functions, we may:

1 Use substitution.

2 Differentiate known series term by term.

3 Integrate known series term by term.

4 Add, divide, and multiply known series.

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR & MACLAURIN SERIES
For future reference, we collect some
important Maclaurin series that we have
derived in this section and Section 11.9,
in the following table.
IMPORTANT MACLAURIN SERIES Table 1

1 n 2 3
x 1 x x x R 1
1 x n 0

n 2 3
x x x x x
e 1 R
n 0 n! 1! 2! 3!
IMPORTANT MACLAURIN SERIES Table 1

2n 1
x x3 x5 x7
sin x ( 1) n x R
n 0 (2n 1)! 3! 5! 7!

2n 2
x x x4 x6
cos x ( 1) n 1 R
n 0 (2n)! 2! 4! 6!

2n 1
x x3 x5 x7
tan 1 x ( 1) n x R 1
n 0 2n 1 3 5 7
IMPORTANT MACLAURIN SERIES Table 1

k k n k (k 1) 2
(1 x) x 1 kx x
n 0 n 2!
k (k 1)(k 2) 3
x R 1
3!
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES

One reason Taylor series are important

is that they enable us to integrate
functions that we couldn’t previously
handle.
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES
In fact, in the introduction to this chapter,
we mentioned that Newton often integrated
functions by first expressing them as power
series and then integrating the series term
by term.
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES
2
The function f(x) = e x can’t be integrated
by techniques discussed so far.

Its antiderivative is not an elementary function

(see Section 7.5).

In the following example, we use Newton’s idea

to integrate this function.
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 10
2
a. Evaluate ∫ e-x dx as an infinite series.

1
x2
b. Evaluate e dx correct to within
0
an error of 0.001
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 10 a

First, we find the Maclaurin series

2
for f(x) = e-x

It is possible to use the direct method.

However, let’s find it simply by replacing x with –x2

in the series for ex given in Table 1.
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 10 a
Thus, for all values of x,

x 2 ( x 2 )n
e
n 0 n!
2n
nx
( 1)
n 0 n!
2 4 6
x x x
1 ...
1! 2! 3!
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 10 a
Now, we integrate term by term:
2 4 6 2n
x 2 x x x x n
e dx 1 ( 1) dx
1! 2! 3! n!
x3 x5 x7
C x
3 1! 5 2! 7 3!
2n 1
nx
( 1)
(2n 1) n !
This series converges for2 all x because
the original series for e-x converges for all x.
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 10 b
The FTC gives:

3 5 7 9 1
1
x2 x x x x
x dx x
0 3 1! 5 2! 7 3! 9 4! 0

1 1
3
1
10
1
42
1
216

1 1
3
1
10
1
42
1
216

0.7475
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 10 b
The Alternating Series Estimation
Theorem shows that the error involved
in this approximation is less than

1 1
0.001
11 5! 1320
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES

Another use of Taylor series is illustrated

in the next example.

The limit could be found with l’Hospital’s Rule.

Instead, we use a series.

USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 11
x
Evaluate e 1 x
lim 2
x 0 x

Using the Maclaurin series for ex,

we have the following result.
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 11
x x2 x3
x
1 1 x
e 1 x 1! 2! 3!
lim 2
lim 2
x 0 x x 0 x
2 3 4
x x x
lim 2! 3! 4!
2
x 0 x
2 3
1 x x x 1
lim
x 0 2 3! 4! 5! 2
This is because power series are continuous
functions.
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF POWER SERIES

If power series are added or subtracted,

they behave like polynomials.

Theorem 8 in Section 11.2 shows this.

In fact, as the following example shows, they can

also be multiplied and divided like polynomials.
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF POWER SERIES

In the example, we find only the first

few terms.

The calculations for the later terms become

tedious.

The initial terms are the most important ones.

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION Example 12

Find the first three nonzero terms

in the Maclaurin series for:

a. ex sin x

b. tan x
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION Example 12 a
Using the Maclaurin series for ex and sin x
in Table 1, we have:

x x x2 x3 x3
e sin x 1 x
1! 2! 3! 3!
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION Example 12 a
We multiply these expressions, collecting
like terms just as for polynomials:
2 3
1 x 1
2 x 1
6 x
3
x 1
6 x
2 3 4
x x 1
2 x 1
6 x
3 4
1
6 x 1
6 x
2 3
x x 1
3 x
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION Example 12 a

Thus,

x 2 3
e sin x x x 1
3 x
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION Example 12 b
Using the Maclaurin series in Table 1,
we have:
3 5
x x
x
sin x 3! 5!
tan x 2 4
cos x x x
1
2! 4!
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION Example 12 b
We use a procedure like long division:
3 5
x 1
3 x 2
15 x
2 4 3 5
1 1
2 x 1
24 x x 1
6 x 1
120 x
3 5
x 1
2 x 1
24 x
3 5
1
3 x 1
30 x
3 5
1
3 x 1
6 x
5
1
6 x
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION Example 12 b

Thus,

3 5
tan x x 1
3 x 2
15 x
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

Although we have not attempted to

justify the formal manipulations used in
Example 12, they are legitimate.
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

There is a theorem that states

the following:

Suppose both f(x) = Σcnxn and g(x) = Σbnxn

converge for |x| < R and the series are multiplied
as if they were polynomials.

Then, the resulting series also converges

for |x| < R and represents f(x)g(x).
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

For division, we require b0 ≠ 0.

The resulting series converges for

sufficiently small x.
 OVERVIEW OF PROBLEMS
Find the Maclaurin Series of the following
functions.

1 sin x( )
2
2
sin x
3 arctan x
( ) ( )
x

4 cos2 x ( ) 5 x e 2 x 6 1 x3

( )
x
e
7 sinh x( ) 8
1 x
9
2
x arctan x 3

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 OVERVIEW OF PROBLEMS
Find the Taylor Series of the following
functions at the given value of a.
1
10 x x at a = 2 11
3
at a = 2
x

12 e 2x
at a = 1 2 13 ( )
sin x at a = 4

14 10 x at a = 1 15 ( )
ln 1 + x at a = 2

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Find the Maclaurin Series of the following
functions.

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 1 ( )
f x = sin x 2 ( )
Solution

Substitute x by x 2 in the Maclaurin Series of sine.

( x )
2k +1
2

( ) ( 1) (2k + 1)! = ( 1) (2k + 1)!

4k +2
k x k
Hence sin x 2 =
k =0 k =0

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 2 ( )
f x =
sin x ( )
x

Solution

Divide the Maclaurin Series of sine by x. Hence,

( ) = 1 ( 1) x = ( 1) x
sin x k 2k +1 k 2k

x x (2k + 1)!
k =0 (2k + 1)! k =0

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 3 ( )
f x = arctan x ( )
Solution

Observe that f ' x = ( )

1+ x
1
2
. To find the Maclaurin

( )
Series of f ' x substitute x 2 for x in Basic
Power Series formula.

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(cont’d)

( ) 1
( ) ( )
k k
2
Hence f ' x = 2
= x = 1 x 2k .
1+ x k =0 k =0

By integrating both sides, we obtain

( ) ( ) ( )
k k
2k
f x = 1 x dx = 1 x 2k dx
k =0 k =0

( ) x 2k +1
k
= 1 + C.
k =0 2k + 1

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
0 is in the interval of convergence. Therefore
we can insert x = 0 to find that the integration
constant c = 0. Hence the Maclaurin series of
( )
arctan x is

( ) ( 1) x 2k +1
k
arctan x = .
k =0 2k + 1

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 4 ( )
f x = cos2 x ( )
Solution

By the trigonometric identity,

( ) (
cos2 x = 1 + cos 2x ( )) 2.
Therefore we start with the Maclaurin Series of
cosine.

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(cont’d)

( ) ( 1) (2k )!.
x 2k
k
Substitute x by 2x in cos x =
k =0

(2x )
2k

( ) ( 1) (2k )! . After adding 1

k
Thus cos 2x =
k =0

and dividing by 2, we obtain

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(cont’d)

(2x )
2k

(x) = 21
( 1) (2k )!
k
2
cos 1+
k =0

(2x ) + (2x )
2 4
1
= 1+1 …
2 2! 4!

( ) (2k )! 22k
k 1
=1+ 1 x 2k
k =1

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 5 ( )
f x = x 2e x

Solution

Multiply the Maclaurin Seris of e x by x 2.

xk x k +2
Hence, x 2e x = x 2 = .
k =0 k! k =0 k!

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 6 ( )
f x = 1 x 3

Solution

( ) ( ( ))
12
By rewriting f x = 1 + x3 . By substituting x
by -x 3 in the binomial formula with p = 1 2
we obtain ,
3 1 3 1 6
1 x =1 x x …
2 8
Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series
 MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 7 ( )
f x = sinh x ( )
Solution

( ) ex x
e
By rewriting f x = . Substitute x by x in
2
2 k
x x x
the Maclaurin Series of e = 1 + x + +… = ,
2 k =0 k!

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
( x)
k
2
x x
e = =1 x+
k =0 k! 2!
Thus when we add e x and e x , the terms with odd
power are canceled and the terms with even power
are doubled. After dividing by 2, we obtain

( )
sinh x = 1 +
x2
2!
+
x4
4!
+… =
k =0
x 2k
(2k )!
Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series
 MACLAURIN SERIES
( )
x
e
Problem 8 f x =
1 x

Solution
x x2 1
We have e = 1 + x + + … and = 1 + x + x2 + …
2! 1 x
To find the Maclaurin Series of f x , we multiply ( )
these series and group the terms with the same
degree.

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(cont’d)

1+ x +
x2
2!
+… (1 + x + x2 + … )
1
= 1 + 2x + 1 + 1 + x 2 + higher degree terms
2!
5 2
= 1 + 2x + x + higher degree terms
2

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 9 ( )
f x = x 2 arctan x 3 ( )
Solution
We have calculated the Maclaurin Series of arctan x ( )
( ) ( 1) x 2k +1
k
arctan x = .
k =0 2k + 1
Substituting x by x 3 in the above formula, we obtain

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(cont’d)

( x )
2k +1
3

( )= ( 1) 2k + 1 ( 1)
6k +3
3
k k x
arctan x = .
k =0 k =0 2k + 1
Multiplying by x 2 gives the desired Maclaurin Series

( ) ( 1) x 6k +3
( 1) x 6k +4
k k
x 2 arctan x 3 = x 2 =
k =0 2k + 1 k =0 2k + 1

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Find the Taylor Series of the following
functions at given a.

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Problem 10 ( )
f x =x x 3 at a = 2

Solution
Taylor Series of f x = x ( ) x 3 at a = 2 is of the form

f( )
2 +f
(1) ( 2) f
( 2) ( x + 2) + 2! ( x + 2)
(2)
2

f ( 2) f ( 2)
()
3 () 4

( x + 2) + ( x + 2) + …
3 4
+
3! 4!
Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series
 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
Since f is a polynominal function of degree 3,
its derivatives of order higher than 3 is 0. Thus
Taylor Series is of the form

f ( )
2 +f
(1)
( 2) ( x + 2) +
f
(2)
( 2) ( x + 2) 2
+
f
(
( 2) ( x + 2)
3)
3

2! 3!

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
By direct computation,
f ( )
2 = 6, f
(1)
( )
2 = 11, f
(2)
( )2 = 12, f
(3)
( 2) = 6
So the Taylor Series of x x 3 at a = 2 is

( ) ( ) ( x + 2)
2 3
6-11 x + 2 + 6 x + 2

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Problem 11 ( )
f x =
1
x
at a = 2

Solution
( )
Taylor Series of f x = 1 x at a = 2 is of the form
(
( ) ( x 2) . We need to find the general
f 2
k)
k

k =0
k!
expression of the k th derivative of 1 x .

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)

We derive 1 x until a pattern is found.

( )
f x =1 x = x , f
(1)1
( ) ( )
x = 1 x2

f
(
( ) ( )( )
2)
x = 1 2 x , f3 (3)
( ) ( ) ( 2 ) ( 3) x
x = 1 4

In general, f ( x ) = ( 1) k!x
() k ( ). Therefore
k k +1

f (2) = ( 1) k!2
k() k
( ). k +1

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
After inserting the general expression of the k th
derivative evaluated at 2 we obtain,
(
( ) ( x 2)
f 2
k)
k
=
1
( )
k
1 k!2
( k +1)
x 2 ( )
k

k =0 k! k =0 k!

( 1) ( x 2) .
k
1 k
Hence, the the Taylor Series of is
x k =0 2
( )
k +1

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Problem 12 ( )
f x =e 2x
at a = 1 2

Solution
Taylor Series of f x = e ( ) 2x
at a = 1 2 is of the form
(
( )
k)
f 12
x
1
k

. We need to find the general

k =0
k! 2
expression of the k th derivative of e 2x
.

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
2x
We derive e until a pattern is found.
( )
f x =e 2x
( )
, f
(1)
x = 2e 2x
, f
(2)
( )
x = 2 2e 2x

In general, f ( x ) = ( 1)
() k k
2k e 2x
.

( )
k
1 1 2k
( k)
( ) ( 1)
k 2
k
Therefore f 1 2 = 2 e 2
= .
e

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
After inserting the general expression of the k th
derivative evaluated at 1 2 we obtain,
(
( )
k)
( 1)
k k k
k
f 12 1 1 2 1
x = x
k =0 k! 2 k =0 k! e 2
2x
Hence, the the Taylor Series of e is

( 1) (2x 1) .
k
k

k =0 e ( k!)
Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series
 TAYLOR SERIES
Problem 13 ( )
f x = sin x at a = ( ) 4

Solution

( )
Taylor Series of f x = sin x at a = ( ) 4 is of the

f ( 4)
()
k k

form x . We need to find the

k =0
k! 4
general expression of the k th derivative of sin x . ( )
Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series
 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
( )
We derive sin x until a pattern is found.

( ) ( )
f x = sin x , f
(1)
( ) ( ) ( )
x = cos x , f
(2)
x = sin x ( )
sin ( x ) if k = 4n
cos ( x ) if k = 4n + 1
In general, f ( x ) =
( )k

sin ( x ) if k = 4n + 2
cos ( x ) if k = 4n + 3

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
In other words, even order derivatives are either sin x ( )
or -sin ( x ) and odd order derivatives are either cos ( x )
or -cos ( x ) . So the Taylor Series at a = 4 can be
written as
(
sin
( 1) (2k )!
k ) 4
x
2k

+
k (
cos )
( 1) (2k + 1)!
4
x
2k +1

k =0 4 k =0 4

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)

Since, at a = 4 , sin ( 4) = cos ( 4) = 1 2 , the

Taylor Series can be simplified to

( 1) ( 1)
k 2k k 2k +1

x + x .
k =0 2 (2k )! 4 k =0 2 (2k + 1)! 4

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Problem 14 ( )
f x = 10 x at a = 1

Solution
( )
Taylor Series of f x = 10 x at a = 1 is of the form
(
( ) ( x 1) . We need to find the general
f 1
k)
k

k =0
k!
expression of the k th derivative of 10 x.

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
We derive 10 x until a pattern is found.
( ) x
f x = 10 , f
(1)
( ) ( ) x
x = ln 10 10 , f
(2)
x = ln2 10 10 x ( ) ( )
In general, f
( k)
( ) ( )
x = lnk 10 10 x.
( k)
() ( )
Therefore f 1 = lnk 10 10.

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
After inserting the general expression of the k th
derivative evaluated at 1 we obtain,
(
( ) ( x 1)
f 1
k)
k
=
( ) ( x 1)
lnk 10 10 k

k =0 k! k =0 k!

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Problem 15 ( ) (
f x = ln 1 + x at a = 2 )
Solution

( ) ( )
Taylor Series of f x = ln 1 + x at a = 2 is of

f ( 2)
()
k

( x + 2) . We need to find the

k
the form
k!
k =0

general expression of the k th derivative of ln 1 + x . ( )

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series
 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)

( )
We derive ln x + 1 until a pattern is found.

( ) (
f x = ln x + 1 , f
(
)
1)
x = ( ) 1
, f
(2)
( )
x =
1
x +1
( x + 1)
2

( 1)
k

In general, f
( k)
x = ( ) . Therefore f
( k)
( 2) = 1.
( x + 1)
k

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(cont’d)
After inserting the general expression of the k th
derivative evaluated at -2 we obtain
f
(
( 2) ( x + 2)
k)
k
=
1
(
k
x +2 . )
k =0 k! k =0 k!

Mika Seppälä: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series