Proton

A proton is a stable subatomic particle,

symbol p, H+, or 1H+ with a positive electric
charge of +1 e (elementary charge). Its
mass is slightly less than that of a neutron
and 1,836 times the mass of an electron
(the proton–electron mass ratio). Protons
and neutrons, each with masses of
approximately one atomic mass unit, are
jointly referred to as "nucleons" (particles
present in atomic nuclei).
 Proton

The quark content of a proton. The color

assignment of individual quarks is arbitrary,
but all three colors must be present. Forces
between quarks are mediated by gluons.

Classification Baryon

Composition 2 up quarks (u), 1

down quark (d)

Statistics Fermionic

Family Hadron

Interactions Gravity,
electromagnetic,
 weak, strong
+ + 1 +
Symbol p, p , N , 1H

Antiparticle Antiproton

Theorized William Prout (1815)

Discovered Observed as H+ by
Eugen Goldstein
(1886). Identified in
other nuclei (and
named) by Ernest
Rutherford (1917–
1920).

Mass 1.672 621 923 69(51) × 10−27 kg[1]

1.007 276 466 621(53) Da[2]
938.272 088 16(29) MeV/c2[3]

Mean lifetime > 3.6 × 1029 years[4]

 (stable)

Electric charge +1 e

Charge radius 0.8414(19) fm[5]

Electric dipole < 2.1 × 10−25 e⋅cm[6]

moment

Electric polarizability 0.001 12(4) fm3

Magnetic moment 1.410 606 797 36(60) × 10−

1.521 032 202 30(46) × 10−
2.792 847 344 63(82) μN[8]

Magnetic polarizability 1.9(5) × 10−4 fm3

1
Spin 2
1
Isospin 2

Parity +1

Condensed I(JP) = 12 ( 12 +)
One or more protons are present in the
nucleus of every atom. They provide the
attractive electrostatic central force that
binds the atomic electrons. The number of
protons in the nucleus is the defining
property of an element, and is referred to
as the atomic number (represented by the
symbol Z). Since each element has a
unique number of protons, each element
has its own unique atomic number, which
determines the number of atomic
electrons and consequently the chemical
characteristics of the element.

The word proton is Greek for "first", and

this name was given to the hydrogen
nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1920. In
previous years, Rutherford had discovered
that the hydrogen nucleus (known to be
the lightest nucleus) could be extracted
from the nuclei of nitrogen by atomic
collisions.[9] Protons were therefore a
candidate to be a fundamental or
elementary particle, and hence a building
block of nitrogen and all other heavier
atomic nuclei.

Although protons were originally

considered to be elementary particles, in
the modern Standard Model of particle
physics, protons are now known to be
composite particles, containing three
valence quarks, and together with
neutrons are now classified as hadrons.
Protons are composed of two up quarks of
charge + 23 e and one down quark of charge
− 13 e. The rest masses of quarks contribute
only about 1% of a proton's mass.[10] The
remainder of a proton's mass is due to
quantum chromodynamics binding energy,
which includes the kinetic energy of the
quarks and the energy of the gluon fields
that bind the quarks together. Because
protons are not fundamental particles,
they possess a measurable size; the root
mean square charge radius of a proton is
about 0.84–0.87 fm (1 fm =
10−15 m).[11][12] In 2019, two different
studies, using different techniques, found
this radius to be 0.833 fm, with an
uncertainty of ±0.010 fm.[13][14]

Free protons occur occasionally on Earth:

thunderstorms can produce protons with
energies of up to several tens of
MeV.[15][16] At sufficiently low temperatures
and kinetic energies, free protons will bind
to electrons. However, the character of
such bound protons does not change, and
they remain protons. A fast proton moving
through matter will slow by interactions
with electrons and nuclei, until it is
captured by the electron cloud of an atom.
The result is a protonated atom, which is a
chemical compound of hydrogen. In a
vacuum, when free electrons are present, a
sufficiently slow proton may pick up a
single free electron, becoming a neutral
hydrogen atom, which is chemically a free
radical. Such "free hydrogen atoms" tend
to react chemically with many other types
of atoms at sufficiently low energies.
When free hydrogen atoms react with each
other, they form neutral hydrogen
molecules (H2), which are the most
common molecular component of
molecular clouds in interstellar space.
Free protons are routinely used for
accelerators for proton therapy or various
particle physics experiments, with the
most powerful example being the Large
Hadron Collider.

Description

Unsolved problem in physics:

How do the quarks and gluons
carry the spin of protons?
(more unsolved problems in physics)

Protons are spin- 12 fermions and are

composed of three valence quarks,[17]
making them baryons (a sub-type of
hadrons). The two up quarks and one
down quark of a proton are held together
by the strong force, mediated by
gluons.[18]: 21–22 A modern perspective has
a proton composed of the valence quarks
(up, up, down), the gluons, and transitory
pairs of sea quarks. Protons have a
positive charge distribution, which decays
approximately exponentially, with a root
mean square charge radius of about
0.8 fm.[19]

Protons and neutrons are both nucleons,

which may be bound together by the
nuclear force to form atomic nuclei. The
nucleus of the most common isotope of
the hydrogen atom (with the chemical
symbol "H") is a lone proton. The nuclei of
the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium
and tritium contain one proton bound to
one and two neutrons, respectively. All
other types of atomic nuclei are composed
of two or more protons and various
numbers of neutrons.

History
The concept of a hydrogen-like particle as
a constituent of other atoms was
developed over a long period. As early as
1815, William Prout proposed that all
atoms are composed of hydrogen atoms
(which he called "protyles"), based on a
simplistic interpretation of early values of
atomic weights (see Prout's hypothesis),
which was disproved when more accurate
values were measured.[20]: 39–42

Ernest Rutherford at the first Solvay Conference, 1911

Proton detected in an isopropanol cloud chamber

In 1886, Eugen Goldstein discovered canal
rays (also known as anode rays) and
showed that they were positively charged
particles (ions) produced from gases.
However, since particles from different
gases had different values of charge-to-
mass ratio (q/m), they could not be
identified with a single particle, unlike the
negative electrons discovered by J. J.
Thomson. Wilhelm Wien in 1898 identified
the hydrogen ion as the particle with the
highest charge-to-mass ratio in ionized
gases.[21]

Following the discovery of the atomic

nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1911,
Antonius van den Broek proposed that the
place of each element in the periodic table
(its atomic number) is equal to its nuclear
charge. This was confirmed experimentally
by Henry Moseley in 1913 using X-ray
spectra.

In 1917 (in experiments reported in 1919

and 1925), Rutherford proved that the
hydrogen nucleus is present in other
nuclei, a result usually described as the
discovery of protons.[22] These
experiments began after Rutherford had
noticed that, when alpha particles were
shot into air (mostly nitrogen), his
scintillation detectors showed the
signatures of typical hydrogen nuclei as a
product. After experimentation Rutherford
traced the reaction to the nitrogen in air
and found that when alpha particles were
introduced into pure nitrogen gas, the
effect was larger. In 1919 Rutherford
assumed that the alpha particle merely
knocked a proton out of nitrogen, turning it
into carbon. After observing Blackett's
cloud chamber images in 1925, Rutherford
realized that the alpha particle was
absorbed. After capture of the alpha
particle, a hydrogen nucleus is ejected, so
that heavy oxygen, not carbon, is the result
– i.e., the atomic number Z of the nucleus
is increased rather than reduced. This was
the first reported nuclear reaction,
14 17
N+α→ O + p. Rutherford at first
thought of our modern "p" in this equation
+
as a hydrogen ion, H .

Depending on one's perspective, either

1919 (when it was seen experimentally as
derived from another source than
hydrogen) or 1920 (when it was
recognized and proposed as an
elementary particle) may be regarded as
the moment when the proton was
'discovered'.

Rutherford knew hydrogen to be the

simplest and lightest element and was
influenced by Prout's hypothesis that
hydrogen was the building block of all
elements. Discovery that the hydrogen
nucleus is present in other nuclei as an
elementary particle led Rutherford to give
+
the hydrogen nucleus H a special name
as a particle, since he suspected that
hydrogen, the lightest element, contained
only one of these particles. He named this
new fundamental building block of the
nucleus the proton, after the neuter
singular of the Greek word for "first",
πρῶτον. However, Rutherford also had in
mind the word protyle as used by Prout.
Rutherford spoke at the British
Association for the Advancement of
Science at its Cardiff meeting beginning
24 August 1920.[23] At the meeting, he was
asked by Oliver Lodge for a new name for
the positive hydrogen nucleus to avoid
confusion with the neutral hydrogen atom.
He initially suggested both proton and
prouton (after Prout).[24] Rutherford later
reported that the meeting had accepted
his suggestion that the hydrogen nucleus
be named the "proton", following Prout's
word "protyle".[25] The first use of the word
"proton" in the scientific literature
appeared in 1920.[26][27]
Stability

Unsolved problem in physics:

Are protons fundamentally
stable? Or do they decay with a
finite lifetime as predicted by
some extensions to the standard
model?
(more unsolved problems in physics)

The free proton (a proton not bound to

nucleons or electrons) is a stable particle
that has not been observed to break down
spontaneously to other particles. Free
protons are found naturally in a number of
situations in which energies or
temperatures are high enough to separate
them from electrons, for which they have
some affinity. Free protons exist in
plasmas in which temperatures are too
high to allow them to combine with
electrons. Free protons of high energy and
velocity make up 90% of cosmic rays,
which propagate in vacuum for interstellar
distances. Free protons are emitted
directly from atomic nuclei in some rare
types of radioactive decay. Protons also
result (along with electrons and
antineutrinos) from the radioactive decay
of free neutrons, which are unstable.
The spontaneous decay of free protons
has never been observed, and protons are
therefore considered stable particles
according to the Standard Model.
However, some grand unified theories
(GUTs) of particle physics predict that
proton decay should take place with
lifetimes between 1031 to 1036 years and
experimental searches have established
lower bounds on the mean lifetime of a
proton for various assumed decay
products.[28][29][30]

Experiments at the Super-Kamiokande

detector in Japan gave lower limits for
proton mean lifetime of 6.6 × 1033 years
for decay to an antimuon and a neutral
pion, and 8.2 × 1033 years for decay to a
positron and a neutral pion.[31] Another
experiment at the Sudbury Neutrino
Observatory in Canada searched for
gamma rays resulting from residual nuclei
resulting from the decay of a proton from
oxygen-16. This experiment was designed
to detect decay to any product, and
established a lower limit to a proton
lifetime of 2.1 × 1029 years.[32]

However, protons are known to transform

into neutrons through the process of
electron capture (also called inverse beta
decay). For free protons, this process does
not occur spontaneously but only when
energy is supplied. The equation is:

+ −
p + e → n + νe

The process is reversible; neutrons can

convert back to protons through beta
decay, a common form of radioactive
decay. In fact, a free neutron decays this
way, with a mean lifetime of about 15
minutes. A proton can also transform into
neutrons through beta plus decay (β+
decay).

According to quantum field theory, the

mean proper lifetime of protons
becomes finite when they are accelerating
with proper acceleration , and
decreases with increasing . Acceleration
gives rise to a non-vanishing probability for
+ +
the transition p → n + e + νe. This was a
matter of concern in the later 1990s
because is a scalar that can be
measured by the inertial and
coaccelerated observers. In the inertial
frame, the accelerating proton should
decay according to the formula above.
However, according to the coaccelerated
observer the proton is at rest and hence
should not decay. This puzzle is solved by
realizing that in the coaccelerated frame
there is a thermal bath due to Fulling–
Davies–Unruh effect, an intrinsic effect of
quantum field theory. In this thermal bath,
experienced by the proton, there are
electrons and antineutrinos with which the
proton may interact according to the
+ −
processes: (i) p + e → n + ν, (ii)
+ + + −
p + ν → n + e and (iii) p + e + ν → n.
Adding the contributions of each of these
processes, one should obtain
.[33][34][35][36]

Quarks and the mass of a

proton
In quantum chromodynamics, the modern
theory of the nuclear force, most of the
mass of protons and neutrons is explained
by special relativity. The mass of a proton
is about 80–100 times greater than the
sum of the rest masses of its three
valence quarks, while the gluons have zero
rest mass. The extra energy of the quarks
and gluons in a proton, as compared to the
rest energy of the quarks alone in the QCD
vacuum, accounts for almost 99% of the
proton's mass. The rest mass of a proton
is, thus, the invariant mass of the system
of moving quarks and gluons that make up
the particle, and, in such systems, even the
energy of massless particles confined to a
system is still measured as part of the rest
mass of the system.
Two terms are used in referring to the
mass of the quarks that make up protons:
current quark mass refers to the mass of a
quark by itself, while constituent quark
mass refers to the current quark mass plus
the mass of the gluon particle field
surrounding the quark.[37]: 285–286
[38]: 150–151 These masses typically have
very different values. The kinetic energy of
the quarks that is a consequence of
confinement is a contribution (see Mass in
special relativity). Using lattice QCD
calculations, the contributions to the mass
of the proton are the quark condensate
(~9%, comprising the up and down quarks
and a sea of virtual strange quarks), the
quark kinetic energy (~32%), the gluon
kinetic energy (~37%), and the anomalous
gluonic contribution (~23%, comprising
contributions from condensates of all
quark flavors).[39]

The constituent quark model wavefunction

for the proton is

The internal dynamics of protons are

complicated, because they are determined
by the quarks' exchanging gluons, and
interacting with various vacuum
condensates. Lattice QCD provides a way
of calculating the mass of a proton directly
from the theory to any accuracy, in
principle. The most recent
calculations[40][41] claim that the mass is
determined to better than 4% accuracy,
even to 1% accuracy (see Figure S5 in Dürr
et al.[41]). These claims are still
controversial, because the calculations
cannot yet be done with quarks as light as
they are in the real world. This means that
the predictions are found by a process of
extrapolation, which can introduce
systematic errors.[42] It is hard to tell
whether these errors are controlled
properly, because the quantities that are
compared to experiment are the masses
of the hadrons, which are known in
advance.

These recent calculations are performed

by massive supercomputers, and, as noted
by Boffi and Pasquini: "a detailed
description of the nucleon structure is still
missing because ... long-distance behavior
requires a nonperturbative and/or
numerical treatment ..."[43] More
conceptual approaches to the structure of
protons are: the topological soliton
approach originally due to Tony Skyrme
and the more accurate AdS/QCD approach
that extends it to include a string theory of
gluons,[44] various QCD-inspired models
like the bag model and the constituent
quark model, which were popular in the
1980s, and the SVZ sum rules, which allow
for rough approximate mass
calculations.[45] These methods do not
have the same accuracy as the more
brute-force lattice QCD methods, at least
not yet.

Charge radius
The problem of defining a radius for an
atomic nucleus (proton) is similar to the
problem of atomic radius, in that neither
atoms nor their nuclei have definite
boundaries. However, the nucleus can be
modeled as a sphere of positive charge for
the interpretation of electron scattering
experiments: because there is no definite
boundary to the nucleus, the electrons
"see" a range of cross-sections, for which
a mean can be taken. The qualification of
"rms" (for "root mean square") arises
because it is the nuclear cross-section,
proportional to the square of the radius,
which is determining for electron
scattering.

The internationally accepted value of a

proton's charge radius is 0.8768 fm. This
value is based on measurements involving
a proton and an electron (namely, electron
scattering measurements and complex
calculation involving scattering cross
section based on Rosenbluth equation for
momentum-transfer cross section), and
studies of the atomic energy levels of
hydrogen and deuterium.

However, in 2010 an international research

team published a proton charge radius
measurement via the Lamb shift in muonic
hydrogen (an exotic atom made of a
proton and a negatively charged muon).
As a muon is 200 times heavier than an
electron, its de Broglie wavelength is
correspondingly shorter. This smaller
atomic orbital is much more sensitive to
the proton's charge radius, so allows more
precise measurement. Their measurement
of the root-mean-square charge radius of a
proton is "0.841 84(67) fm, which differs
by 5.0 standard deviations from the
CODATA value of 0.8768(69) fm".[46] In
January 2013, an updated value for the
charge radius of a proton—
0.840 87(39) fm—was published. The
precision was improved by 1.7 times,
increasing the significance of the
discrepancy to 7σ.[12] The 2014 CODATA
adjustment slightly reduced the
recommended value for the proton radius
(computed using electron measurements
only) to 0.8751(61) fm, but this leaves the
discrepancy at 5.6σ.
If no errors were found in the
measurements or calculations, it would
have been necessary to re-examine the
world's most precise and best-tested
fundamental theory: quantum
electrodynamics.[47] The proton radius was
a puzzle as of 2017.[48][49]

A resolution came in 2019, when two

different studies, using different
techniques involving the Lamb shift of the
electron in hydrogen, and electron–proton
scattering, found the radius of the proton
to be 0.833 fm, with an uncertainty of
±0.010 fm, and 0.831 fm.[13][14]
The radius of the proton is linked to the
form factor and momentum-transfer cross
section. The atomic form factor G
modifies the cross section corresponding
to point-like proton.

The atomic form factor is related to the

wave function density of the target:
The form factor can be split in electric and
magnetic form factors. These can be
further written as linear combinations of
Dirac and Pauli form factors.[49]

Pressure inside the proton

Since the proton is composed of quarks

confined by gluons, an equivalent pressure
that acts on the quarks can be defined.
This allows calculation of their distribution
as a function of distance from the centre
using Compton scattering of high-energy
electrons (DVCS, for deeply virtual
Compton scattering). The pressure is
maximum at the centre, about 1035 Pa,
which is greater than the pressure inside a
neutron star.[50] It is positive (repulsive) to
a radial distance of about 0.6 fm, negative
(attractive) at greater distances, and very
weak beyond about 2 fm.

Charge radius in solvated proton,

hydronium

The radius of the hydrated proton appears

in the Born equation for calculating the
hydration enthalpy of hydronium.
Interaction of free protons
with ordinary matter
Although protons have affinity for
oppositely charged electrons, this is a
relatively low-energy interaction and so
free protons must lose sufficient velocity
(and kinetic energy) in order to become
closely associated and bound to electrons.
High energy protons, in traversing ordinary
matter, lose energy by collisions with
atomic nuclei, and by ionization of atoms
(removing electrons) until they are slowed
sufficiently to be captured by the electron
cloud in a normal atom.
However, in such an association with an
electron, the character of the bound proton
is not changed, and it remains a proton.
The attraction of low-energy free protons
to any electrons present in normal matter
(such as the electrons in normal atoms)
causes free protons to stop and to form a
new chemical bond with an atom. Such a
bond happens at any sufficiently "cold"
temperature (that is, comparable to
temperatures at the surface of the Sun)
and with any type of atom. Thus, in
interaction with any type of normal (non-
plasma) matter, low-velocity free protons
do not remain free but are attracted to
electrons in any atom or molecule with
which they come into contact, causing the
proton and molecule to combine. Such
molecules are then said to be "protonated",
and chemically they are simply
compounds of hydrogen, often positively
charged. Often, as a result, they become
so-called Brønsted acids. For example, a
proton captured by a water molecule in
water becomes hydronium, the aqueous
+
cation H3O .

Proton in chemistry

Atomic number

In chemistry, the number of protons in the

nucleus of an atom is known as the
atomic number, which determines the
chemical element to which the atom
belongs. For example, the atomic number
of chlorine is 17; this means that each
chlorine atom has 17 protons and that all
atoms with 17 protons are chlorine atoms.
The chemical properties of each atom are
determined by the number of (negatively
charged) electrons, which for neutral
atoms is equal to the number of (positive)
protons so that the total charge is zero.
For example, a neutral chlorine atom has
17 protons and 17 electrons, whereas a Cl−
anion has 17 protons and 18 electrons for
a total charge of −1.
All atoms of a given element are not
necessarily identical, however. The number
of neutrons may vary to form different
isotopes, and energy levels may differ,
resulting in different nuclear isomers. For
example, there are two stable isotopes of
chlorine: 35
17Cl with 35 − 17 = 18 neutrons
and 37
17Cl with 37 − 17 = 20 neutrons.

Hydrogen ion
Protium, the most common isotope of hydrogen, consists of one proton and one electron (it has no neutrons). The term
+
"hydrogen ion" (H ) implies that that H-atom has lost its one electron, causing only a proton to remain. Thus, in chemistry,
the terms "proton" and "hydrogen ion" (for the protium isotope) are used synonymously

The In chemistry, the term proton

+
proton refers to the hydrogen ion, H .
is a
Since the atomic number of
unique
hydrogen is 1, a hydrogen ion
chemic
has no electrons and
al
species, corresponds to a bare nucleus,
being a consisting of a proton (and 0
bare neutrons for the most
nucleus. abundant isotope protium 11H).
As a
The proton is a "bare charge"
conseq
with only about 1/64,000 of the
uence it
radius of a hydrogen atom, and
has no
indepen so is extremely reactive
dent chemically. The free proton,
existenc thus, has an extremely short
e in the
lifetime in chemical systems
conden
such as liquids and it reacts
sed
immediately with the electron
state
and is cloud of any available
invariab molecule. In aqueous solution,
ly found it forms the hydronium ion,
bound H3O+, which in turn is further
by a
solvated by water molecules in
pair of
clusters such as [H5O2]+ and
electron
[H9O4]+.[51]
s to
another +
The transfer of H in an acid–
atom.
base reaction is usually
referred to as "proton transfer".
 Ross The acid is referred to as a
Stewart proton donor and the base as a
, The
proton acceptor. Likewise,
Proton:
biochemical terms such as
Applicat
proton pump and proton
ion to
Organic channel refer to the movement
+
Chemist of hydrated H ions.
ry
(1985, The ion produced by removing
p. 1) the electron from a deuterium
atom is known as a deuteron,
not a proton. Likewise,
removing an electron from a tritium atom
produces a triton.
Proton nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR)

Also in chemistry, the term "proton NMR"

refers to the observation of hydrogen-1
nuclei in (mostly organic) molecules by
nuclear magnetic resonance. This method
uses the quantized spin magnetic moment
of the proton, which is due to its angular
momentum (or spin), which in turn has a
magnitude of one-half the reduced Planck
constant. ( ). The name refers to
examination of protons as they occur in
protium (hydrogen-1 atoms) in
compounds, and does not imply that free
protons exist in the compound being
studied.

Human exposure
The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments
Packages (ALSEP) determined that more
than 95% of the particles in the solar wind
are electrons and protons, in
approximately equal numbers.[52][53]

Because the Solar Wind

Spectrometer made continuous
measurements, it was possible
to measure how the Earth's
magnetic field affects arriving
solar wind particles. For about
two-thirds of each orbit, the
Moon is outside of the Earth's
magnetic field. At these times, a
typical proton density was 10 to
20 per cubic centimeter, with
most protons having velocities
between 400 and 650 kilometers
per second. For about five days
of each month, the Moon is
inside the Earth's geomagnetic
tail, and typically no solar wind
particles were detectable. For
the remainder of each lunar
orbit, the Moon is in a
transitional region known as
the magnetosheath, where the
Earth's magnetic field affects the
solar wind, but does not
completely exclude it. In this
region, the particle flux is
reduced, with typical proton
velocities of 250 to 450
kilometers per second. During
the lunar night, the
spectrometer was shielded from
the solar wind by the Moon and
 no solar wind particles were
measured.[52]

Protons also have extrasolar origin from

galactic cosmic rays, where they make up
about 90% of the total particle flux. These
protons often have higher energy than
solar wind protons, and their intensity is
far more uniform and less variable than
protons coming from the Sun, the
production of which is heavily affected by
solar proton events such as coronal mass
ejections.

Research has been performed on the

dose-rate effects of protons, as typically
found in space travel, on human
health.[53][54] To be more specific, there are
hopes to identify what specific
chromosomes are damaged, and to define
the damage, during cancer development
from proton exposure.[53] Another study
looks into determining "the effects of
exposure to proton irradiation on
neurochemical and behavioral endpoints,
including dopaminergic functioning,
amphetamine-induced conditioned taste
aversion learning, and spatial learning and
memory as measured by the Morris water
maze.[54] Electrical charging of a
spacecraft due to interplanetary proton
bombardment has also been proposed for
study.[55] There are many more studies
that pertain to space travel, including
galactic cosmic rays and their possible
health effects, and solar proton event
exposure.

The American Biostack and Soviet Biorack

space travel experiments have
demonstrated the severity of molecular
damage induced by heavy ions on
microorganisms including Artemia
cysts.[56]

Antiproton
CPT-symmetry puts strong constraints on
the relative properties of particles and
antiparticles and, therefore, is open to
stringent tests. For example, the charges
of a proton and antiproton must sum to
exactly zero. This equality has been tested
to one part in 108. The equality of their
masses has also been tested to better
than one part in 108. By holding
antiprotons in a Penning trap, the equality
of the charge-to-mass ratio of protons and
antiprotons has been tested to one part in
6 × 109.[57] The magnetic moment of
antiprotons has been measured with error
of 8 × 10−3 nuclear Bohr magnetons, and is
found to be equal and opposite to that of a
proton.[58]
See also
Physics
portal

Fermion field
Hydrogen
Hydron (chemistry)
List of particles
Proton–proton chain
Quark model
Proton spin crisis
Proton therapy

References
1. "2018 CODATA Value: proton mass" (http
 s://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?m
p) . The NIST Reference on Constants,
Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019.
Retrieved 2019-05-20.
2. "2018 CODATA Value: proton mass in u" (htt
ps://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mp
u) . The NIST Reference on Constants,
Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019.
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Further reading
Ball, Richard D.; Candido, Alessandro;
Cruz-Martinez, Juan; Forte, Stefano;
Giani, Tommaso; Hekhorn, Felix;
Kudashkin, Kirill; Magni, Giacomo; Rojo,
Juan (August 2022). "Evidence for
intrinsic charm quarks in the proton" (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
s/PMC9385499) . Nature. 608 (7923):
483–487. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-
 04998-2 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs4
1586-022-04998-2) . ISSN 1476-4687 (h
ttps://www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-468
7) . PMC 9385499 (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9385499) .
PMID 35978125 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/35978125) .

External links
Media related to Protons at Wikimedia
Commons
Particle Data Group (http://pdg.lbl.gov/)
at LBL
Large Hadron Collider (http://www.cern.
ch/lhc/)
 Eaves, Laurence; Copeland, Ed; Padilla,
Antonio (Tony) (2010). "The shrinking
proton" (http://www.sixtysymbols.com/v
ideos/protonradius.htm) . Sixty
Symbols. Brady Haran for the University
of Nottingham.
Inside the Proton, the ‘Most
Complicated Thing You Could Possibly
Imagine’ (https://www.quantamagazine.
org/inside-the-proton-the-most-complica
ted-thing-imaginable-20221019) ,
Quanta Magazine, Oct 19 2022

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