Assisting Students Struggling What Works

with Mathematics: Intervention Clearinghouse™

in the Elementary Grades

Practice Guide Summary

WWC 2021006
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

A publication of the National Center for Education Evaluation at IES

According to the Nation’s Report Card, test scores in

mathematics have remained stagnant over time for Recommendations in
this practice guide:
elementary students who scored in the lowest 25th
percentile. These students now trail further behind 1. Provide systematic
their peers than they have in over a decade as the instruction during
gap between the highest and lowest performing intervention to develop
students on the National Assessment of Educational student understanding
Progress (NAEP) math assessment has widened. of mathematical ideas.
2. Teach clear and concise
Recent research has identified interventions that
mathematical language and support
improved achievement for students with low test
students’ use of the language to help
scores in mathematics. The Assisting Students
students effectively communicate their
Struggling with Mathematics: Intervention in the
understanding of mathematical concepts.
Elementary Grades practice guide, developed by
the What Works Clearinghouse™ (WWC) in con- 3. Use a well-chosen set of concrete and
junction with an expert panel, distills this recent semi-concrete representations to support
research into six easily comprehensible and prac- students’ learning of mathematical
tical recommendations for educators to use when concepts and procedures.
teaching elementary students with low test scores 4. Use the number line to facilitate the
in mathematics. This practice guide focuses on learning of mathematical concepts
practices and principles underlying effective small- and procedures, build understanding of
group interventions for students in grades K–6. grade-level material, and prepare students
for advanced mathematics.
This summary introduces the six recommendations
5. Provide deliberate instruction on
described in the full practice guide and the sup-
word problems to deepen students’
porting evidence for each recommendation. These
mathematical understanding and support
recommendations are designed to help educators,
their capacity to apply mathematical ideas.
including mathematics general and special educa-
tion educators, mathematics specialists and coaches; 6. Regularly include timed activities as one
school, district, and state personnel; and parents. way to build fluency in mathematics.

For a full description of the recommendations and

more implementation tips, including the panel’s roadblocks to implementation, download your
guidance for addressing potential obstacles or free copy of the guide.

WWC 2021006 Assisting Students Struggling with Mathematics: Intervention in the Elementary Grades | Practice Guide Summary | 1
 Recommendation 1

Recommendation 1: Systematic Instruction

Provide systematic instruction during intervention to develop student
understanding of mathematical ideas.

Effective interventions for improving mathematics achievement for students struggling with mathemat-
ics share one key feature: the design of the curricular materials and the instruction provided are system-
atic. The term systematic indicates that instructional elements intentionally build students’ knowledge
over time toward an identified learning outcome(s). Systematic intervention materials are designed
to cover topics in an incremental and intentional way. Systematic interventions most often include a
“bundle” of practices used to build and support student learning strategically.

How to carry out the recommendation

1. Review and integrate previously learned Start with fractions equivalent to one-half,
content throughout intervention to ensure one-third, and one-fourth that are familiar and
that students maintain understanding accessible to students. When students have
of concepts and procedures. The panel a grasp of the concept, systematically add
recommends that interventions include other fraction types to prevent students from
systematic review of content by including a overgeneralizing that equivalencies are only
mix of previously and newly learned material applicable to unit fractions.
within and across lessons. Review previously
3. Sequence instruction so that the
taught material before introducing new,
mathematics students are learning
related content. Help students understand
builds incrementally. Present mathematics
the link between the previous content and
concepts in a cohesive and logical way.
the new content. To avoid having students
Introduce concepts strategically so that the
overgeneralize new concepts or procedures to
new learning relates to concepts previously
previously learned material, regularly present
taught. An intentional sequence of instruction
a variety of problems that require students to
capitalizes on prior learning and ensures that
discriminate among problem types.
students have the knowledge necessary to
Mathematical ideas are complex, and virtually learn new content effectively.
all learners need to use, discuss, and explain the
Focus lessons on smaller tasks needed to solve
ideas multiple times over a long period of time to
complex problems before pulling it all together.
understand them. Provide students with oppor-
This may apply to highly procedural multi-digit
tunities to use and explain previous or newly
computation problems, or when teaching
learned mathematics concepts or procedures.
students to solve word problems. In the view of
the panel, the key to building knowledge in this
2. When introducing new concepts and
incremental way is to help students become
procedures, use accessible numbers to
comfortable with simpler subtasks of problem
support learning. When teaching a new
solving so they can eventually connect them to
concept or procedure, use single-digit or easy-
solve complex problems. For example, focus
to-process numbers so that students can focus
students on simpler tasks by using worked-out
on the new concept or procedure rather than
examples. Then exclude steps in a worked-out
on difficult calculations. For example, when
example and ask students to provide those
teaching students to find equivalent fractions,
steps until they become more comfortable with
first work on equivalencies to unit fractions.
the procedures in solving problems.

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 Recommendation 1
4. Provide visual and verbal supports. Verbal
supports may include teacher prompting Representations illustrate the value of
numbers and the relationship between
or questioning to help students remember
quantities.
the connections between prior learning and
new concepts. These verbal supports may be • Concrete representations are three-
accompanied by a visual which could include dimensional (3D) physical materials or actions
a gesture or a concrete or semi-concrete that students can organize, act upon, or
representation. For example, when teaching manipulate (e.g., regrouping with base 10
division, a teacher might gesture using a blocks, using fraction tiles to compare two
motion like a dealer dealing out cards to show fractions, and role playing a problem situation).
the action of divvying concrete items (such • Semi-concrete representations are two-
as cards) into equal groups. A visual may also dimensional (2D) visual depictions such as
include a picture or diagram to be used as strip diagrams, simple drawings, tables, arrays,
a “hint” for a next step or as a reminder to graphs, and number lines.
think about a certain concept. • Abstract representations are mathematical
5. Provide immediate, supportive feedback notations that can include numbers,
to students to address any misunderstand- equations, operations, relational symbols, and
ings. If students are not able to explain their expressions (such as 4 × 4 = 16).
understanding of key mathematical concepts
or do not execute procedures correctly, Structure questions in such a way as to help
provide them with immediate feedback. When students self-identify where their thinking
students solve problems, encourage them to went wrong. It might be helpful for students
articulate their thinking so that you can iden- to use representations to help them articulate
tify their strengths. Ask probing questions to what they are thinking. Correcting misun-
identify any misconceptions and build on their derstandings early can prevent the confusion
strengths to correct those misunderstandings. from becoming an enduring problem.

Example 1. Reviewing previously learned content with verbal and visual supports*.
The teacher reviews what the students have previously learned and reminds students of key concepts,
including fact families (sets of mathematically related number sentences, such as 3x5=15 and 15/5=3) and
the inverse relationship between multiplication and division. After explicitly reviewing what students know,
the teacher asks a student to explain how the equal-sized group model can be used to solve the problem
4×6. Because the student has recently practiced solving multiplication and division problems with a visual
representation, the student draws 4 circles with 6 dots in each and explains how she created 4 groups of
6 and skip counted to solve the multiplication problem. If needed, the teacher is poised to prompt the
student if she misses a key point and provide corrective feedback.

4 x 6 = 24 6 x 4 = 24

4 groups of 6 items 6 groups of 4 items

*This is an abbreviated version of the example presented in the practice guide.

WWC 2021006 Assisting Students Struggling with Mathematics: Intervention in the Elementary Grades | Practice Guide Summary | 3
 Recommendation 2

Recommendation 2: Mathematical Language

Teach clear and concise mathematical language and support students’ use
of the language to help students effectively communicate their understanding
of mathematical concepts

Mathematical language is academic language that

precisely conveys mathematical ideas, including When teachers use conversational or informal
the vocabulary, terminology, and language struc- language instead of mathematical language,
tures used when thinking about, talking about, students may get confused. For example, some
and writing about mathematics. teachers may refer to the commutative property
(a + b = b + a) as the “flip-flop property.” Although
Understanding mathematical language is critical this creative property name may be viewed as
to students’ learning because it is used in text- a fun memory device, replacing accurate terms
books, curricular and assessment materials, and with informal language can confuse students
teachers’ instruction. later when they don’t know the connection to
the correct formal term commutative property.
Using and practicing correct terminology from
the start can eliminate later challenges.

How to carry out the recommendation

1. Routinely teach mathematical vocabulary To support learning across grade levels and
to build students’ understanding of settings, schools should consider creating a
the mathematics they are learning. list of mathematical terminology that is shared
Introduce new mathematical vocabulary among teachers and strategically becomes
during instruction and provide context more sophisticated with each grade.
and meaning to the words. Use student-
friendly definitions with simple and familiar 2. Use clear, concise, and correct mathematical
mathematical words. Simply providing language throughout lessons to reinforce
a definition of a term is not sufficient for students’ understanding of important
developing students’ understanding of mathematical vocabulary words. Consistent
mathematical vocabulary and concepts. use of mathematical language helps students
Link new vocabulary to a variety of learn how the terms should be used and
examples when possible, including concrete develop a deeper understanding of the terms.
or semi-concrete representations. A graphic Use and emphasize clear, concise, and correct
organizer, such as in Example 2, can provide mathematical language throughout instruction:
a student-friendly definition and visually when referring to a new or previously learned
and symbolically depict a vocabulary topic, when discussing homework, and when
word’s meaning, characteristics, examples, responding to questions. Model precise
and non-examples. Hand gestures and mathematical language when explaining your
role-playing can also provide context and thought process and demonstrating how to
meaning to mathematical vocabulary. solve a problem.

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 Recommendation 2
3. Support students in using mathematically questions. It is also helpful for teachers to
precise language during their verbal and restate the students’ explanations using
written explanations of their problem correct language when students do not.
solving. Have students provide verbal Remind students to include the mathematical
and written explanations of mathematics language modeled and taught during
concepts during intervention. Offer students instruction by displaying mathematical
a framework for providing explanations, vocabulary on the classroom wall.
such as sentence starters or a set of guiding

Example 2. Graphic organizer that depicts a student-friendly definition, characteristics, exam-

ples, and non-examples for the term unit fraction.

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 Recommendation 3

Recommendation 3: Representations
Use a well-chosen set of concrete and semi-concrete representations to support
students’ learning of mathematical concepts and procedures.

Students who struggle to learn mathematics need additional, focused instruction using representations
to model mathematical ideas. Choose representations carefully and connect them explicitly to the
abstract representations (mathematical notation). It is also important to provide students with many
opportunities to use representations.

How to carry out the recommendation

1. Provide students with the concrete and before they will successfully use them to
semi-concrete representations that effec- model concepts and procedures and solve
tively represent the concept or procedure problems. Over time, students will begin to
being covered. Not all representations work more deeply understand mathematics con-
for every mathematical concept, so choosing cepts and grasp how representations can be
representations must be intentional to be effec- used as “thinking tools”, which are tools to
tive. Provide students with the representations model and solve problems.
that most accurately model the concept or
Representations can be used when students
procedure being addressed. When appropriate,
explain their thinking. At first, students may
use representations that are proportional. For
need help articulating how they used the repre-
example, when teaching place value, the repre-
sentations to depict the mathematical concepts.
sentation for ones should be one-tenth the size
Pose prompting questions to help students
of the representation for tens.
explain how they represented the concepts
2. When teaching concepts and procedures, and/or procedures. As students become more
connect concrete and semi-concrete rep- comfortable using representations, routinely
resentations to abstract representations. ask them to use the representations to explain
When demonstrating concepts and pro- their solution approach. This helps reinforce
cedures with concrete and semi-concrete the mathematics not only for the student
representations, present the mathematical explaining their thinking, but also for the
notation simultaneously. It is also important students who are listening to the explanation
to connect concrete and semi-concrete repre- the student is giving.
sentations to each other. It is helpful to make
these connections when introducing new 4. Revisit concrete and semi-concrete repre-
material, when reviewing previously learned sentations periodically to reinforce and
content, and when using familiar representa- deepen understanding of mathematical
tions in a new way. Example 3 demonstrates ideas. Systematically revisit concrete and
how the representations can be aligned verti- semi-concrete representations to reinforce
cally to demonstrate their connections. and deepen students’ understanding of
mathematical concepts. Also, if students are
3. Provide ample and meaningful opportu-
not able to correctly solve problems or are
nities for students to use representations
uncertain about how to approach a prob-
to help solidify the use of representations
lem, encourage them to use a concrete or
as “thinking tools.” Students need many
semi-concrete representation.
opportunities to work with representations

WWC 2021006 Assisting Students Struggling with Mathematics: Intervention in the Elementary Grades | Practice Guide Summary | 6
 Recommendation 3

Example 3. Teacher shows how summing two numbers relates to concrete and semi-concrete
representations and to an equation.
5 + 4 = _____

Teacher: When looking at this problem we see that we need to add or combine the 4 and the 5. I can use
counters to count out a group of 4 and another group of 5. Then I can combine them and count how many
I have. I can also draw 4 squares to represent the 4 and 5 squares for the 5, and then count how many
squares I drew in all. I find that I drew 9 squares, so the answer to the problem 4 + 5 equals 9.

Concrete

Semi-concrete

Concrete Push together

Semi-concrete

Abstract 5 + 4 = 9

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 Recommendation 4

Recommendation 4: Number Lines

Use the number line to facilitate the learning of mathematical concepts and
procedures, build understanding of grade-level material, and prepare students
for advanced mathematics.

The number line is a semi-concrete mathematical Students who are proficient in mathematics often
representation that can concurrently represent construct a mental number line as they solve
all real numbers, including whole numbers and problems. When a teacher consistently uses num-
rational numbers, positive and negative num- ber lines during intervention, students gradually
bers, and other sets of numbers (Example 4). develop the ability to visualize a number line
The ability to represent different sets of numbers when considering the magnitude of a number,
makes the number line a powerful tool for help- determining strategies for solving mathematics
ing students develop a unified understanding problems, or evaluating the reasonableness of
of numbers and for supporting their learning their answers after solving problems. It also sets
of advanced mathematics. Number lines are an the stage for more advanced work in middle and
important tool for teaching and understanding high school mathematics.
magnitude and operations for both whole num-
bers and fractions, graphing coordinates, and Each step in this recommendation provides
displaying and analyzing data. guidance for whole numbers in early elementary
(grades K–2) and fractions and decimals in upper
elementary (grades 3–6).

Example 4. Number line representing magnitudes of whole, positive, negative, and rational numbers.

2.5 ²⁄₃ ¹⁄₂ 1.4 ⁷⁄₄

How to carry out the recommendation

1. Represent whole numbers, fractions, line on paper or projected on a screen. Ask
and decimals on a number line to build students to identify similarities and differ-
students’ understanding of numerical ences between the two representations. Draw
magnitude. Early elementary (grades their attention to the distance from zero to
K–2). Before using a number line, introduce one and how that distance is the same length
students to a concrete version of a number as one unit. This connection will help stu-
line. For example, use a walkable number dents understand that the 1 on a number line
path, board games, or clotheslines. This may is not merely a tick mark, but also represents
help students begin to form a visual image of the full one-unit distance from zero.
a number line.
Upper elementary (grades 3–6). Once
After exposing students to the concrete num-
students understand the concept of a fraction
ber line with a series of individual units lined
with concrete representations, show students
up on a path, connect that idea to a number
how to represent fractions on a number line.

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 Recommendation 4
Demonstrate the location of fractions on the Upper elementary (grades 3–6). Use
number line, starting with familiar fractions number lines to compare the magnitude of
that are less than one. Reinforce the idea fractions and decimals. Reinforce for students
that the denominator represents the number that fraction and decimal magnitude, like
of partitions in one whole. Number lines can whole-number magnitude, is represented
be used to: by how far to the right or left of zero a num-
ber is positioned. Help students compare
• Demonstrate the pattern of unit fractions
fraction magnitude by locating “benchmark
and their corresponding magnitude.
numbers,” starting with 0, 1/2, and 1, when
• Teach students that not all fractions are
thinking of fractions between 0 and 1.
less than one; depict fractions equal to or
greater than one. 3. Use the number line to build students’
• Show students that whole numbers can understanding of the concepts underlying
be represented as fractions and that some operations. Early elementary (grades K–2).
fractions are located between other whole Show students how to use number lines for
numbers. addition and subtraction of whole numbers
• Explain that some fractions are positioned by looking at the distance between whole
at the same location on the number line and numbers. Teach students to focus on the unit
are therefore equivalent (for example, 1/2, length, or distance between two tick marks,
2/4, and 4/8 ). rather than counting tick marks. When moving
to the left students see that starting with 8 and
• Expand the idea of equivalencies to include
moving 3 units to the left is equal to 5, showing
decimals and percentages so that students
the subtraction equation 8 – 3 = 5.
understand that these numbers are also
equivalencies. Upper elementary (grades 3–6). A number
line is a powerful visual for demonstrating
2. Compare numbers and determine their addition and subtraction of fractions. Start by
relative magnitude using a number line adding fractions with the same denominator
to help students understand quantity. using one number line. When adding and
Early elementary (grades K–2). Use number subtracting fractions with unlike denomina-
lines to teach the relative magnitude of whole tors, use double number lines to make the
numbers. Start by putting two numbers on a equivalences more visible for students.
number line using equal units. Explain that
each number’s distance from zero represents
the number’s magnitude. Explain how to
compare the two numbers and determine
which is greater based on which is more equal
units away from zero.

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 Recommendation 5

Recommendation 5: Word Problems

Provide deliberate instruction on word problems to deepen students’ mathematical
understanding and support their capacity to apply mathematical ideas.

Learning to solve word problems is an important Unfortunately, learning calculations alone does
part of the elementary mathematics curriculum not necessarily help students successfully solve
because word problems help students apply the word problems. To set up and solve word prob-
mathematics they are learning, develop critical lems successfully, students need to read and
thinking skills, and begin to connect mathematics understand the problem’s narrative, determine
to a variety of scenarios or contexts. Becoming what the problem is asking them to find, and
successful at solving word problems can deepen identify one or more mathematical operations
students’ understanding of grade-level content that will solve the problem. Students who strug-
and set students up for success in advanced gle with mathematics often have difficulty with
mathematics courses and the workforce. one or more of these steps.

How to carry out the recommendation

1. Teach students to identify word problem 2. Teach students a solution method for
types that include the same type of action solving each problem type. Introduce a
or event. Introduce one problem type at a solution method using a worked-out example.
time. Begin by introducing a new problem Talk through the problem-solving process and
type with a story that includes all quantities. connect the relevant problem information
This helps students think about what the to the worked-out example. Say out loud
quantities represent without needing to solve the decisions that were made to solve the
for an unknown. Next, present the same problem at each step. Then demonstrate
story with a missing quantity (that is, a word how to apply the solution method by solving
problem). For instance: a similar problem with students using that
method. Discuss each decision you make
• Story with all quantities: There were
and ask students guiding questions to engage
18 children on the bus. 7 children got off
them as you solve the problem.
the bus at the first stop. 11 children are still
on the bus. Provide students with a visual guide detail-
• Word problem with a missing quantity: ing steps to reference as they solve word
There were 18 children on the bus. problems. Some parts of the guide may
7 children got off the bus at the first stop. apply to understanding the problem before
How many children are still on the bus? solving it, such as “read the problem,”
“name the problem type,” “identify the
Connect the quantities between the story question,” and “find relevant information.”
and the word problem so that the students Other parts may be geared toward choosing
see how they are the same. Use role-playing, a solution method that is specific to the
gestures, or concrete and/or semi-concrete problem type. Over time, gradually fade
manipulatives to help students visualize the the use of visual guides so students do not
problem and identify relevant information. become overly reliant on them.
This helps students see how the quantities
relate to each other.

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 Recommendation 5
3. Expand students’ ability to identify 4. Teach vocabulary or language often
relevant information in word problems used in word problems to help students
by presenting problem information understand the problem. When first
differently. Once students can recognize introducing word problems, choose problems
and solve the most accessible problems where all the words in the story are familiar
within a type, present word problems of to students. Before you start teaching,
that same type that are less familiar so that anticipate which words are critical for
students broaden their understanding of that understanding the problem. Pay particular
problem type. For example, teachers can attention to words that relate to one another
vary the unknown quantity to help students that may help students identify which
understand the mathematical structure in information in the problem is relevant and
each problem type. Other problems that look which is irrelevant. Teach the meaning of
different may require additional steps to solve words and continue to discuss them during
or include irrelevant numerical information problem solving to solidify their meaning.
or information presented differently in a Over time, include word problems with more
chart, graph, or diagram. difficult language.
Once students have learned several variations 5. Include a mix of previously and newly
of each problem type, teachers can provide learned problem types throughout
ongoing support to students in identifying intervention. After a problem type has
which quantities are relevant for solving been taught, distribute previously learned
problems by: problem types throughout lessons. By
revisiting previously learned problems,
• Helping students visualize the problem
students practice discriminating among
by using concrete or semi-concrete
problem types as they learn new ones.
representations.
Include an activity where students identify
• Encouraging students to reread the problem
and name problem types without solving
more than once and restate the problem in them. This reinforces the importance of
their own words. This may help students reading and thinking about each problem
determine which information is relevant before solving it. Students may need support
versus irrelevant. to remember the salient features of different
• Asking students to write down, circle, problem types, like a prompt card listing the
or underline information that will be features of a problem or a gesture that evokes
used solve the problem and to cross out the action in the problem.
information that is not useful.

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 Recommendation 6

Recommendation 6: Timed Activities

Regularly include timed activities as one way to build students’ fluency
in mathematics.

Quickly retrieving basic arithmetic facts is In addition to basic facts, timed activities may
not easy for students who struggle with math- address other mathematical subtasks important
ematics. Automatic retrieval gives students for solving complex problems. This could include,
more mental energy to understand relatively for example, recalling equivalencies for fraction
complex mathematical tasks and execute multi- benchmarks of 1/2 and 1, or quickly evaluating and
step mathematical procedures. Thus, building estimating place value. The goal of these activities
automatic fact retrieval in students is one (of is to move students toward accurate and efficient
many) important goals of intervention. performance of these smaller mathematical tasks
so that this knowledge can be easily accessed
when necessary for solving problems.

How to carry out the recommendation

1. Identify already-learned topics for 2. Choose the activity and accompanying
activities to support fluency and create a materials to use in the timed activity and
timeline. When planning activities to support set clear expectations. Timed activities
fluency, think through what students need are brief (usually 1–5 minutes) and require
to know how to do in order to understand students to generate many correct responses
and more easily apply the mathematics they in that short amount of time. Activities that
are learning. Consider the mathematics support fluency can be done using flash
topic that is the focus of intervention and cards, computer programs, or worksheets.
whether reteaching basic facts and/or other Using these materials, activities can be
subtasks might help students understand and structured for students to work together
perform that task more fluently. Think about as a group or individually. In a small-group
which complex strategies or procedures the intervention setting, set up the activity with
students will learn and break those into a clear expectations of who responds and when.
series of smaller subtasks. Plan activities to Periodically incorporate game-like features,
support fluency in one of those areas. such as keeping score or having students
cooperate as a team to increase their score.
Pick one topic to build over time. For each
topic, plan a schedule for introducing and 3. Ensure that students have an efficient
conducting the activity to support fluency. At strategy to use as they complete the
the start, choose easier items for the activity. timed activity. Plan timed activities that
To help students remain engaged in the topic, focus on previously learned content. Include
increase the difficulty of the items as students the strategies you want students to use
become more fluent with the easier items. during timed activities during other portions
For example, if working on addition facts, of the intervention lessons. For example,
you might start with n + 1 or doubles. Then, when teaching addition facts, instruction
increase the difficulty of the items to include may be organized around teaching number
other more difficult combinations.

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 Recommendation 6
combinations, doubles, doubles plus one, or 5. Provide immediate feedback by asking
various combinations of 10 or other numbers. students to correct errors using an
Be sure that students are competent in using efficient strategy. When using flash cards or
these strategies before students begin the other activities that allow immediate feedback
timed activity. from a teacher, students may self-correct
before feedback can be provided. This might
4. Encourage and motivate students to work
indicate that they are moving toward fluency.
hard by having them chart their progress.
If students do not self-correct, immediately ask
Remind students that the goal of fluency
them to fix their incorrect answer and explain
activities isn’t to simply generate answers
why the new answer is correct. If the student
quickly, but instead to generate accurate
struggles, remind them of the efficient strategy
answers in a short amount of time.
they have learned. The student is responsible
To keep students focused and motivated for using the taught strategy and correcting
during these activities, have students record their answer before moving on.
their scores over time on a chart or graph. As
Often, computer-based programs provide
students see their scores improve over time,
students with immediate feedback. However,
they may feel more excited and motivated to
immediate feedback is sometimes not possible
set goals and work hard. Goals to “meet or
with worksheets, even in small groups. In the
beat” a previously earned fluency score can be
opinion of the panel, teachers should score
set for individuals or as a collective score for
and return worksheets as soon as possible and
the intervention group. Working toward a goal
then review with students the problems that
as a group can reduce the pressure on individ-
need to be corrected and the effective strate-
ual students.
gies that could be used.

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Summary of Evidence by Recommendation
Rec. 1 Rec. 2 Rec. 3 Rec. 4 Rec. 5 Rec. 6
Systematic Systematic Representa- Number Word Time
instruction instruction tions lines problems activities
Number of Studies
43 16 28 14 18 27
Level of Evidence
Strong Strong Strong Strong Strong Strong
Meta-Analysis Results by Outcome Domain
Algebra and Algebraic
+ 0 + X N/A +
Reasoning
Geometry X X X X N/A X
General Mathematics
+ + + + N/A +
Achievement
Rational Numbers
+ + + + N/A +
Computation
Rational Numbers
+ + + + N/A +
Knowledge
Rational Numbers
Magnitude
+ + + + N/A +
Understanding/Relative
Magnitude Understanding
Rational Numbers
Word Problems/ + N/A N/A N/A + N/A
Problem Solving
Statistics X X X X N/A X
Whole Numbers
+ + + + N/A +
Computation
Whole Numbers
+ X + X N/A +
Knowledge
Whole Numbers
Magnitude Understanding/
0 0 0 0 N/A +
Relative Magnitude
Understanding
Whole Numbers
Word Problems/ + N/A N/A N/A + N/A
Problem Solving
+ = Statistically significant and positive; 0 = Indeterminate; X = No studies meeting WWC standards; N/A = Not applicable

WWC 2021006 Assisting Students Struggling with Mathematics: Intervention in the Elementary Grades | Practice Guide Summary | 14
 References
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For more practical tips and useful classroom examples, download a copy of the
Assisting Students Struggling with Mathematics: Intervention in the Elementary Grades practice guide at
https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/PracticeGuide/26.

The Institute for Education Sciences publishes practice guides in education to provide educators
with the best available evidence and expertise on current challenges in education. The WWC develops
practice guides in conjunction with an expert panel, combining the panel’s expertise with the findings of
existing rigorous research to produce specific recommendations for addressing these challenges.
The expert panel for this guide included Lynn S. Fuchs, Nicole Bucka, Ben Clarke, Barbara Dougherty,
Nancy C. Jordan, Karen S. Karp, and John Woodward.

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