# Variables and Data Types

variable_name = value
integer = 42
float_number = 3.14
string = "Hello, World!"

# String
string_variable = "Hello, World!"
multiline_string = """This is a
multiline string."""

# Boolean
boolean_variable = True

# Lists
list_variable = [1, 2, 3, "four", 5.0]
nested_list = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]

# Tuples
tuple_variable = (1, 2, 3, "four", 5.0)

# Sets
set_variable = {1, 2, 3, 3, 4}

# Dictionaries
dict_variable = {"key1": "value1", "key2": 42}
nested_dict = {"person": {"name": "John", "age": 30}}

# None Type
none_variable = None

# Type Conversion
int_from_float = int(3.14)
float_from_int = float(42)
str_from_int = str(42)

# Type Checking
is_integer = isinstance(integer_variable, int)
is_string = isinstance(string_variable, str)
is_list = isinstance(list_variable, list)
# Variable Assignment
x = y = z = 0

# Variable Unpacking
a, b, c = 1, 2, 3

# Dynamic Typing
dynamic_variable = 42
dynamic_variable = "Now I'm a string!"

# Control Flow
if condition:
# code block
elif another_condition:
# code block
else:
# code block

for item in iterable:

# code block

while condition:
# code block

# continue
for i in range(5):
if i == 2:
continue # Skips the rest of the loop body for i=2
print(i)

while condition:
# code block
if some_condition:
continue # Skips the rest of the loop body
# more code

# break
for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
break # Exits the loop when i=3
print(i)
while condition:
# code block
if some_condition:
break # Exits the loop when some_condition is True
# more code

# break with else

for i in range(5):
print(i)
if i == 2:
break
else:
print("Loop completed without encountering a break statement.")

while condition:
# code block
if some_condition:
break
else:
print("While loop completed without encountering a break statement.")

# Functions
def function_name(parameter1, parameter2=default_value):
# code block
return result

# Function Definition
def greet(name):
"""Print a greeting message."""
print(f"Hello, {name}!")

# Function Call
greet("Alice")

# Default Parameters
def greet(name, greeting="Hello"):
"""Print a custom greeting message."""
print(f"{greeting}, {name}!")

# Function Call
greet("Bob")
greet("Charlie", "Hi")
# Return Statement
def add_numbers(a, b):
"""Return the sum of two numbers."""
return a + b

result = add_numbers(3, 4)
print(result)

# Variable Number of Arguments

def print_args(*args):
"""Print variable number of arguments."""
for arg in args:
print(arg)

print_args(1, 2, "three")

# Keyword Arguments
def person_info(name, age, city):
"""Print person information."""
print(f"Name: {name}, Age: {age}, City: {city}")

person_info(age=25, name="Alice", city="Wonderland")

# Lambda Functions
square = lambda x: x**2
result = square(5)
print(result)

# Docstrings
def example_function(parameter):
"""
This is a docstring.

Parameters:
- parameter: Description of the parameter.

Returns:
Description of the return value.
"""
# Function code

help(example_function)
# Recursive Functions
def factorial(n):
"""Calculate the factorial of a number."""
if n == 0 or n == 1:
return 1
else:
return n * factorial(n-1)

result = factorial(5)
print(result)

# Function Annotations
def greet(name: str) -> None:
"""Print a greeting message."""
print(f"Hello, {name}!")

# Function Call
greet("Eve")

# Function Scope
global_variable = 10

def modify_global_variable():
"""Modify a global variable."""
global global_variable
global_variable += 5

modify_global_variable()
print(global_variable)

# Lists
my_list = [1, 2, 3, "four", 5.0]
list_length = len(my_list)
list_append = my_list.append(6)
list_slice = my_list[1:4]

# Dictionaries
my_dict = {"key1": "value1", "key2": 42}
dict_value = my_dict["key1"]
dict_keys = my_dict.keys()
dict_values = my_dict.values()
# Strings
string_length = len("Hello")
string_concatenation = "Hello" + " " + "World"
string_formatting = "Value: {}".format(variable)

# File Handling
with open("filename.txt", "r") as file:
content = file.read()
# or file.write(data)

# Exception Handling
try:
# code block
except SomeException as e:
# handle exception

# Classes and Objects

class MyClass:
def __init__(self, parameter):
self.attribute = parameter

def method(self):
# code block

# Modules and Packages

import module_name
from module_name import function_name

# Input/Output
print("Hello, World!")
input_value = input("Enter something: ")

# Math
abs_value = abs(-5)
max_value = max(1, 2, 3)
min_value = min(1, 2, 3)
round_value = round(3.14159, 2)

# List/Dictionary Manipulation
len_list = len([1, 2, 3])
len_dict = len({"a": 1, "b": 2})
sorted_list = sorted([3, 1, 2])
# File Handling
with open("filename.txt", "r") as file:
lines = file.readlines()

# Open file in read mode

with open("filename.txt", "r") as file:
content = file.read()

# Open file in write mode (creates if not exists, truncates if exists)

with open("new_file.txt", "w") as file:
file.write("Hello, World!")

# Open file in append mode (creates if not exists, appends if exists)

with open("existing_file.txt", "a") as file:
file.write("New content\n")

# Open file in binary mode

with open("binary_file.bin", "rb") as file:
binary_data = file.read()

# Read the entire content

with open("filename.txt", "r") as file:
content = file.read()
# Read line by line
with open("filename.txt", "r") as file:
for line in file:
print(line.strip()) # strip removes leading/trailing whitespaces

# Read all lines into a list

with open("filename.txt", "r") as file:
lines = file.readlines()

# Write a single line to a file

with open("new_file.txt", "w") as file:
file.write("Hello, World!\n")

# Write multiple lines to a file

with open("new_file.txt", "w") as file:
lines = ["Line 1\n", "Line 2\n", "Line 3\n"]
file.writelines(lines)
# Seek to a specific position in the file
with open("filename.txt", "r") as file:
file.seek(5) # Move the cursor to the 6th character
content = file.read()

# Get the current position of the cursor

with open("filename.txt", "r") as file:
position = file.tell()
print(f"Current position: {position}")

# Handling Exceptions
try:
with open("nonexistent_file.txt", "r") as file:
content = file.read()
except FileNotFoundError:
print("File not found!")
except Exception as e:
print(f"An error occurred: {e}")

# Miscellaneous
range_values = range(5) # creates a range from 0 to 4
sum_values = sum([1, 2, 3])

# Escape Characters
escaped_string = "This is a string with escape characters: \nNew Line, \tTab, \\
Backslash, \"Double Quote, \'Single Quote"

# Raw Strings (ignores escape characters)

raw_string = r"This is a raw string with \n no escape characters."

# Case Transformation
orig_str = "hello, world!"

capitalized_string = orig_str.capitalize()
casefolded_string = orig_str.casefold()
uppercased_string = orig_str.upper()
lowercased_string = orig_str.lower()
titlecased_string = orig_str.title()

# String Formatting:
formatted_string = "The value is {}".format(value)
formatted_string_with_placeholder = "Value: {:.2f}".format(float_value)
# Searching and Counting
index_of_substring = orig_str.find("lo")
count_of_substring = orig_str.count("o")
ends_with_check = orig_str.endswith("ld")
starts_with_check = orig_str.startswith("he")

# Manipulation and Replacement

centered_string = orig_str.center(20, "*")
padded_string = orig_str.ljust(20, "-")
rjust_string = orig_str.rjust(20, "*")
padded_right_string = orig_str.zfill(20)

# Character Testing
is_alphanumeric = orig_str.isalnum()
is_alpha = orig_str.isalpha()
is_numeric = orig_str.isnumeric()
is_decimal = orig_str.isdecimal()
is_digit = orig_str.isdigit()
is_identifier = orig_str.isidentifier()
is_lower = orig_str.islower()
is_upper = orig_str.isupper()
is_title = orig_str.istitle()

# Other String Methods

stripped_string = orig_str.strip()
lstripped_string = orig_str.lstrip()
rstripped_string = orig_str.rstrip()

replaced_string = orig_str.replace("l", "L")

partitioned_string = orig_str.partition(",")
splitted_list = orig_str.split(",")
initial_val = 10 while True:
while initial_val > 0: answer = input("Enter the password: ")
if initial_val == 5: if answer.upper() == "SHAZAM":
break break
print(initial_val) print("You may continue.")
initial_val -= 1
letters = ['P', 'y', 't', 'h', 'o', 'n'] num = 5
language = "" while True:
num = 2 * num
for letter in letters: if num % 4 == 0:
language += letter break
print(num)
print(language)
OUTPUT: 20
num = 3 total = 0 total = 0
while num < 15: num = 1 num = 1
num += 5 while True: while num < 5:
print(num) total += num total += num
num += 1 num += 1
OUTPUT: 18 if num == 10: print(total)
break
print(total) OUTPUT: 10

OUTPUT: 45
list1 = [2, 4, 6, 8]
total = 0
while list1:
total += list1[0]
list1 = list1[1:]
print(total)

OUTPUT: 20
oceans = ["Atlantic", "Pacific", list1 = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
"Indian", "Arctic", "Antarctic"] i = 0
i = len(oceans) - 1 while True:
while i >= 0: print(list1[i]*i)
if len(oceans[i]) < 7: i = i + 1
del oceans[i] if i == len(list1):
i = i-1 break
print(", ".join(oceans)) OUTPUT:

OUTPUT: Atlantic, Pacific, Antarctic

numTries = 0
year = 0
while (numTries < 7) and (year != 1964):
numTries += 1
year = int(input("Try #" + str(numTries) + ": In what year " + "did the
Beatles invade the U.S.? "))
 if year == 1964:
print("\nYes. They performed on the Ed Sullivan show in 1964.")
print("You answered correctly in " + str(numTries) + " tries.")
elif year < 1964:
print("Later than", year)
else: # year > 1964
print("Earlier than", year)
if (numTries == 7) and (year != 1964):
print("\nYour 7 tries are up. The answer is 1964.")

OUTPUT:
Try #1: In what year did the Beatles invade the U.S.? 1950
Later than 1950
Try #2: In what year did the Beatles invade the U.S.? 1970
Earlier than 1970
Try #3: In what year did the Beatles invade the U.S.? 1964

Yes. They performed on the Ed Sullivan show in 1964.

You answered correctly in 3 tries.
q = 1 ## Display the numbers from 1 through
while q != 0: 5.
q = q-2
print(q) num = 0
while True:
#output will never be 0, it will num += 1
continue printing. print(num)
if num == 5:
break
list1 = ['H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o'] list1 = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
i = 0 i = 0
while i < len(list1): while True:
print(list1[i]) print(list1[i])
i += 1 if i == len(list1) - 1:
break
Output: i += 1

Output:

sum = 0 L = [2, 4, 6, 8]
total = 0
for _ in range(3):
num = int(input("Enter a number: ")) for num in L:
sum += num total += num
print(sum) print(total)

Output: Output: 20
Enter a number: 8
Enter a number: 3
Enter a number: 17
28
print("Celsius Fahrenheit")
for c in range(10, 31, 5):
f = (9/5) * c + 32
print(f"{c:2}{'':12}{f:.2f}")

Output:

coeff_of_restitution = float(input("Enter coefficient of restitution: "))

initial_height = float(input("Enter initial height in meters: "))

total_distance = 0
height = initial_height
bounces = 0

while height >= 0.1:

total_distance += height
height *= coeff_of_restitution
total_distance += height
bounces += 1

print(f"Number of bounces: {bounces}")

print(f"Meters traveled: {total_distance:.2f}")

Output:
Enter coefficient of restitution: .7
Enter initial height in meters: 8
Number of bounces: 13
Meters traveled: 44.89
m = int(input("Enter the first positive integer (m): "))
n = int(input("Enter the second positive integer (n): "))

if m < n:
m, n = n, m
while n != 0:
t = n
n = m % n
m = t

print("The GCD is:", m)

Output:
Enter the first positive integer (m): 30
Enter the second positive integer (n): 35
The GCD is: 5
n = int(input("Enter a positive integer (>1): ")) year = 1980
year2 = 2025
f = 2 age = int(year2) - int(year)
print(f"Person will be {age}
print("Prime factors are:", end=' ') in the year {present}")
while n > 1:
if n % f == 0: Output: Person will be 45 in
print(f, end=' ') the year 2025
n = n // f
else:
f += 1

print()

Output:
Enter a positive integer (>1): 2345
Prime factors are: 5 7 67
initial_population = 7
growth_rate = 0.011
target_population = 8

years_to_reach_target = 0
current_population = initial_population

while current_population < target_population:

current_population *= (1 + growth_rate)
years_to_reach_target += 1

print(f"World population will be {target_population} billion in the year {2011 +

years_to_reach_target}.")

Output:
World population will be 8 billion in the year 2024.
initial_quantity = 100
half_life = 28
threshold_quantity = 1

current_quantity = initial_quantity
time = 0

while current_quantity >= threshold_quantity:

current_quantity *= 0.5
time += half_life

# Output the result

print(f"The decay time is {time} years.")

Output: The decay time is 196 years.

initial_cpi = 238.25
growth_rate = 0.025
target_cpi = initial_cpi * 2

current_cpi = initial_cpi
years = 0

while current_cpi < target_cpi:

current_cpi *= 1 + growth_rate
years += 1

print(f"Consumer prices will double in {years} years.")

Output: Consumer prices will double in 29 years.

loan_amount = 15000
annual_interest_rate = 0.06
monthly_interest_rate = annual_interest_rate / 12
monthly_payment = 290.00

balance = loan_amount
months = 0

while balance >= loan_amount / 2:

balance = (1 + monthly_interest_rate) * (balance - monthly_payment)
months += 1

print(f"Loan will be half paid off after {months} months.")

Output: Loan will be half paid off after 33 months.
monthly_deposit = 100
annual_interest_rate = 0.03
monthly_interest_rate = annual_interest_rate / 12
target_balance = 3000

balance = 0
months = 0

while balance <= target_balance:

balance = (1 + monthly_interest_rate) * balance + monthly_deposit
months += 1

print(f"Annuity will be worth more than ${target_balance} after {months}

months.")

Output: Annuity will be worth more than $3000 after 29 months.

initial_deposit = 10000
annual_interest_rate = 0.036
monthly_interest_rate = annual_interest_rate / 12
monthly_withdrawal = 600
target_balance = 600

balance = initial_deposit
months = 0

while balance >= target_balance:

balance = (1 + monthly_interest_rate) * balance - monthly_withdrawal
months += 1

print(f"Balance will be ${balance:.2f} after {months} months.")

Output: Balance will be $73.91 after 17 months.

initial_quantity = 1
decay_rate = 0.00012
half_quantity = initial_quantity / 2

quantity = initial_quantity
years = 0

while quantity >= half_quantity:

quantity *= (1 - decay_rate)
years += 1
print(f"Carbon-14 has a half-life of {years} years.")

Output: Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5776 years.

probability_threshold = 0.5

n = 1
probability_no_shared_birthday = (364 / 365) ** n

while probability_no_shared_birthday > probability_threshold:

n += 1
probability_no_shared_birthday = (364 / 365) ** n

print(f"With {n} students, the probability is greater than 50% that someone has
the same birthday as you.")

Output: With 253 students, the probability is greater than 50% that someone has
the same birthday as you.
initial_deposit = int(input("Enter amount of deposit: "))
annual_interest_rate = 0.036
monthly_interest_rate = annual_interest_rate / 12
monthly_withdrawal = 600
target_balance = 600

balance = initial_deposit
months = 0

while balance >= target_balance:

balance = (1 + monthly_interest_rate) * balance - monthly_withdrawal
months += 1

print(f"Balance will be ${balance:.2f} after {months} months.")

Output:
Enter amount of deposit: 10000
Balance will be $73.91 after 17 months.
china_population_2014 = 1.37e9
china_growth_rate = 0.0051
india_population_2014 = 1.26e9
india_growth_rate = 0.0135
t = 0

while india_population_2014 <= china_population_2014:

china_population_2014 *= 1 + china_growth_rate
india_population_2014 *= 1 + india_growth_rate
 t += 1

print(f"India's population will exceed China's population in the year {2014 +

t}.")

Output: India's population will exceed China's population in the year 2025.
initial_temperature = 212
room_temperature = 70
cooling_constant = 0.079

target_temperature = 150

time = -1 / cooling_constant * (-((target_temperature - room_temperature) /

(initial_temperature - room_temperature)))

print(f"The coffee will cool to below {target_temperature} degrees in

{round(time)} minutes.")

Output: The coffee will cool to below 150 degrees in 7 minutes.

account_balance = 1000

while True:
print("\nOptions:")
print("1. Make a Deposit")
print("2. Make a Withdrawal")
print("3. Obtain Balance")
print("4. Quit")

choice = input("Make a selection from the options menu: ")

if choice == "1":
deposit_amount = float(input("Enter amount of deposit: $"))
account_balance += deposit_amount
print("Deposit Processed.")
elif choice == "2":
withdrawal_amount = float(input("Enter amount of withdrawal: $"))
max_withdrawal = 1500
if withdrawal_amount > max_withdrawal:
print(f"Denied. Maximum withdrawal is ${max_withdrawal:.2f}")
else:
account_balance -= withdrawal_amount
print("Withdrawal Processed.")
elif choice == "3":
print(f"Balance: ${account_balance:.2f}")
 elif choice == "4":
print("Goodbye!")
break
else:
print("Invalid selection. Please choose a number between 1 and 4.")

TYPES OF EXCEPTIONS:
SyntaxError:
Function: Raised when there is a syntax error in the code.
Example: Missing a colon after an if statement.

IndentationError:
Function: Raised when there is an incorrect indentation.
Example: Inconsistent indentation within the same block.

NameError:
Function: Raised when a local or global name is not found.
Example: Using a variable before it is defined.

TypeError:
Function: Raised when an operation or function is applied to an object of an
inappropriate type.
Example: Trying to concatenate a string and an integer without conversion.

ValueError:
Function: Raised when a built-in operation or function receives an argument with
the correct type but an inappropriate value.
Example: Converting a string to an integer where the string does not represent a
valid integer.

IndexError:

Function: Raised when a sequence subscript is out of range.

Example: Trying to access an element in a list using an index that doesn't exist.

KeyError:
Function: Raised when a dictionary key is not found.
Example: Trying to access a non-existent key in a dictionary.

FileNotFoundError:
Function: Raised when a file or directory is requested but cannot be found.
Example: Trying to open a file that doesn't exist.
ZeroDivisionError:
Function: Raised when the second operand of a division or modulo operation is
zero.
Example: Attempting to divide a number by zero.

AttributeError:
Function: Raised when an attribute reference or assignment fails.
Example: Accessing an attribute that doesn't exist on an object.

ImportError:
Function: Raised when an import statement fails to find the module definition or
when a from ... import statement fails to find a name that is to be imported.
Example: Trying to import a module that doesn't exist.

while True:
print("Metric Conversion:")
print("\tSelection:")
print("\t\ta. mm <-> cm")
print("\t\tb. cm <-> inch")
print("\t\tc. inch <-> ft")
print("\t\td. ft <-> yard")
print("\t\te. exit")

choice = input("\tSelect Choice: ")

choice = choice.lower()

if choice == 'a':
print(f"\nYour choice is {choice}")
print("\tChoose to convert:")
print("\t\t1. mm -> cm")
print("\t\t2. cm -> mm")
choice2 = input("\t\tSelect choice: ")
if choice2 == '1':
while True:
try:
num = float(input("\t\tEnter a number to convert: "))
res = num / 10
print(f"\t\tmm to cm conversion is {num:.2f}mm =
{res:.2f}cm")
break
except ValueError:
 print("Invalid input. Please enter a number.")
elif choice2 == '2':
while True:
try:
num = float(input("\t\tEnter a number to convert: "))
res = num * 10
print(f"\t\tcm to mm conversion is {num:.2f}cm =
{res:.2f}mm")
break
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input. Please enter a number.")
else:
print("You have entered an invalid value.\n")
continue

elif choice == 'b':

print(f"\nYour choice is {choice}")
print("\tChoose to convert:")
print("\t\t1. cm -> inch")
print("\t\t2. inch -> cm")
choice2 = input("\t\tSelect choice: ")
if choice2 == '1':
while True:
try:
num = float(input("\t\tEnter a number to convert: "))
res = num / 2.54
print(f"\t\tcm to inch conversion is {num:.2f}cm =
{res:.2f}inch")
break
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input. Please enter a number.")
elif choice2 == '2':
while True:
try:
num = float(input("\t\tEnter a number to convert: "))
res = num * 2.54
print(f"\t\tinch to cm conversion is {num:.2f}inch =
{res:.2f}cm")
break
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input. Please enter a number.")
else:
 print("You have entered an invalid value.\n")
continue

elif choice == 'c':

print(f"\nYour choice is {choice}")
print("\tChoose to convert:")
print("\t\t1. inch -> ft")
print("\t\t2. ft -> inch")
choice2 = input("\t\tSelect choice: ")
if choice2 == '1':
while True:
try:
num = float(input("\t\tEnter a number to convert: "))
res = num / 12
print(f"\t\tinch to ft conversion is {num:.2f}inch =
{res:.2f}ft")
break
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input. Please enter a number.")
elif choice2 == '2':
while True:
try:
num = float(input("\t\tEnter a number to convert: "))
res = num * 12
print(f"\t\tft to inch is {num:.2f}ft = {res:.2f}inch")
break
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input. Please enter a number.")
else:
print("You have entered an invalid value.\n")
continue

elif choice == 'd':

print(f"\nYour choice is {choice}")
print("\tChoose to convert:")
print("\t\t1. ft -> yard")
print("\t\t2. yard -> ft")
choice2 = input("\t\tSelect choice: ")
if choice2 == '1':
while True:
try:
num = float(input("\t\tEnter a number to convert: "))
 res = num / 3
print(f"\t\tft to yard conversion is {num:.2f}ft =
{res:.2f}yard")
break
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input. Please enter a number.")
elif choice2 == '2':
while True:
try:
num = float(input("\t\tEnter a number to convert: "))
res = num * 3
print(f"\t\tyard to ft conversion is {num:.2f}yard =
{res:.2f}ft")
break
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input. Please enter a number.")
else:
print("You have entered an invalid value.\n")
continue

elif choice == 'e':

print("Thank you for using my Metric Conversion. Bye!")
break
else:
print("You have entered an invalid value.\n")
continue

choice3 = input("\nDo you want another conversion (Y/N): ")

choice3 = choice3.lower()
if choice3 == "y" or choice3 == "yes":
continue
elif choice3 == "n" or choice3 == "no":
print("Thank you for using my Metric Conversion. Bye!")
break
else:
print("You have entered an invalid value.\n")
continue