NAME : TEJASWA SHARMA

STANDARD : 12TH SCIENCE

ROLL NO : 28
SUBJECT : PHYSICS
TOPIC : THERMAL GENERATOR

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 This is to certify that project title to study and
investigate the THERMAL GENERATOR has been
successfully completed by Tejaswa Sharma studying
in class 12th Science in practical fulfillment of the
Physics practical examination 2023-24.

I certify that this project is done by him and with the

guidance of teacher.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

PRINCIPAL

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to acknowledge the support and help that

was provided to me by our teacher and friends for
helping me to complete the given project within the
stipulated time.

Firstly, I would like to thank our Principal sir Mr. Alok

Sharma for giving me the golden opportunity to work
on this project and give me the opportunity to show
case our knowledge.

I am also grateful to our Physics sir Mr. Sudhir Datir

for helping me continuously and supporting me
throughout the course of the making of the project and
giving me valuable vices and insights for giving project
report of the same.

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 INDEX

SR NO CONTENT PAGE
NO
1. CERTIFICATE 2

2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3

3. OBJECTIVE 5

4. INTRODUCTION 6
5. MATERIALS REQUIRED 7-8
6. HISTORY AND 9
EFFICIENCY
7. CONSTRUCTION 10-14
8. USES 15
9. PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS 16

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 OBJECTIVE

To investigate the uses and working of a Thermal

Generator.

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 INTRODUCTION
Thermoelectric power generator, any of a class of solid-state devices that either
convert heat directly into electricity or transform electrical energy into thermal
power for heating or cooling. Such devices are based on thermoelectric effects
involving interactions between the flow of heat and of electricity through solid
bodies.

All thermoelectric power generators have the same basic configuration. A heat
source provides the high temperature, and the heat flows through a thermoelectric
converter to a heat sink, which is maintained at a temperature below that of the
source. The temperature differential across the converter produces direct current
(DC) to a load (RL) having a terminal voltage (V) and a terminal current (I). There
is no intermediate energy conversion process. For this reason, thermoelectric
power generation is classified as direct power conversion. The amount of electrical
power generated is given by I2RL, or VI.

A unique aspect of thermoelectric energy conversion is that the direction of energy

flow is reversible. So, for instance, if the load resistor is removed and a DC power
supply is substituted, the thermoelectric device shown in the figure can be used to
draw heat from the “heat source” element and lower its temperature. In this
configuration, the reversed energy-conversion process of thermoelectric devices is
invoked, using electrical power to pump heat and produce refrigeration.

This reversibility distinguishes thermoelectric energy converters from many other

conversion systems, such as thermionic power converters. Electrical input power
can be directly converted to pumped thermal power for heating or refrigerating, or
thermal input power can be converted directly to electrical power for lighting,
operating electrical equipment, and other work. Any thermoelectric device can be
applied in either mode of operation, though the design of a particular device is
usually optimized for its specific purpose.

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 MATERIALS REQUIRED
1. CANDLE

2. WOODEN PLATFORM AND STICKS

3. ALUMINIUM CAN (ANY WASTE CAN)

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4. DC TOY MOTOR

5. TOY MOTOR FAN

6. THERMOELECTRIC PLATES (PELTIER)

7. GLUE

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 HISTORY & EFFICIENCY

In 1821, Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that a thermal gradient formed between
two different conducting material (has electromagnetic property) can produce
electricity. At the heart of the thermoelectric effect is the fact that a temperature
gradient in a conducting material results in heat flow; this results in the diffusion of
charge carriers. The flow of charge carriers between the hot and cold regions in turn
creates a voltage difference. In 1834, Jean Charles Athanase Peltier discovered the
reverse effect, that running an electric current through the junction of two dissimilar
conductors could, depending on the direction of the current, cause it to act as a
heater or cooler.

The typical efficiency of TEGs is around 5–8%, although it can be higher. Older devices
used bimetallic junctions and were bulky. More recent devices use highly doped
semiconductors made from bismuth telluride(Bi2Te3), lead telluride(PbTe), calcium
manganese oxide (Ca2Mn3O8), or combinations thereof, depending on application
temperature. These are solid-state devices and unlike dynamos have no moving
parts, with the occasional exception of a fan or pump to improve heat transfer. If the
hot region is around 1273K and the ZT values of 3 - 4 are implemented, the efficiency
is approximately 33-37%; allowing TEG's to compete with certain heat engine
efficiencies.

As of 2021, there are materials (some containing widely available and inexpensive
arsenic and tin) reaching a ZT value > 3; monolayer AsPӡ (ZT = 3.36 on the armchair
axis); n-type doped InPӡ (ZT = 3.23); p-type doped SnPӡ (ZT = 3.46); p-type doped SbPӡ
(ZT = 3.5).

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 CONSTRUCTION
Thermoelectric power generators consist of three major components: thermoelectric
materials, thermoelectric modules and thermoelectric systems that interface with
the heat source.

Thermoelectric materials:
Thermoelectric materials generate power directly from the heat by converting
temperature differences into electric voltage. These materials must have both high
electrical conductivity (σ) and low thermal conductivity (κ) to be good thermoelectric
materials. Having low thermal conductivity ensures that when one side is made hot,
the other side stays cold, which helps to generate a large voltage while in a
temperature gradient. The measure of the magnitude of electrons flow in response to
a temperature difference across that material is given by the Seebeck coefficient (S).
The efficiency of a given material to produce a thermoelectric power is simply
estimated by its “figure of merit” zT = S2σT/κ.

For many years, the main three semiconductors known to have both low thermal
conductivity and high power factor were bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3), lead telluride
(PbTe), and silicon germanium (SiGe). Some of these materials have somewhat rare
elements which make them expensive.

Today, the thermal conductivity of semiconductors can be lowered without affecting

their high electrical properties using nanotechnology. This can be achieved by
creating nanoscale features such as particles, wires or interfaces in bulk
semiconductor materials. However, the manufacturing processes of nano-materials
are still challenging.

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Thermoelectric advantages:
Thermoelectric generators are all-solid-state devices that do not require any fluids
for fuel or cooling, making them non-orientation dependent allowing for use in zero-
gravity or deep-sea applications. The solid-state design allows for operation in
severe environments. Thermoelectric generators have no moving parts which
produce a more reliable device that does not require maintenance for long periods.
The durability and environmental stability have made thermoelectrics a favorite for
NASA's deep space explorers among other applications. One of the key advantages of
thermoelectric generators outside of such specialized applications is that they can
potentially be integrated into existing technologies to boost efficiency and reduce
environmental impact by producing usable power from waste heat.

A thermoelectric circuit composed of materials of different Seebeck coefficient (p-

doped and n-doped semiconductors), configured as a thermoelectric generator.

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Thermoelectric module:
A thermoelectric module is a circuit containing thermoelectric materials which
generate electricity from heat directly. A thermoelectric module consists of two
dissimilar thermoelectric materials joined at their ends: an n-type (with negative
charge carriers), and a p-type (with positive charge carriers) semiconductor. Direct
electric current will flow in the circuit when there is a temperature difference
between the ends of the materials. Generally, the current magnitude is directly
proportional to the temperature difference:

J= -σS∇T

Where σ is the local conductivity, S is the Seebeck coefficient (also known as

thermopower), a property of the local material, and ∇T is the temperature gradient.

In application, thermoelectric modules in power generation work in very tough

mechanical and thermal conditions. Because they operate in a very high-temperature
gradient, the modules are subject to large thermally induced stresses and strains for
long periods. They also are subject to mechanical fatigue caused by a large number
of thermal cycles.

Thus, the junctions and materials must be selected so that they survive these tough
mechanical and thermal conditions. Also, the module must be designed such that the
two thermoelectric materials are thermally in parallel, but electrically in series. The
efficiency of a thermoelectric module is greatly affected by the geometry of its
design.

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Thermoelectric design:
Thermoelectric generators are made of several thermopiles, each consisting of many
thermocouples made of a connected n-type and p-type material. The arrangement of
the thermocouples is typically in three main designs: planar, vertical, and mixed.
Planar design involves thermocouples put onto a substrate horizontally between the
heat source and cool side, resulting in the ability to create longer and thinner
thermocouples, thereby increasing the thermal resistance and temperature gradient
and eventually increasing voltage output. Vertical design has thermocouples
arranged vertically between the hot and cool plates, leading to high integration of
thermocouples as well as a high output voltage, making this design the most widely-
used design commercially. The mixed design has the thermocouples arranged
laterally on the substrate while the heat flow is vertical between plates.
Microcavities under the hot contacts of the device allow for a temperature gradient,
which allows for the substrate’s thermal conductivity to affect the gradient and
efficiency of the device.

For microelectromechanical systems, TEGs can be designed on the scale of handheld

devices to use body heat in the form of thin films. Flexible TEGs for wearable
electronics are able to be made with novel polymers through additive manufacturing
or thermal spraying processes. Cylindrical TEGs for using heat from vehicle exhaust
pipes can also be made using circular thermocouples arranged in a cylinder. Many
designs for TEGs can be made for the different devices they are applied to.

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Thermoelectric systems:
Using thermoelectric modules, a thermoelectric system generates power by taking in
heat from a source such as a hot exhaust flue. To operate, the system needs a large
temperature gradient, which is not easy in real-world applications. The cold side
must be cooled by air or water. Heat exchangers are used on both sides of the
modules to supply this heating and cooling.

There are many challenges in designing a reliable TEG system that operates at high
temperatures. Achieving high efficiency in the system requires extensive engineering
design to balance between the heat flow through the modules and maximizing the
temperature gradient across them. To do this, designing heat exchanger technologies
in the system is one of the most important aspects of TEG engineering. In addition, the
system requires to minimize the thermal losses due to the interfaces between
materials at several places. Another challenging constraint is avoiding large
pressure drops between the heating and cooling sources.

If AC power is required (such as for powering equipment designed to run from AC

mains power), the DC power from the TE modules must be passed through an
inverter, which lowers efficiency and adds to the cost and complexity of the system.

A material's compatibility factor is defined as

s=√(1+zT)-1/ST

When the compatibility factor from one segment to the next differs by more than a
factor of about two, the device will not operate efficiently. The material parameters
determining s (as well as zT) are temperature-dependent, so the compatibility factor
may change from the hot side to the cold side of the device, even in one segment.
This behavior is referred to as self-compatibility and may become important in
devices designed for wide-temperature application.

In general, thermoelectric materials can be categorized into conventional and new

materials.

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 USES
Thermoelectric generators (TEG) have a variety of applications. Frequently,
thermoelectric generators are used for low power remote applications or where
bulkier but more efficient heat engines such as Stirling engines would not be
possible. Unlike heat engines, the solid state electrical components typically used to
perform thermal to electric energy conversion have no moving parts. The thermal to
electric energy conversion can be performed using components that require no
maintenance, have inherently high reliability, and can be used to construct
generators with long service-free lifetimes. This makes thermoelectric generators
well suited for equipment with low to modest power needs in remote uninhabited or
inaccessible locations such as mountaintops, the vacuum of space, or the deep
ocean.

The main uses of thermoelectric generators are:

 Space probes, including the Mars Curiosity rover, generate electricity using a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator whose heat source is a radioactive element.

 Waste heat recovery. Every human activity, transport and industrial process
generates waste heat, being possible to harvest residual energy from cars, aircraft,
ships, industries and the human body. From cars the main source of energy is the
exhaust gas. Harvesting that heat energy using a thermoelectric generator can
increase the fuel efficiency of the car. Thermoelectric generators have been
investigated to replace the alternators in cars demonstrating a 3.45% reduction in
fuel consumption.

 Solar cells use only the high-frequency part of the radiation, while the low-
frequency heat energy is wasted. Several patents about the use of thermoelectric
devices in parallel or cascade configuration with solar cells have been filed. The idea
is to increase the efficiency of the combined solar/thermoelectric system to convert
solar radiation into useful electricity.

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 PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS
Besides low efficiency and relatively high cost, practical problems exist in using
thermoelectric devices in certain types of applications resulting from a relatively
high electrical output resistance, which increases self-heating, and a relatively low
thermal conductivity, which makes them unsuitable for applications where heat
removal is critical, as with heat removal from an electrical device such as
microprocessors.

 High generator output resistance: To get voltage output levels in the range
required by digital electrical devices, a common approach is to place many
thermoelectric elements in series within a generator module. The element's
voltages increase, but so does their output resistance. The maximum power
transfer theorem dictates that maximum power is delivered to a load when the
source and load resistances are identically matched. For low impedance loads
near zero ohms, as the generator resistance rises the power delivered to the
load decreases. To lower the output resistance, some commercial devices
place more individual elements in parallel and fewer in series and employ a
boost regulator to raise the voltage to the voltage needed by the load.
 Low thermal conductivity: Because a very high thermal conductivity is required
to transport thermal energy away from a heat source such as a digital
microprocessor, the low thermal conductivity of thermoelectric generators
makes them unsuitable to recover the heat.
 Cold-side heat removal with air: In air-cooled thermoelectric applications,
such as when harvesting thermal energy from a motor vehicle's crankcase,
the large amount of thermal energy that must be dissipated into ambient air
presents a significant challenge. As a thermoelectric generator's cool side
temperature rises, the device's differential working temperature decreases. As
the temperature rises, the device's electrical resistance increases causing
greater parasitic generator self-heating. Water cooling the thermoelectric
generator's cold side, as when generating thermoelectric power from the hot
crankcase of an inboard boat motor, would not suffer from this disadvantage.
Water is a far easier coolant to use effectively in contrast to air.

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