Terminology used: different Kind of Energy used in NTMP like mechanical.

Thermoelectric, electrochemical and chemical

Mechanism involved

 Mechanical: Erosion of the work material by a high velocity stream of abrasives

or fluids (or both)
In USM, high frequency electrical energy is converted into mechanical
vibrations via a transducer/booster combination which are then
transmitted through an energy focusing device,
Abrasive jet machining (AJM) removes material through the action of
afocused stream of abrasive-laden gas
 AWJM relies on the erosive action of an abrasive-laden water jet for
application to cutting and drilling hard materials and for general cleaning.

 Thermal: The thermal energy is applied to a very small portion of the work
surface, causing that portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization of the
material. The thermal energy is generated by conversion of electrical energy.
Electrochemical: Mechanism is reverse of electroplating.
Thermoelectric energy is used in EDM to erode a workpiece by rapidly
recurring electrical discharges (sparks) between the non-contacted
electrode and workpiece
In WEDM material is eroded from the workpiece by a sequence of discrete
sparks between an electrode wire and the workpiece
EBM is a thermal material removal process thatutilizes a focused beam of
high-velocity electrons to perform high-speed drillingand cutting.
LBM is one of the most widely used thermal energy based advance
machining process and the mechanism includes different stages such as (i)
melting, (ii) vaporization, and (iii) chemical degradation (chemical bonds
are broken which causes the materials to degrade
Plasma-arc machining (PAM) employs a high-velocity jet of high-
temperature gas to melt and displace material in its path.
 Chemical: Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to chemical attack
by certain acids or other etchants. In chemical machining, chemicals selectively
remove material from portions of the work part, while other portions of the
surface are protected by a mask
In ECMmaterial removal is accomplished through controlled anodic
dissolution of workpiece.
Electrochemical grinding is a process that removes electrically conductive
material by grinding with a negatively charged abrasive grinding wheel,
an electrolyte fluid, and a positively charged workpiece
 Electrochemical Honingcombines the high removal characteristics of
Electrochemical Dissolution (ECD) and Mechanical Abrasion (MA) of
conventional Honing

Application of NTMP

 Complex shapes
 Machining in inaccessible areas
 Low tolerances (say, 0.01 mm)
 Better surface integrity (no surface defects, etc.)
 High surface finish (Nano-level Ra value)
 Miniaturization of products (examples: landline phone & mobile, old computers
& laptop, etc.)
 High MRR I High production rate while processing difficult to machine.
 Low cost of production.
 Precision and ultraprecision machining
 Requires material removal in the form of atoms and / or molecules
 Conclusion
 Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials using tools that
are harder than the materials themselves.
 New and novel materials because of their greatly improved chemical, mechanical
and thermal properties are sometimes impossible to machine using traditional
machining processes.
 Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in machining hard materials
like ceramics and composites or machining under very tight tolerances as in
micromachined components.
 The need to an avoid surface damage that often accompanies the stresses created
by conventional machining.
 The knowledge on the various types of energy used for NTMP was studied

Demo Videos
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L1D5DLWWMp8
References
Amithaba Bhattacharyya , “New Technology”, The Institution of Engineers , (India) “Production
Technology”, HMT Bangalore, Tata Mc Graw–Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi,
2006.
Hassan El – Hofy “Advanced machining Processes” Tata MC Graw-Hill, 2005
 Name of the Course : NTMP

Name of the Unit : Mechanical Process

Name of the Topic : Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

ULTRASONIC MACHINING

AIM & OBJECTIVE

 To make the students understand the evolution of USM process
 To provide student with knowledge on mechanism of USM process
 To make the students learn about parametric analysis in USM process
 To acquaint students with various process capabilities of USM process
 To teach the students about various applications of USM process

INTRODUCTION
 Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a non-conventional mechanical material
removal process generally associated with low material removal rates,
however its application is not limited by the electrical or chemical
characteristics of the workpiece materials.
 It is used for machining both conductive and non-metallic materials;
preferably those with low ductility and a hardness above 40 HRC, e.g.
inorganic glasses, silicon nitride, nickel/titanium alloys, etc.
 Holes as small as 76 mm in diameter can be machined, however, the depth to
diameter ratio is limited to about 3:1
 The history of ultrasonic machining (USM) began with a paper by R. W.
Wood and A. L. Loomis in 1927 and the first patent was granted to L.
Balamuth in 1945 USM has been variously termed ultrasonic drilling;
ultrasonic cutting, ultrasonic dimensional machining; ultrasonic abrasive
THEORY BEHIND

In USM, high frequency electrical energy is converted into mechanical vibrations via
a transducer/booster combination which are then transmitted through an energy
focusing device, i.e. horn/tool assembly. This causes the tool to vibrate along its
longitudinal axis at high frequency (usually $ 20 kHz) with an amplitude of 5–50
mm. Typical power ratings range from 50–3000 W [35] and can reach 4 kW in some
machines
The high-frequency mechanical motion is transmitted to the tool via a mechanical
coupler known as the toolholder (Fig.). The tool vibrates with a total excursion of
only a few hundredths of a millimetre (thousandths of an inch) in a direction parallel
to the axis of the tool feed. For efficient material removal to take place, the tool and
toolholder must be designed with consideration given to mass and shape so that
resonance can be achieved within the frequency range capability of the USM
machine. Resonance is achieved when the frequency of vibration matches the natural
frequency needed to generate a standing sonic wave within the tool-toolholder
assembly, thus resulting in maximum vibrational amplitude and maximum material
removal efficiency. The tool is shaped conversely to the desired hole or cavity and
positioned near, but not touching, the surface of the workpiece. The gap between the
vibrating tool and workpiece is flooded with an abrasive slurry comprising water
and small abrasive particles. Material removal occurs when the abrasive particles,
suspended in the slurry between the tool and workpiece, are struck by the
downstroke of the vibrating tool. The impact from the tool propels the abrasive
particles across the cutting gap causing them to strike the workpiece with a force up
to 150,000 times their weight. Although this force sounds large, the small mass of the
abrasive particles results in a very low overall cutting force, rarely exceeding 4.5 kg
(10 lb). If the material being machined is brittle rather than ductile, a small crater will
be produced at each impact site, much like the crater that results when a sheet of
glass is struck by a BB or pellet from an air gun. Each downstroke of the tool can
simultaneously accelerate thousands of abrasive particles; thus literally millions of
chips are removed from the workpiece each second. This explains why the second
most common name for this process is ultrasonic impact grinding (UIG). A second,
but much less effective mode of material removal takes place simultaneously with
the first. A minor amount of workpiece material is abraded as a result of its
interaction with the turbulent abrasive slurry. As material is removed, a
counterbalanced gravity feed, or servomotor-driven feed mechanism, continuously
advances the tool into the newly formed hole to maintain a constant gap between the
tool and workpiece. Although USM volumetric material removal rates are relatively
low, the process remains economically competitive because of its ability, with a
single pass of the tool, to generate complex cavities or multiple holes in workpiece
materials that are too hard or fragile to machine by alternate processes. Additionally,
because there is no direct tool-to-workpiece contact, USM is a valuable process for
reducing manufacturing losses caused by in-process breakage of fragile workpieces

Transducer
The high frequency electrical signal is transmitted to traducer which converts it into
high frequency low amplitude vibration. Essentially transducer converts electrical
energy to mechanical vibration. There are two types of transducer used 1. Piezo
electric transducer 2. Magneto-strictive transducer.
Piezo electric transducer:
These transducers generate a small electric current when they are compressed. Also
when the electric current is passed though crystal it expands. When the current is
removed, crystal attains its original size and shape. Such transducers are available
up to 900 Watts. Piezo electric crystals have high conversion efficiency of 95%.
Magneto-strictive transducer: These also changes its length when subjected to
strong magnetic field. These transducers are made of nickel, nickel alloy sheets.
Their conversion efficiency is about 20-30%. Such transducers are available up to
2000 Watts. The maximum change in length can be achieved is about 25 microns
Tool holder. OR Horn.
The tool holder holds and connects the tool to the transducer. It virtually transmits
the energy and, in some cases, amplifies the amplitude of vibration. Material of tool
should have good acoustic properties, high resistance to fatigue cracking. Due
measures should be taken to avoid ultrasonic welding between transducer and tool
holder. Commonly used tool holders are Monel, titanium, stainless steel. Tool
holders are more expensive, demand higher operating cost.
Tool
Tools are made of relatively ductile materials like Brass, Stainless steel or Mild steel
so that Tool wear rate (TWR) can be minimized. The value of ratio of TWR and MRR
depends on kind of abrasive, work material and tool materials.
MECHANISM:

The material removal mechanisms in basic USM were investigated quite intensively.
Three well-recognized major removal actions were summarized by the previous
researchers and include (i) mechanical abrasion due to direct hammering of larger
abrasive particles on the workpiece surface, (ii) microchipping resulted from the
impact of free-moving abrasive particles, and (iii) cavitation erosion from the
abrasive slurry. These mechanisms are schematically shown in Figure.
However, as it is difficult to observe the USM phenomena directly, a total
understanding of the material removal is still not possible. Only qualitative
evaluations according to experimental results were reported, except that an analysis
model was established recently based on the former study. In other studies, the
researchers concentrated on revealing the material removal mechanism by assuming
the hammering of an abrasive particle in USM as an indentation process. However,
the direct indentation process does not involve the actions including the tool
vibration and abrasive fracture in USM; a more effective way for investigating and
understanding the nature of material removal in USM is necessary
.

Figure Schematic diagram of material removal mechanisms in USM: (a) hammering action, (b)
impact action, and (c) cavitation erosion

PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS

The important parameters which affect the process are the:

(i) Frequency:
As can be seen from relation (6.18), the MRR increases linearly with the frequency. In
practice also, the MRR increases with the frequency (see Fig. 6.16a) but the actual
characteristic is not exactly linear. The MRR tends to be somewhat lower than the
theoretically-predicted value.
(ii) Amplitude:
When the amplitude of vibration is increased, the MRR is expected to increase, as
can be seen from relation (6.18). The actual nature of the variation is as shown in Fig.
6.16b for different values of the frequency. Again, the actual characteristic is
somewhat different from the theoretically-predicted one. The main source of
discrepancy stems from the fact that we calculated the duration of penetration Δt by
considering the average velocity (=A/(T/4)). The characteristic of variation of Δt,
given by –

is quite different from that obtained from the approximate expression, i.e., (h / A)(T
/ 4).
(iii) Static Loading (Feed Force):
With an increase in static loading (i.e., the feed force), the MRR tends to increase.
However, in practice, it tends to decrease beyond a certain critical value of the force
as the grains start getting crushed. The nature of variation of the MRR with the feed
force (for various amplitudes) is shown in Fig. 6.17a.
(iv) Hardness Ratio of the Tool and the Work Piece:
The ratio of the work piece hardness and the tool hardness affects the MRR quite
significantly, and the characteristic is as shown in Fig. 6.17b. Apart from the
hardness, the brittleness of the work material plays a very dominant role. Table 6.2
indicates the relative material removal rates for different work materials, keeping the
other parameters the same. Clearly, a more brittle material is machined more
rapidly.

(v) Grain Size:

Relation (6.18) indicates that the MRR should rise proportionately with the mean
grain diameter d. However, when d becomes too large and approaches the
magnitude of the amplitude A, the crushing tendency increases, resulting in a fall in
the MRR as shown in Fig. 6.18a.
(vi) Concentration of Abrasive in the Slurry:
Since the concentration directly controls the number of grains producing impact per
cycle and also the magnitude of each impact, the MRR is expected to depend on C.
But relation (6.18) shows that the MRR is expected to be proportional to C 1/4. The
actual variation is shown in Fig. 6.18b for B4C and SiC abrasives. This is in a fairly
good agreement with the theoretical prediction. Since the MRR increases as C1/4, the
increase in the MRR is quite low after C has crossed 30%. Thus, a further increase in
the concentration does not help.

Some physical properties (e.g., viscosity) of the fluid used for the slurry also affect
the MRR. Experiments show that the MRR drops as the viscosity increases.
Though the MRR is a very important consideration for judging performance of an
USM operation, the quality of finish obtained has also to be considered for a proper
evaluation. In an USM operation, the surface finish depends mainly on the size of
the abrasive grains. It is clear that the surface finish is much more sensitive to the
grain size in the case of glass. This is because of the fact that, for a high hardness, the
size of the fragments dislodged through a brittle fracture does not depend much on
the size of the impacting particles.
Effects of USM on Materials:
Since the cutting force involved is very small, the process produces no appreciable
stress and heating. So, the material structure remains unaffected. However, during
cutting through a hole, chipping may occur at the exit side of the hole. To avoid this,
the work piece made of a brittle material is fastened to a base usually made of glass.
 PROCESS CAPABILITIES

 Ultrasonic machining is a valuable process for precision machining of hard,

brittle materials. Although USM is not limited by high-hardness materials,
 it is limited by the softness of a material. Workpiece materials softer than HRc
40 result in prohibitively long cycles. The best machining rates can be
obtained on materials harder than HRc 60.
 Materials such as carbides, ferrites, germanium, ceramics, glasses, and
tungsten are representative of those that are difficult to process
conventionally and can benefit the most from the USM process.
 When performing drilling operations, USM can produce holes as small as
0.076 mm (0.003 in) in diameter.
 The best tolerance that can be obtained is ± 0.025 mm (± 0.001 in.); however,
with special considerations given to slurry delivery and abrasive selection,
tolerances of ± 0.007 mm (± 0.0003 in.) can sometimes be achieved.
 Holes of up to 51-mm (2-in.) deep can be drilled without employing special
techniques. When optimum flushing techniques are employed, hole-depth
capabilities can be extended to 152 mm (6 in.) with aspect ratios of up to 40:1.

USM: Machined products

Most successful ultrasonic machining applications involve drilling holes or maching
cavities in nonconductive ceramic materials. The selection of USM as the preferred
manufacturing process usually occurs because no other process is capable of
performing the task, the alternative process would require substantially longer
process times, or because of a reduction in scrap rates in fragile workpieces.
As reported by Rutan (1984), special USM tools are often used to simultaneously
produce a multitude of holes in precise patterns. This gang-drilling technique
significantly increases productivity without compromising quality.
An example of a gang-drilling tool is shown in Fig. shows a 0.64-mm (0.025-in.) thick
aluminium oxide substrate used by the electronics industry. Ultrasonic machining
was used to simultaneously drill 930 holes 0.64 mm (0.025 in.) in diameter and 30
holes 1.53 mm (0.060 in.) in diameter.
The entire operation is performed in 8.5 min. using an array of stainless-steel
hypodermic needles as the tools and 320-grit boron carbide as the abrasive. This
process time equates to approximately 0.5 sec/hole.
In a similar application, 2176 square holes measuring 0.79 mm (0.031 in.) on a side
were simultaneously drilled through a 1.01 mm (0.040-in.) thick carbon plate in 10
min. Because such a large number of holes were drilled simultaneously, an alternate
process that drills one hole at a time would have to generate holes at a rate of 3.6
holes per second to be able to match the rate of USM.
A novel use for ultrasonic machining has been the multistep process for fabricating
silicon nitride (Si3N4) turbine blades. The first step in manufacturing the blades uses
a shaped tool to ultrasonically trepan the blade blank from a billet of S1 3N4 .
A second shaped tool is then used to generate the rough air foil shape by trepanning
in a direction 90° to the initial cut and to a specific depth. After the cut is completed,
a diamond slicing wheel is used to cut in from the sides to intersect with the bottom
of trepan cut.
This technique removes a large volume of material that would otherwise have had to
been removed by the much slower technique of pantograph profile grinding (Robare
et al., 1977). Completed Si3 N4 turbine blades are shown in Fig.
 Conclusion

 USM is a non-thermal process which does not rely on a conductive workpiece

and is preferable for machining workpieces with low ductility and hardness
above 40 HRC.
 USM is believed to be a stress and damage free process.
 For contour USM a resonance following generator is recommended because it
can automatically adjust the output high frequency to match the exact
resonant frequency of the horn/tool assembly. Such a generator can also
accommodate any small errors in set up and tool wear, giving minimum
acoustic energy loss and very small heat generation.
 The production of complex shapes may be achieved by sculpting using a
simple tool shape and CNC rather than die sinking using complex form tools,
however, work in this area is at an early stage. 5. Horn materials should
possess a high mechanical Q, good soldering and brazing characteristics,
good acoustic transmission properties and high fatigue resistance at high
working amplitude. They should also be corrosion resistant and strong
enough to take screw attachments.
 Tool materials should have high wear resistance, good elastic and fatigue
strength properties, and have optimum values of toughness and hardness for
the application.
 The slurry acts as a coolant for the horn, tool and workpiece, supplies fresh
abrasive to the cutting zone and removes debris from the cutting area. It also
provides a good acoustic bond between the tool, abrasive and workpiece,
allowing efficient energy transfer.
 The transport medium for the abrasive should possess low viscosity with a
density approaching that of the abrasive, good wetting properties and,
preferably, high thermal conductivity and specific heat for efficient cooling.
 Name of the Course : NTMP

Name of the Unit : Mechanical Process

Name of the Topic : Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING

AIM & OBJECTIVE

 To make the students understand the evolution of AWJM process
 To provide student with knowledge on mechanism of AWJM process
 To make the students learn about parametric analysis in AWJM process
 To acquaint students with various process capabilities of AWJM process
 To teach the students about various applications of AWJM process

INTRODUCTION
Abrasive water jet (AWJ) has been finding extensive use in the manufacturing
industries for machining wide range of materials such as metals and non-metals. The
reason behind the selection of AWJ machining process is that does not generate heat
at the cutting zone, but the heat is less while machining hard materials; ability to cut
all kinds of materials such as metals, non-metals, composites, ceramics; a higher
material removal rate than the Wire EDM process, and production of a better surface
integrity than the laser machining process; cutting thick components in the range of
250 mm (depends on materials); absence of thermal distortion to work materials but
ability to cut intricate shapes; existence of minimum cutting force on the work
materials and yield of better dimensional accuracy due to insignificant deformation;
rock drilling and surface cleaning.
AWJ process is classified into two jet generation methods, namely, abrasive
water injection jet (Three phases – air, abrasive and water) and abrasive suspension
jet (two phases – abrasive and water). Variations in these techniques are made by
different ways of mixing between abrasive and water is shown in Fig.1(a) & (b). In
the Injection type, AWJ is formed by injecting the abrasives into a high speed water
jet stream through the mixing chamber, whereas in the suspended type, both water
and abrasives are premixed and entered directly into the nozzle head [2]. This study
explores the various researches made on the injection type AWJ machining process
as it is well received from the researchers and Industries for the execution of wide
variety of tasks.
PREREQUISITES

 Basics of conventional Machining process

 Basics of application of abrasive jet machining
PRE-TEST
In Abrasive jet machining, work piece material of removed by which of the
following means?
a) Vaporization
b) Electro plating
c) Mechanical abrasion
d) Corrosion
Which type of materials can be machined using Abrasive jet machining?
a) Glass
b) Ceramics
c) Hard materials
d) All of the mentioned
In machining system of AJM, which is the medium of carrying the abrasive
grains for machining?
a) Liquids
b) Gases
c) Any fluids
d) None of the mentioned
In machining system of AJM, what is/are the gas/es used for carrying the
abrasives?
a) CO2
b) Air
c) Nitrogen
d) All of the mentioned
What is the pressure of gas that is to be supplied, for carrying the abrasives?
a) 0.1 to 1.0 kg/cm2
b) 2.0 to 8.0 kg /cm2
c) 10.0 to 18.0 kg/cm2
d) 25.0 to 35.5 kg/cm2
THEORY BEHIND

This process combines the principles of WJM and AJM to create a unique process
that relies on the erosive action of an abrasive-laden water jet for application to
cutting and drilling hard materials and for general cleaning.

The AWJM process uses a conventional, high-velocity water jet in combination with
abrasive particles to produce a slurry cutting jet as depicted in Fig. The high-velocity
water jet is operated at pressures of up to 400 MPa (60,000 psi) to produce a water
stream traveling as fast as 915 m/sec (3000 ft/ sec). A stream of small abrasive
particles is introduced and entrained in the water jet in such a manner that the water
jet’s momentum is transferred to the abrasives. The coherent, abrasive water jet that
exits the AWJM nozzle (Fig. 4.2) has the ability to cut various materials, such as
metals, rock, glass, ceramics, and composites, with great speed and, depending upon
the material, in thicknesses of up to 20 cm (8 in.).

MECHANISM:
By studying the dynamics of an abrasive water jet as it cuts clear Plexiglas, two

material removal mechanisms have been identified. The first mechanism typically

occurs at the uppermost portion of the kerf where the abrasive impact angle is

shallow. In this portion of the cut, material is removed primarily through erosion.

Deeper into the kerf where the abrasive impact angle is larger, deformation wear

becomes the primary material removal mechanism (Hashish, 1983b). Although the

mechanics are not fully understood, the ability for AWJM to penetrate very thick

material may be due to entrainment of abrasive particles in the jet after the initial

impacts at the top of the cut

EQUIPMENT
An AWJM system consists of four major components. Specifically, these are the
pumping system, abrasive feed system, water jet, and abrasive jet nozzle.
Pumping System
The function of the pumping system in AWJM is to produce the high-velocity water
jet that will ultimately transfer its momentum to the abrasives. Water is pressurized
to as much as 415 MPa (60,000 psi) by means of an intensifier. Up to 56 kW (75 HP)
of hydraulic power may be. required to produce the highest levels of pressure,
although that much power is not always necessary because effective AWJM cutting
can be performed with pressures of less than 207 MPa (30,000 psi). The high-
pressure seal in the pumping system can be expected to last approximately 250-750
hr and requires 15 min to change. Also, the high-pressure check valve can be
expected to have a lifetime of 500-1000 hr before a 30 min replacement is required.
Abrasive Feed System
For uniform-cutting action to occur, the abrasive flow system must deliver a
precisely controlled flow of abrasive particles to the abrasive jet nozzle. Currently,
AWJM abrasive feed systems deliver a stream of dry abrasives to the nozzle. The
abrasive flow rate is established by selecting the diameter of a control orifice. One
drawback with the use of dry abrasive delivery systems is that the delivery of
abrasives over long distances is difficult. An alternative approach to the dry abrasive
feed system is one that uses an abrasive slurry. Slurry feed systems are currently
under development and are not commercially available; however, they would make
feeding over long distances much more practical. A drawback of the slurry feed
system is that more power would be required to produce a given cut than with the
dry system. This is due to the loss of efficiency in the abrasive jet nozzle resulting
from the increased mass of the carrier liquid (Hashish, 1983a).
Water jet
The water jet used for this process is essentially the same as that used for WJM. The
water jet, which has a velocity of approximately 915 m/sec (3000 ft/sec), is produced
when highly pressurized water is passed through a 0.075- to 0.635- mm (0.010- to
0.025-in.) diameter nozzle. For extended lifetimes, the nozzle is fabricated of
sapphire and can be expected to last 250-500 hr.
Abrasive Jet Nozzle
The purpose of the abrasive jet nozzle is to provide efficient mixing of the abrasives
and the water jet and to form the high-velocity abrasive water jet combination. To
minimize abrasive wear, the nozzle is usually made from either tungsten carbide or
boron carbide. Two major design concepts are currently used for the design of
abrasive jet nozzles. The first, called the single-jet side-feed nozzle, is shown in Fig.
It is based on a central water jet with abrasives fed into the mixing chamber from the
side. This configuration is easily machined and can be made quite small, which is an
advantage when cutting in tight locations. On the other hand, this concept does not
provide for optimal mixing efficiency and usually experiences rapid wear of the exit
section. Because this design incorporates a central, conventional water jet, the
abrasive flow can be stopped and the system will function as a conventional WJM
system. The second nozzle concept is the multiple-jet, central-feed nozzle shown in
Fig.

PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
The water jet pressure affects the process by determining the abrasive particle

velocity. Pressures can be as high as 415 MPa (60,000 psi), but they are more

commonly within the range of 172-275 MPa (25,000-40,000 psi). The relationship

between pressure and depth of cut is approximately linear, as shown in Fig. 4.6.

Notice in the illustration that although the abrasive mass flow rate, m, and the

nozzle diameter, dm, were changed, all of the lines converge to a common point of

origin, Fg. is the minimum critical pressure required to cut the material (Hashish,

1983b)
A minimum critical pressure Pf. exists because of the minimum abrasive particle
velocity required to cut specific materials (Ruff and Wiederhorn, 1979). No
correlation has yet been made between the critical pressure an material properties,
although Hashish (1983c), has determined that the value for Pc for mild steel is
between 20.7 and 27.5 MPa (3000 and 4000 psi). The range of Pc typically varies less
than 6.9 MPa (1000 psi) for a given material. The water flow rate in the AWJM
process is typically less than 11.4 L/min (3 gal/min). Figure 4.7 shows how the
depth of cut is affected by varying the water flow rate (increasing the nozzle
diameter) while maintaining constant pressure. As flow rate increases, the slope of
the curve decreases because the saturation point is reached. As the nozzle diameter
increases and the water flow rate increases, the rate of increase in the particle
velocity is reduced, thus reducing the depth of cut. Abrasive flow rate versus depth
of cut is a linear relationship up to a point; above a critical flow rate, the cutting
efficiency decreases. The explanation for this relationship is that as the abrasive flow
rate increases (with a fixed water flow rate), particle velocity begins to decrease
faster than the rate at which the number of abrasive particle impacts increase.
The most common abrasive particle sizes used for AWJM range from 100 to 150 grit,
although for any given material there is a narrow range of particle size that will
produce the optimum depth of cut (Hashish, 1983b). This size range is wider for
brittle materials, such as glass, than for ductile materials. An optimum abrasive
particle size also exists for each particular nozzle mixing chamber configuration.
The type of abrasive used is also an important parameter. Garnet, silica, and silicon
carbide are the most commonly used abrasives. Selection of the abrasive type is
usually determined by the hardness of the material that is being cut. The harder the
material, the harder the abrasive particles should be.
Particle fragmentation occurs regardless of how hard or soft the workpiece material
is. In-depth studies on the reuse of abrasives have, as yet, not been completed, but it
appears that recycling is feasible for some workpiece-abrasive combinations such as
silicon carbide and mild steel. An AWJM abrasive recycling system is not yet
commercially available and because of excessive fragmentation, may never be able to
recycle all abrasives
 PROCESS CAPABILITIES

 As mentioned earlier, AWJM can be thought of as a combination of WJM and

AJM principles. In terms of capability, AWJM combines the best of both
processes, resulting in a new process that can cut materials whether they are
hard or soft at high rates and in very thick sections.
 Specifically, AWJM can cut materials as thick as 200 mm (8 in.) and still
maintain a comparatively narrow kerf. Kerfwidth is a function of the material
thickness and usually is between 1.5 and 2.3 mm (0.06 and 0.09 in.). The
resulting taper on the cut edge is a function of the material hardness, where
hard materials have the widest kerf at the top of the cut and soft materials
have the widest kerf at the bottom of the cut.
 Brittle non-metallic materials, such as acrylic, graphite, and silica glass, are
also easily cut by AWJM without damage. Glass that is 25-mm (1-in.) thick
can be cut with less than 0.45 kg/min (1 Ib/min) of abrasives, leaving a cut
edge free from cracks. Figure 4.11 illustrates the cut edge of a multi-layered
glass/Lexan laminate that is 5 1-mm (2-in.) thick. The resulting cut is
exceptionally smooth and free from delamination or cracking. A
consideration when cutting glass and glass products with AWJM is that of
stray cutting which, as with AJM, can result in frosting of the top surface near
the edge of the cut.

AWJM: Machined products

The potential applications of AWJC technology are numerous, but of course some
uses are a better fit than others. The AWJC method cuts effectively almost all
engineering materials and thicknesses such as aluminium, titanium alloys, glass,
brass, pre-hardened steel, tool steel, stainless steel, mild steel, copper, plastic,
quartz, ceramic, laminates, composites, flammable materials, leather, stone,
granite, marble, foam, Inconel, fish, meat, etc. Undoubtedly, however, AWJC
plays its most important role in the following sectors:
• Aerospace Industry:
• engine components.
• interior cabin parts.
• Automotive Industry:
• interior trim (trunk, door panels, liners, headliners).
• fiberglass body components and bumpers.
• electronics industries.
• circuit boards.
• cable stripping.
• Oil and Gas Industry:
• casing cutting for decommissioning of oil wells.
• rescue operations.
• platform cutting and repair.
• underwater construction.

.
 Conclusion

 AWJ has been the choice for machining materials in most cases. Almost, the
entire range of metals and their alloys are processed through the use of the
AWJ machining technique due to the major benefits of this process, such as
less heat affected zone, lower cutting forces and no changes in material
properties. This process cut the materials with wide variety of thickness from
2 mm to 100 mm. It could also cut more than 100 mm thickness. A lowest
surface roughness was produced as 0.016 μm under AWJ polishing
operations.
 The extensive need of advanced machining techniques for different
applications has triggered AWJ as extremely useful for manufacturing
engineers for solving various issues seen in Industries

MCQ POST-TEST
1.WJM cannot be used to machine (a) frozen food (b) plywood (c) leather (d) steel
plates
ANSWER (d)
2. In AWJM mixing process takes place in (a) intensifier (b) catcher (c) mixing
chamber (d) orifice
ANSWER (c)
3. Abrasive water jet velocity increases with (keeping all other parameters
unchanged) (a) increasing traverse velocity of the job (b) decreasing mass flow
rate of abrasive (c) decreasing traverse velocity of the job (d) increasing mass flow
rate of abrasive ANSWER (b)
4. In an environment friendly development concerning AWJM, the following is
used as abrasive (a) dry ice (b) cubic boron nitrite (c) diamond (d) tungsten carbide
ANSWER (a)
 Name of the Course : NTMP

Name of the Unit : Mechanical Process

Name of the Topic : Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

AIM & OBJECTIVE

 To make the students understand the evolution of AJM process
 To provide student with knowledge on mechanism of AJM process
 To make the students learn about parametric analysis in AJM process
 To acquaint students with various process capabilities of AJM process
 To teach the students about various applications of AJM process

INTRODUCTION
 In the 1930s, a low-pressure water jet system was patented and successfully
used to cut paper.
 Twenty years later, a high-pressure hydraulic seal from aviation industry was
adopted to water jet machining, that noticeably increased the process
productivity.
 The continuous increase of working pressure in the next few decades allowed
the cutting of hard alloys and carbides. On the other hand, a high pressure led
to severe nozzle wear, making abrasive jet machining (AJM) economically
non-competitive.
 From the 1970s, after ceramic nozzles were introduced, abrasive jet systems
became commercially available and, within a short span of time, became the
industrial mainstream and were mainly utilised for cutting and cleaning
purposes.
MECHANISM:

The process Figure shows a schematic representation of an abrasive jet machine, in

which dry compressed air from a compressor reaches the mixing chamber through a
dehumidifier and a pressure regulator, abrasive chamber reaches the secondary
abrasive chamber through an abrasive metering tube. Under the action of a
mechanical vibrator, the abrasive particles flow through an abrasive metering
venturi into the mixing chamber. Here, the abrasive and the compressed air become
mixed.
The abrasive flow rate can be controlled by adjusting the amplitude and frequency
of the vibrator. The mixing chamber, the secondary chamber and the main abrasive
chamber are at the same pressure: thus, vibration controls the abrasive flow rate. The
mixture ratio can be varied by varying the nozzle pressure. The mixture, in the form
of fine jet, then emerges from a convergent-parallel nozzle, as shown in Fig. 2, and
strikes the workpiece mounted on a fixture inside a closed working chamber. A
vacuum cleaner connected to the working chamber removes the swarf. The
experimental conditions employed are listed in Table .
 AJM process parameters

The distance between the nozzle tip and the surface of the workpiece, termed the
stand-off distance, is considered to be one of the most important parameters to be
controlled in this process, the other controllable parameters being the mixture ratio
(defined as the ratio of the mass flow rate of the abrasive particles to the mass flow
rate of the air and abrasive mixture), the size of the abrasive particles, the chamber
pressure, and the nozzle exit pressure. Consideration of the angle of impingement of
the jet onto the workpiece and the effect of the feed rate, enable the determination of
the correct position of the jet relative to the workpiece. From experimental studies, it
has been observed that abrasive jet machining is highly suited for deburring,
finishing and cutting operations, with micro-drilling and machining of toughened
glass also being possible.

PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS

Major AJM process variables that affect the removal rate are nozzle tip distance,
abrasive flow rate, gas pressure, and abrasive type.

Nozzle Tip Distance

 Figure illustrates the effect of the nozzle tip distance (NTD) on the material
removal rate when cutting glass for 30 sec with 27 ju aluminium oxide
abrasive. Note that the removal rate is maximized when the NTD is between 7
and 13 mm (0.27 and 0.50 in.).
 Various NTDs are used depending upon the application. When exacting
definition is required, as in cutting, the nozzle is positioned very close to the
workpiece, typically 0.8 mm (0.032 in.). At this close distance, cutting rates are
compromised for the sake of increased accuracy. Maintaining a close NTD
 also eliminates taper and minimizes the kerfwidth. Figure illustrates these
changes as the function of NTD. The typical divergence angle for an abrasive
jet is 7o
 By increasing the NTD to a distance of 5-12.5 mm (3/16-1/2 in.), the abrasive
jet stream is widened, thereby lending itself to abrading operations such as
cleaning and peening. Light-duty operations, such as glass frosting, are
accomplished with an NTD of 25-75 mm (1-3 in.).
Powder flow rate

Powder flow rate is directly related to the material removal rate, as shown in Fig. 2.7.
Increasing the flow rate increases the removal rate because more abrasive particles
are available for cutting. However, as the powder flow rate is increasing, the mass
fraction of abrasive in the jet is also increasing. As the mass fraction increases, the
abrasive velocity decreases, thus reducing the removal rate. This effect becomes
apparent with flow rates greater than 14 g/min, thus to conserve nozzle life and
abrasives, most operations are performed at 10 g/min. Large changes in nozzle
pressure have very little effect on removal rate when compared with the other
process variables.
Nozzle pressure

As shown in Fig. increasing the nozzle pressure slowly, increases the removal rate.
However, because these increases are offset by decreased nozzle life, pressures
higher than 560 or 630 kPa (80 or 90 psi) are seldom used.

Abrasive size

The final major process variable is the abrasive size. Figure illustrates the effect that
various powder sizes have on the removal rate. Note that larger particle sizes
remove the material fastest. Notice also that the optimum flow rate for all powders
was approximately 10 g/min, a figure that is in agreement with the data presented
earlier Fig.
 PROCESS CAPABILITIES

 Material removal rates with AJM are considered low, typically only
0.016 cm3/min (0.001 in.3/min). This equates to cutting with a 0.45-mm (0.0l8-
in.) kerfwidth in 0.5-mm (0.020 in.) thick material at a linear rate of less than
76 mm/min (3 lpm).
 However, the ability to produce intricate detail in hard, brittle materials
makes up for the low removal rates. Slots as narrow as 0.12-0.25 mm (0.005-
0.010 in.) can be produced when stray cutting is minimized with rectangular
nozzles. Tolerances of ±0.12 mm are easily obtained, and ±0.05 mm can be
achieved with proper techniques.
 The minimum radius that can be produced is 0.2 mm (0.008 in.). Surface
finishes range from 10 to 50 iiin., with the finer abrasives achieving the best
finishes. Steel as thick as 1.5 itun (0.060 in.) and glass 6.3-mm (0.25-in.) thick
have been cut by AJM but at very slow rates and with large amounts of taper.
 In thinner materials, taper is present at the rate of 0.12 mm (0.005 in./in. of
material thickness. If no taper can be tolerated on the cut edge, the nozzle or
the workpiece can sometimes be tilted to compensate. This has the effect of
negating taper on the part and doubling the taper on the scrap.
Abrasive Jet Machining: Machined products
 Conclusion

AJM is a progressive manufacturing method with a growing role in the satisfaction

of recent and oncoming industrial demands. With that, future investigations on
technology enhancements are required. The trend of AJM developments is a shift
from the macro to micro scale. Further reduction of machining spot, precise erosion
predictability and process controlling are current challenges in AJM

MCQ POST-TEST

In advanced machining processes, what is the full form of AJM?

a) Automatic Jet Manufacturing
b) Abrasive Jet Machining
c) Automated Jet Machining
d) Abrasive Jet Manufacturing

In AJM, which of the following materials are used as abrasive grains?

a) Al2O3
b) SiC
c) Glass beads
d) All of the mentioned

In Abrasive jet machining, work piece material of removed by which of the

following means?
a) Vaporization
b) Electro plating
c) Mechanical abrasion
d) Corrosion

Which type of materials can be machined using Abrasive jet machining?

a) Glass
b) Ceramics
c) Hard materials
d) All of the mentioned

In machining system of AJM, which is the medium of carrying the abrasive grains
for machining?
a) Liquids
b) Gases
c) Any fluids
d) None of the mentioned
 Name of the Course : NTMP

Name of the Unit : Electrical Discharge Machining

Name of the Topic : Wire cut Electrical Discharge Machining (WEDM)

WIRE CUT ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE

MACHINING

S
AIM & OBJECTIVE
 To make the students understand the evolution of WEDM process
 To provide student with knowledge on mechanism of WEDM process
 To make the students learn about parametric analysis in WEDM process
 To acquaint students with various process capabilities of WEDM process
 To teach the students about various applications of WEDM process

INTRODUCTION
Wire electric discharge machining was first introduced to the manufacturing
industry in the late 1960s. The development of the WEDM process was the effect of
searching for a technique to machine the electrodes employed in EDM. In 1974, D.H.
Dulebohn used the optical-line follower system to automatically control the shape of
the component to be machined by the WEDM technique. By 1975, its popularity
quickly improved, as the method and its abilities were greatly accepted by the
industry. A significant progress of the machining process was brought only towards
the end of the 1970s, when computer numerical control (CNC) system was
integrated with WEDM. The wide abilities of the WEDM process were broadly
exploited for any through-hole machining due to the wire, which has to go through
the part to be machined
THEORY BEHIND

Wire cut electrical discharge machining is a thermoelectric process in which material

is eroded from the workpiece by a sequence of discrete sparks between an electrode
wire and the workpiece [76]. The diameter of the electrode wire used in WEDM is
about 0.1 to 0.3 mm. The electrode and workpiece were separated by a thin film of
dielectric fluid which is continuously fed to the machining region to flush away the
eroded particles. The motion of the wire is controlled numerically to obtain the
required three-dimensional forms and accuracy of the workpiece 11 The wire is
guided by upper and lower diamond guides which is held straight by high wire
tension to avoid tapering of the machined surface. High frequency DC pulses are
introduced in the narrow gap between the workpiece and wire electrode which
produces spark discharges between them. A stream of dielectric fluid is directed
coaxially with the wire to flood the gap between the workpiece and wire electrode.
The schematic representation of WEDM is shown in Figure. The power supply used
for the WEDM is usually similar to that of the conventional EDM. The current
carrying capacity of the wire is limited up to 20 A. Spark frequencies up to 1 MHz is
used to give a good surface finish on the workpiece. There is no physical contact
between the tool and the workpiece.
The workpiece is mounted on a computer numeric-controlled worktable. The
controlled movement of the x-y worktable enables to cut complex two-dimensional
shapes on the workpiece. Angular positioning of the wire is incorporated in many
machines which allows varying degrees of taper on the machined surface. The gap
between the workpiece and wire is maintained constantly by the microprocessor
which varies from 0.025 to 0.05 mm.
 EQUIPMENT
A wire-EDM machine consists of four subsystems: the positioning system, the wire
drive system, the power supply, and the dielectric system. All four of these
subsystems have distinct differences from conventional EDM.
Positioning System. Wire-EDM positioning systems usually consist of a CNC two-
axis table and, in some cases, an additional multi axis wire-positioning system. The
most unique feature of the CNC system is that it must operate in an adaptive control
mode to always insure the consistency of the gap between the wire and workpiece. If
the wire should come in contact with the workpiece, or if a small piece of material
bridges the gap and causes a short circuit, the positioning system must sense this
condition and back up along the programmed path to re-establish the proper cutting
gap conditions.
Linear cutting rates with wire-EDM are slow, typically less than 100 mm/hr (4
in./hr) in 25-mm (1-in.) thick steel. Therefore the block-processing time (processing
speed) of the CNC system is not as important as it is with other highspeed processes.
Because of the slow speed of the process, it is not unusual for jobs to be run
continuously for 10 or 20 hr unattended. To facilitate unattended operation, wire-
EDM CNC systems are usually provided with a battery-powered backup system in
case a power failure occurs during a run. If a power failure should occur, the system
will automatically restart itself at the proper location so that work can resume
without human intervention.

Wire Drive System

The function of the wire drive system is to continuously deliver fresh wire under

constant tension to the work area. The need for constant wire tension is important to

avoid such problems as taper, machining streaks, wire breaks, and vibration marks.

Several stages of preparation are incorporated into wire delivery systems to ensure

wire straightness (Fig. 16.3). After the wire leaves the supply spool, it passes through

several wire-feed and wire-removal capstan rollers. These act to buffer the eroding

zone from any disturbing influences created by the wire supply (Foster, 1982). As the

wire passes through the workpiece, it is guided by a set of sapphire or diamond wire

guides. Before being collected by the take-up spool, it passes through a series of

tensioning rollers. Many wire-EDM systems use a massive granite slab as the

machine base to further guarantee wire accuracy and stability. Automatic wire

threading is a recently introduced feature that boosts productivity.

Power Supply

The most pronounced differences between the power supplies used for wire- EDM

and conventional EDM are the frequency of the pulses used and the current. To

produce the smoothest surface finish possible, pulse frequencies as high as 1 MHz

may be used with wire-EDM. Such a high frequency ensures that each spark

removes as little material as possible, thus reducing the size of the EDM “craters.”
Because the diameter of the wire used is so small, its current-carrying capability is

limited. Because of this limitation, wire-EDM power supplies are rarely built to

deliver more than 20 amp of current.

Dielectric System

Deionized water is the dielectric used for the wire-EDM process. Deionized water

is used for four reasons: low viscosity, high cooling rate, high material removal

rate, and no fire hazard. The small cutting gap used with wire-EDM mandates that a

low-viscosity dielectric be used to ensure adequate flushing. Water meets this

criterion. Water can also remove heat from the cutting area much more efficiently

than conventional dielectric oils. More efficient cooling results in extremely thin

recast layers.

PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
The linear-cutting rate for wire-EDM is approximately 38-115 mm/hr in 25-mm thick steel
(1.54.5 in./hr in 1-in. thick steel) or approximately 20 mm/hr in 76- mm steel (0.8 in./hr in 3-
in. steel). The linear speed Is dependent upon the thickness of the material not upon the
shape of the cut. The linear-cutting rate is the same whether a straight cut or complex curves
are being generated. The speed of the wire passing through the workpiece can vary from 8-
42 mm/sec (2 0 - 1 0 0 in./min) depending upon cutting conditions. Special precautions
must be taken when cutting sintered carbides and various cutting tool insert materials.
These materials must be machined with as little voltage as possible to avoid electrolysis
from selectively removing the cobalt binder at the cut edge

 Wire Material The wire breakage is one of the critical factors for obtaining
continuous machining process. This can be prevented by overcoming the
thermal effects by improving the technology of the tool. The final
performance and success of the WEDM is also determined by the optimal
selection of wire properties.
 Wire Tension High tension of the wire results in improved accuracy of the
machined part. But, if the tension of the wire exceeds its tensile strength, it
will lead to wire breakage. On the other hand, bending and vibration of the
wire will result in drum shape of the workpiece and inaccuracy.
 Dielectric Fluid The thermal and electrical conductivity of dielectric medium
affects the performance characteristics of WEDM significantly. Deionised
water is used as the dielectric fluid in most of the WEDM machines. The main
advantage of using deionised water is low viscosity and better cooling
abilities which were required for the energy transmission during the WEDM
process and removes the debris from the small gap effectively.
 Dielectric Flushing Pressure In WEDM, a continuous jet of dielectric is
flushed into the gap so that the debris from the small gap can be expelled
effectively. The machining performances during roughing cuts is enhanced
with the increase in the flushing pressure owing to effective removal of the
debris from the machining gap.
 Pulse-On Time The cutting speed and material removal rate is improved
with the increase in the pulse on time due to increase the pulse energy
involved in machining. While, decrease in the surface finish is observed with
the increase in the pulse on time.
 Pulse –off time Material removal rate decreases with the increase in the
pulse-off time. Adequate pulse off time is important to evacuate the gap
efficiently.
 Pulse Current Increase in the pulse current increases the pulse energy thus
improving the material removal rate with reduction in surface finish.
 Discharge Frequency The surface finish is improved with increase in
discharge frequency. The material removal rate will be doubled without
affecting the surface finish within the frequency limits by doubling the
amperage and frequency.
 Thickness of the Workpiece Thickness of the workpiece decreases the cutting
speed of the WEDM process.
 Wire Speed The axial movement of the wire electrode is known as the wire
speed. The wire speed decides the duration of the wire in the part which
determines the wire 14 wear. The cutting speed is limited by the wire speed.
Wire speed of roughing cut higher than that of finishing cut. Wire breakage
may occur if the wire speed is too low.
 Workpiece Material WEDM process is also influenced by specific properties
of the work piece material. Some of the properties which affects the
machinability are coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal and electrical
conductivity, melting point, heat treatment, melting and evaporation heat,
etc.,
 Machining Voltage Machining voltage is the voltage in the spark gap. The
material removal is increased with the increase in the voltage by contributing
to the pulse energy.
 PROCESS CAPABILITIES

Wire-EDM is a specialized process that is capable of machining electrically

conductive workpieces to produce fine finishes, extremely high accuracies and cut
edges that have a smooth, matte finish. The matte finish is a result of the thousands
of microscopic pits remaining from the spark erosion. When applied to punch-and-
die applications, the oil retaining quality of these micro pits has been known to
increase die life.
Surface finishes ranging from 0.12 to 0. 2 5 (5 to 10)uin.)are routinely obtained,
and by utilizing a second “finish pass,” finishes as low as 0.05-0.12fx (2-5 Min.) are
possible. “Finish passes” can be achieved at linear traverse rates as fast as 380
mm/hr (15 in./hr). Many wire-EDM machines are available with a positioning
resolution of 0.001 mm (0.000040 in.) and can routinely obtain accuracies of } 0.007
mm ( } 0.003 in.). With special care, accuracies of } 0.0025 mm over 152 mm ( }
0.0001 in. over 6 in.) are possible. However, to achieve such results, care must be
taken to ensure the uniformity of the wire diameter, and the temperature and
resistivity of the dielectric must be closely controlled.
WEDM; Machined products

Wire EDM is used for cutting aluminium, brass, copper, carbides, graphite, steels
and titanium. The wire material varies with the application requirements. Example:
for quicker cutting action, zinc-coated brass wires are used while for more accurate
applications, molybdenum wires are used.
The process is used in the following areas:  Aerospace, Medical, Electronics and
Semiconductor applications
 Tool & Die making industries.
 For cutting the hard Extrusion Dies
 In making Fixtures, Gauges & Cams
 Cutting of Gears, Strippers, Punches and Dies
 Manufacturing hard Electrodes.
 Manufacturing micro-tooling for Micro-EDM, Micro-USM and such other
micromachining application
 Conclusion

Electric discharge machining (EDM) has become one of the most effective methods
of machining hard and brittle materials. To ensure proper machining characteristics,
it is essential that the discharge gap between the electrode and the tool be
maintained at a fixed value within a very small tolerance. Closed loop servo control
systems form the basis for automated gap control in modern EDM machines.
Conventional off-line techniques for electrohydraulic and electric motor driven
control systems have now been replaced by state of the art schemes like adaptive
control system, ACO system, model reference adaptive control system, self-tuning
servo regulator with PI control, fuzzy control etc. This enables, more accurate, more
stable and optimised operation of the control system for discharge gap monitoring
and control

MCQ POST-TEST

A thin metallic wire used in wire-cut EDM is kept submerged in a tank of _____
a) dielectric fluid
b) pure water
c) molten metal
d) kerosene

Wire-cut EDM can cut plates of thickness upto _____

a) 50mm
b) 100mm
c) 300mm
d) 500mm

In WEDM, the wire is held tight between_____

a) upper and lower nozzles
b) upper and lower diamond guides
c) upper and lower groves in the handle
d) upper and lower pulleys

The upper guide can move independently about_____

a) x-axis
b) y-axis
c) x-y-w axes
 Name of the Course : NTMP

Name of the Unit : Electrical Discharge Machining

Name of the Topic : Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING

S
AIM & OBJECTIVE
 To make the students understand the evolution of EDM process
 To provide student with knowledge on mechanism of EDM process
 To make the students learn about parametric analysis in EDM process
 To acquaint students with various process capabilities of EDM process
 To teach the students about various applications of EDM process

INTRODUCTION
 Electrical discharge machining (EDM) has become the most popular, non-
traditional, material removal process in today’s manufacturing practice.
 EDM enables one to machine extremely hard materials, and complex shapes
can be produced with high precision. Its inherent capability for automation is
another feature fulfilling the expectations of modern manufacturing.
 EDM is therefore mostly applied in the die and mold-making industry and in
the construction of prototypes. The advent of numerically controlled
equipment enabled various new EDM technologies such as deep sinking
EDM along several axes, contouring EDM, wire EDM and milling EDM.
 This, together with a higher performance and better accuracy, yielded a
functional expansion that is partially responsible for the growing interest in
EDM. Within the above-mentioned industries, EDM is mostly applied to
machine metals, such as high alloyed steels. One of the conditions required to
make EDM feasible is electrical conductivity of the material.
THEORY BEHIND

The principle of the EDM technique is to use thermoelectric energy to erode a

workpiece by rapidly recurring electrical discharges (sparks) between the non-
contacted electrode and workpiece. The spark current (Is) flows between the
electrode and the workpiece through the small distance between them, called as
“gap” that filled with dielectric fluid. Flushing the dielectric fluid during the
machining process carries away debris (removed solid particles) and restores the
sparking condition in the gap. No cutting forces are used between the electrode and
the workpiece as no contact exists between them. This condition eliminates vibration
or stresses during machining. Moreover, mechanical residual stresses are also
eliminated.
 EQUIPMENT
Power Supply

 The power supply is an important part of any EDM system. It transforms the
alternating current (AC) from the main utility electrical supply into the pulsed
direct current (DC) required to produce the spark discharges at the machining
gap.
 Sensing the voltage between the electrode and workpiece is an additional
function of the EDM power supply. Because a direct relationship exists
between this voltage and the electrode-workpiece gap, this signal is used to
control the servosystem, enabling it to maintain a constant gap distance
throughout the EDM cycle.
 To facilitate the selection of the optimum parameters for a wide range of
cutting conditions, EDM power supplies must be able to control pulse
voltage, current, pulse duration, duty cycle, pulse frequency, and electrode
polarity.
 An additional circuit used in most EDM power supplies is a cut-off or fault
protection circuit. If an over-voltage, overcurrent, or DC arc occur as a result
of a short circuit between the electrode and workpiece, the cut-off circuit
terminates the power and alerts the operator

Dielectric System
 The EDM dielectric system consists of the dielectric fluid, delivery devices,
pumps, and filters.
 Various fluids are able to provide the requisite properties of high viscosity
and high electrical resistance. The most popular fluids, in order of popularity,
are hydrocarbon oil (30-50 weight), silicon-based oils, and deionized water.
Deionized water is rarely used because, although it results in high material
removal rates and increased cooling capacity, it also results in undesirably
high electrode wear rates.
 Therefore, deionized water is most often used when drilling small diameter
holes while using wire as the electrode. In this application, the eroded portion
of the wire is usually trimmed off after each hole has been drilled to maintain
accuracy by presenting a fresh wire end for each new hole
 Regardless of the fluid being used, three functions are performed by the
dielectric fluid. It acts as an insulator between the electrode and workpiece, as
 a coolant to draw away the small amount of heat generated by the sparks, and
as a flushing medium to remove the metal by-products from the cutting gap.
Of the three dielectric fluid functions, flushing is by far the most critical for
optimum process efficiency. Poor flushing results in stagnation of the
dielectric fluid and a build-up of tiny machining residue particles in the gap.
Stagnation usually results in low material removal rates or short circuits.
 As shown in Fig. several methods are available for flushing the dielectric fluid
through the cutting zone. Either pressure or suction can be used with equally
good results. Fluid flow through a hole down the centre of the electrode is
often the easiest method, but when machining cavities and holes that do not
penetrate all the way through the workpiece, a protruding “bump” will be
generated in the bottom of the machined form. For example, the use of a piece
of thin-walled metal tubing to drill a flat-bottom hole will result in a hole with
a “spike” projecting from the bottom. To avoid this problem, solid electrodes
may be used or jet flushing may be incorporated
Electrodes

 The EDM electrode is the tool that determines the shape of the hole or cavity

ultimately generated. The most important considerations pertaining to

electrode selection are the electrode material and design.

 Many materials have been successfully used for EDM applications. The

common requirements for candidate materials are that they be readily

available, easily machinable, exhibit low wear, be electrically conductive, and

provide good surface finishes on the workpiece.

 Copper and brass are two commonly used materials that meet most of these

criteria, although they exhibit a relatively high wear rate. Copper tungsten

provides much lower rates but is a more difficult material to machine. If

justified by production rates, techniques are available for melding electrodes

from this material.

 Graphite and copper graphite are by far the most versatile electrode materials.

Both are easily machined and are available in various grades for application

to all workpiece materials. Because the temperature at which graphite

vaporizes is so much higher than any metal, the wear rates of graphite

electrodes are extremely low.

SERVOSYSTEM

 The servosystem is commanded by signals from the gap voltage sensor

system in the power supply and controls the infeed of the electrode or
workpiece to precisely match the rate of material removal. If the gap voltage
sensor system determines that a piece of electrically conductive material has
bridged the gap between the electrode and workpiece, the servosystem will
react by reversing direction until the dielectric fluid flushes the gap clear.
When the gap is clear, the infeed resumes and cutting continues.

 The selection of the dielectric-flushing technique has a direct effect on the

function of the servosystem. If the flushing technique being used is inefficient
in removing the process by-products from the cutting gap, the servosystem
may have to spend most of the time reversing to clear the cutting gap. This
results in extremely long cycles. However, if the flushing technique being
used effectively removes the by-products, the servosystem will spend almost
no time retracting, resulting in much faster cycles.

 The need to contend with the obvious drawbacks of manual refeeding was
eliminated with the introduction of automatic electrode-refeeding systems
such as the one shown in Fig.
 Automatic electrode refeed systems consist of an additional feed axis, known
as the antishort slide, and a detachable wire spool-drive cartridge. As
illustrated in Fig. six sequential operational steps take place during electrode
refeed. The refeed sequence begins with the retraction of the wire through the
motion of the antishort slide after a hole has been drilled.
 Next, indexing takes place to position the electrode and refeed assembly at
the proper location on the next component or onto a fresh surface of the same
component.
 The antishort slide then activates the end of the electrode to position near the
workpiece, as shown in position 2 of the sequence. The wire drive rollers then
 activate to move the electrode toward the workpiece until contact is detected
by a continuity circuit. Upon contact, the wire drive motor stops and the
antishort
 axis moves the electrode away from the workpiece surface to position 4. At
this point, the EDM power is activated and the servofeed axis moves the
electrode through the workpiece until the full penetration depth is achieved,
as indicated in position 5. After the drilling cycle is completed, the servofeed
axis retracts to position 6 , and the cycle is repeated at the next location.
 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS

 The selection of EDM parameters is important in determining the accuracy

and surface finish obtained for a particular application. Parameters are
manually selected on most EDM systems, although some recently available
systems use CNC units or programmable controllers to adjust and match
parameters for various applications.
 Figure illustrates the effect of increasing the current. As current is increased,
each individual spark removes a larger crater of metal from the workpiece.
Although the net effect is an increase in material removal rates, when holding
all other parameters constant it also has the effect of increasing surface
roughness. The same effect is also observed when spark voltage is raised.
 Electrical discharge machining equipment is available that is able to operate
between 0.5 and 400 amp and with voltages ranging from 40 to 400 V DC.
Increasing spark frequency and holding all other parameters constant, as
shown in Fig. results in a decrease in surface roughness.
 This is because the energy available for material removal during a given
period is shared by a larger number of sparks, hence the corresponding crater
size is reduced. The frequency capability of EDM machines ranges from a low
of 180 Hz when performing roughing cuts, to a high of several hundred
kilohertz when generating the fine finishes required for finishing cuts.
The gap between the electrode and workpiece is determined by the spark voltage
and current. Typical values for the gap range from 0.012 to 0.050 mm (0.0005 to 0.002
in.). The smaller the gap, the closer the accuracy with a better finish and slower
material removal rate.
As the gap decreases, efficient flushing becomes difficult to achieve. Increasing the
pulse duration of the sparks has the effect of increasing the removal rate, increasing
the surface roughness, and decreasing the electrode wear. The values of pulse
duration available with currently available EDM machines range from a few
microseconds to several milliseconds

PROCESS CAPABILITIES

 Electrical discharge machining is capable of machining all electrically

conductive materials regardless of hardness. The process is particularly well
suited to drilling irregularly shaped holes, slots, and cavities and is also well
suited for simultaneously drilling many small holes of one or multiple
diameters.
 This is a precision process with accuracies of } 0.025- } 0.127 mm ( } 0.001-
} 0.005 in.) easily achieved. With special care, accuracies as fine as } 0.007
mm ( } 0.0003 in.) are obtainable.
 Taper is affected by electrode wear and, when it cannot be accepted to any
large degree for a particular application, it can be nearly eliminated by using
separate electrodes for roughing and finishing passes. Depending upon the
parameters and finishing techniques employed, taper can range from 0.005-
0.05 mm/cm (0.0005-0.005 in./in.).
 When applying EDM for drilling small holes, aspect ratios up to 30:1 can be
obtained through thicknesses as great as 50 mm (2 in.). By using optimum
flushing techniques, aspect ratios up to 1 0 0 : 1 can be achieved.
 Because of the noncontact nature of the EDM process, angles as shallow as 2 0
° from the surface can be drilled in workpieces regardless of hardness or
geometry.
  Volumetric material removal rates with the EDM process range from
approximately 0.016-1.6 cm^/hr (0.001-0.1 in. ^/hr). The removal rate
realized for a particular application strongly depends upon the selection of
the parameters such as power, dielectric, and electrode mate

EDM: Machined products

 Hardened steel dies, stamping tools, wire drawing and extrusion dies, header dies,

forging dies, intricate mould cavities and such parts are made by the EDM process.
 The process is widely used for machining of exotic materials that are used in
aerospace and automatic industries.
 EDM being a non-contact type of machining process, it is very well suited for
making fragile parts which cannot take the stress of machining. The parts that fit
such profiles include washing machine agitators; electronic components, printer
parts and difficult to machine features such as the honeycomb shapes.
 Deep cavities, slots and ribs can be easily made by EDM as the cutting forces are
less and longer electrodes can be used to make such collets, jet engine blade slots,
mould cooling slots etc.  Micro-EDM process can successfully produce micro-pins,
micro-nozzles and micro-cavities.
 Conclusion

Electric discharge machining (EDM) has become one of the most effective methods
of machining hard and brittle materials. To ensure proper machining characteristics,
it is essential that the discharge gap between the electrode and the tool be
maintained at a fixed value within a very small tolerance. Closed loop servo control
systems form the basis for automated gap control in modern EDM machines.
Conventional off-line techniques for electrohydraulic and electric motor driven
control systems have now been replaced by state-of-the-art schemes like adaptive
control system, ACO system, model reference adaptive control system, self-tuning
servo regulator with PI control, fuzzy control etc. This enables, more accurate, more
stable and optimised operation of the control system for discharge gap monitoring
and control

MCQ POST-TEST

Which of the following shapes can be produced using Electro discharge machining?
a) Complex shapes
b) Simple shapes
c) All of the mentioned
d) None of the mentioned

Which of the following materials can be machined using Electro discharge

machining?
a) Heat resistant alloys
b) Super alloys
c) Carbides
d) All of the mentioned

Which of the following are the applications of Electro discharge machining?

a) Holes
b) Slots
c) Texturing
d) All of the mentioned

State whether the following statement is true or false regarding the applications of
EDM. “In advanced machining processes, the incorporation of EDM with CIM
increased the length of time for unit operation.”
a) True
b) False
 Name of the Course : NTMP

Name of the Unit : Chemical Machining

Name of the Topic : Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)

ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING

S
AIM & OBJECTIVE
 To make the students understand the evolution of ECM process
 To provide student with knowledge on mechanism of ECM process
 To make the students learn about parametric analysis in ECM process
 To acquaint students with various process capabilities of ECM process
 To teach the students about various applications of ECM process

INTRODUCTION
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is an unconventional machining process where
material removal is accomplished through controlled anodic dissolution of
workpiece. ECM has been identified as a potential process energy which has the
capability to undergo hybridization with other process energies. Several hybrid
machining processes are resorting to ECM as one of the candidate processes because
of the following advantages of ECM:
 Independent of workpiece hardness.
 Complex shapes can be machined.
 ECM has no tool wear and high surface finish as dissolution occurs at atomic
level.
 Material removal rates can be controlled from electrical parameters (voltage,
current, energy) and pulse characteristics (pulse frequency, on time, duration,
duty cycle).
 Process forces and size effects don’t come into picture
PREREQUISITES

 Basics of conventional Machining process

 Basics of application of Electro-chemistry

PRE-TEST

Fe or steel is ____ with respect to copper.

A. Anodic B. Cathodic C. Corrosive D. Non corrosive
Al is _________ than Zn.
A. Less anodic B. More anodic C. Less Cathodic D. More Cathodic
Zn is more ________ than Fe.
A. Electronegative B. Corrosive C. Electropositive D. None of above 85. Required
potential for protecting metal / alloy can be obtained from its _______.
A. Potential current curve B. Protecting curve C. Potential curve D. None of above
Coating applied must be chemically __________ to the environment.
A. Inert B. Reactive C. Soluble D. Non reactive

THEORY BEHIND

In chemical machining, the material is removed from specified areas of metal

workpiece by chemical etching solution. Here, the metal part is immersed in strong
etchant solutions like alkaline and acid solutions, FeCl3, HF, etc. which depends on
types of materials to be machined such as copper, aluminum, etc. Chemical reagents
react with the metal in the solution and produce the required features. Before
machining, the workpiece is cleaned properly and coated with chemically inert
maskant apart from the specified areas onto where the etching is to be occurred.
Coating materials allow the chemical solution for dissolving and penetrating the
required specified areas of workpiece. The etchant solution removes the material by
controlled chemical reactions from whole exposed areas of metal where the material
removal rate differs from 0.0024 to 0.01mm/min. But, the main limitation is
observed in the characteristics of isotropic etching where the etchant will remove the
material not only from downwards of the metal but also sideways below the resist
layer. The ratio of the depth to the undercut is termed as the “etch factor” and can be
determined in case of one and two sided CM operation as shown in

The amount of generated undercut in the etched surface is a function of many factors
including type and strength of the etchant and workpiece material and depth of cut.
For compensation of undercut, it may be recovered during selective masking of
workpiece and controlling process variables to obtain the proper final size of
component. The depth of cut can be accurately controlled by immersion time in the
etchant solution. During etching time, gas bubbles are generated. If the gas bubbles
are trapped on workpiece, these bubbles may insulate the work surface during
etching resulting nonuniform material removal from workpiece. Therefore, to avoid
these difficulties, workpieces are tilted for escaping the bubbles from the workpiece.
Chemical machining is a prolonged process, but it can produce contours, complex
shapes, pockets, etc. Chemical machining process includes chemical blanking where
chemical reaction is performed on thin sheets, chemical milling, photochemical
machining, etc. The process parameters such as type and method of applying
maskant, method for circulation of etchant, type and temperature of etchant, etc. can
affect the performance of chemical machining process. The material removal
mechanism has been shown in Fig. 5.1.2. CM process has different steps, i.e., job
preparation, coating with masking material, scribing of the mask, etching and
cleaning masking material for generating the précised parts and these different steps
of CM discussed here under:
(i) Job preparation: The workpiece is cleaned properly at the starting of chemical
machining process. The grease, oil, rust, dust or any substance are removed
from the surface of workpiece material. Proper cleaning operation creates the
better adhesion bonding between the job and masking material. Two types of
cleaning methods are available, one is chemical and other is mechanical
methods. The chemical method is most extensively used as a cleaning
procedure due to it produces less damage comparing to mechanical method
Ultrasonic cleaning machine is also utilized for cleaning the workpiece using special cleaning
solution and heating is advantageous during the cleaning operation.
(ii) Coating with masking material: The insulation operation is carried out in the
next step on cleaned workpiece. The selected coating material must be
readily strippable insulation, which has enough adhesion strength to
withstand the chemical abrasion during reactions and it is chemically
impregnable.
(iii) Scribing of the mask: This step is directed by templates to expose the
unmasked areas for chemical etching. The selection of mask material
depends upon some specific factors such as the number of parts to be
produced, the desired geometry and the size of the workpiece material. Silk-
screen masks are chosen for shallow cuts requiring close dimensional
tolerances.
(iv) Etching: This step is the most vital stage to generate the required parts from
the workpiece. The immerse type etching machine is used to carried out this
operation as shown in Fig. 5.1.3. The workpiece is immersed into selected
etchant and the unexposed areas are machined to produce the required
shape. The etching operation is conducted in the specific temperature which
depends on the etched material. Then the machined workpiece is cleaned for
removing the etchant from the machined zone.
(v) Cleaning masking material: The last step is to remove the masking material
from machined workpiece. Before packaging the finished part, the
inspections of the surface quality and dimensions are accomplished [10].

A schematic view of an entire ECM system is shown in Fig. The major subsystems
are: the machine tool with power supply, the electrolyte system, and the shaped tool.
The ECM machines are available in either vertical, horizontal, or combined
configurations depending upon the application. Figure 9.4 shows a large,
40,000-amp vertical ECM machine and Fig. 9.5 shows a 20,000-amp horizontal
machine. A computer-controlled, 20,000-amp tri-ram ECM system used for making
turbine blades is shown in Fig. 9.6. This system incorporates three horizontally
opposed ECM rams which machine two air foil surfaces and the blade attachment
area simultaneously.
The ECM machines are often characterized by their enormous size. The very solid
construction is necessary to withstand deflection while containing the forces
generated by the high electrolyte flow. Although the electrolyte pressures
themselves are not great, when they are applied to a large surface the resulting force
can be tremendous. For example, when an electrolyte pressure of 1.4 MPa (200 psi) is
applied to a surface the size of a sheet of writing paper, a total force is generated that
exceeds 9000 kg (20,000 lb).
it was mentioned that the tool-to-workpiece gap was approximately 0.25 mm (0.010
in.) and must be maintained constant throughout the ECM cycle. This is
accomplished by utilizing a servo drive on the tool feed axis. (Special low-tolerance
applications where very shallow operations are being performed may be
accomplished without using a tool feed.) The servodrive system must be powerful
enough to resist deflection by the electrolyte pressure and maintain a constant gap
Occasionally, deposits may build up in the gap or the tool may come too close to the
workpiece resulting in a short circuit. Because of the high current used, a short
circuit will usually destroy both the tool and the workpiece. The amount of damage
sustained by a short circuit is a function of the energy of the spark that is produced,
i.e., it is determined by the current, voltage, and spark duration. The only one of
these parameters that can be controlled for the purpose of short-circuit protection is
the duration of the spark. Solid-state devices are available which, upon sensing a
short circuit, will disconnect the power supply in less than 10-20 fisec. If power is
removed in a period this short, the tool and workpiece will receive a spark so small
that they will probably not have to be scrapped.
The corrosive nature of ECM electrolytes promotes special considerations for ECM
machines. Any portion of the machine or tooling that comes in contact with the
electrolyte must be made of stainless steel, plastic, or other corrosion-resistant
materials. Drive units, such as ball screws and motors, must be protected by sealing
and may even require positive pressurization with dry, clean air. The ECM machines
should not be located near equipment such as Inspection devices or machine tools
that may be exposed to electrolyte mists and consequently ruined. Operators are
protected by automatically operating plexiglass shields that seal the machine work
chamber during the ECM cycle. Provisions for removal of the hydrogen gas
generated by the process are made with simple explosion-proof blowers that
continuously purge the work chamber Electrochemical machining machines are
available in a wide variety of sizes and configurations. Depending upon the selected
options, a typical ECM machine costs between 100,000 and 400,000 dollars.
Electrolytes
The function of the electrolyte in ECM is to act as a conductor to carry current, to
remove the products of the electrochemical reaction from the gap, and to remove the
heat generated by the process. Electrolytes can be divided into two classes — those
composed of inorganic salts that produce insoluble by-products (known as sludging
electrolytes), and those composed of acids or alkalis that result in by-products that
do go into solution (known as nonsludging electrolytes). Sodium chloride,
potassium chloride, sodium nitrate, and sodium chlorate are some of the inorganic
salts used as sludging electrolytes. The selection of the particular chemical used as
the electrolyte is based upon the workpiece material, the tool material, and the
application. Sodium chloride is the most commonly used electrolyte because of low
cost and because its conductivity is stable over a broad pH range. However sodium
chloride is also very corrosive, produces a large amount of sludge, and cannot be
used on tungsten carbide or molybdenum. Sodium nitrate is also popular. This
material is much less corrosive and is good for the machining of aluminum or
copper. Sodium nitrate however has the problem of causing passivity of the
workpiece (an oxide layer build-up which slows the electrolytic process) and does
not produce surface finishes as fine as sodium chloride. While nonsludging
electrolytes such as sulfuric acid or sodium hydroxide do not produce the large
amounts of sludge that the Inorganic salts do, their chemistry must be closely
controlled to realize repeatable results, otherwise they have a tendency to plate the
tools. For certain specific materials (such as molybdenum), the nonsludging
electrolytes produce the best results.

All electrolytes must be cooled to remove waste heat and maintain

temperature. The electrical conductivity of an electrolyte changes as a function of
temperature. For example, sodium chloride increases its conductivity by 100% when
the temperature is increased from 24 to 71 °C (75 to 160°F).
Sludging electrolytes produce insoluble hydroxides or hydrated oxides at the
rate of 100-150 cm3 of sludge per cubic centimetre of material removed. A properly
functioning electrolyte should have no more than 2% sludge content by weight. The
sludge in an electrolyte generally takes the form of tiny particles, some of which are
as small as 1 µ
It is always less expensive to purify the electrolyte than to use it once and
dispose of it; thus, several methods of purification are available. Most ECM
operations incorporate one or more or the following purification systems: filtration,
settling, and/or centrifuge. Filtration techniques can vary from simple, disposable
cartridge filters to elaborate filter presses that capture the sludge in a reusable
pleated cloth-type filter. When the filter is full, the pleated cloth is squeezed to
remove moisture and to compress the sludge into easily removed “cakes.” Large
ECM operations may use settling tanks the size of large swimming pools. The
electrolyte is directed to the tank from the machine where the heavier sludge
particles settle because of gravity. Periodic draining of the tank allows manual
removal of the sludge. The last technique involves the use of centrifuges to separate
the sludge by its mass. As no one system works perfectly, it is common to use more
than one system on a single machine
Electrochemical Machining Tools
The criteria for a good ECM tool material is that it be a good electrical and thermal
conductor, be easily machinable, resist chemicals, exhibit good stiffness (to resist the
high electrolyte pressures), and be easily obtained. Table lists materials that are
acceptable. The most commonly used materials are copper, brass, and stainless steel .

Tool design is still largely empirical and must allow for an overcut of 0.025-0.76 mm
(0.001-0.030 in.) over all active surfaces. Tools must be designed to provide for
proper electrolyte flow through the gap. If areas of stagnation occur, surface finish
will be poor and striations or ridges may be produced in the workpiece surface.
Defects in the tool, such as bumps or pits, will be transferred in reverse image onto
the workpiece if they are not removed. Using proper design techniques, multiple
details may be machined simultaneously with one tool. As many as 50 small holes
have been simultaneously produced with a multiple-tool design. For simple
operations, such as drilling round holes, tools are available off-the-shelf from
manufacturers. Figure 9.7 shows drawings of tools that are designed to operate with
reverse electrolyte flow and variable backpressure. Reverse-flow tooling greatly
reduces the occurrence of nonuniform material removal and sludge-induced short
circuits.The high electrolyte backpressure that results from the reverse flow causes
the hydrogen bubbles in the gap to decrease in size, thus increasing the conduct ivity
and the feed rate. These effects however are diminished when the backpressure
exceeds 0.5 MPa (80 psi)
 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS

The chemical reactions that take place in ECM depend upon the particular
combination of workpiece material and the type of electrolyte being used. For
example, when iron is machined with a sodium chloride electrolyte, the resulting
chemical reaction is:
2Fe + 4 H2 O + 0 2 = 2Fe (OH) 3 + H2 Eq. 9.1
The by-products of the ECM process in this case would be hydrogen gas and
Fe(OH)3 , a reddish-brown sludge. To assure constant operating conditions, the
sludge must be continously removed from the electrolyte. For safety, the hydrogen
must be vented to avoid explosion. The sodium chlorchloride salt does not appear
in the equation because it is not consumed in the process.
The ECM removal rate, which is independent of material hardness, is primarily
controlled by current density. Electrochemical machining machines are available that
deliver currents from 50 to 40,000 amp. The machine used for a particular
application must have sufficient current available to maintain a current density of 8-
233 amp/cm2 (50-1500 amp/in2) at the workpiece. When all other variables are held
constant, the tool penetration rate is directly proportional to the current density.
Typical ECM removal rates can be characterized by the rule of-thumb relationship;
1.6 cm3 (o.l in.3) of material removed per minute for every 1000 amp of current. This
rate varies very little from material to material.
Current density is controlled not only by the amount of current that the
power supply is delivering, but also by the size of the gap between the tool and the
workpiece. A small gap results in the highest current density. The gap may be as
small as 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) or as large as 0.76 mm (0.030 in.), the gap size most
often used to be 0.25 mm (0.010 in.). When the gap is very small, there is a danger of
sludge particles bridging the gap between the tool and workpiece and causing a
short circuit. When the gap is too large, current density is reduced, resulting in a
poor surface finish and a decrease in material removal rate. The velocity of the
electrolyte flow through the gap is also an important parameter affecting the surface
finish and removal rate. Under normal operation, the electrolyte flow may be
between 15 and 60 m/sec (50 and 200 ft/sec). If the electrolyte velocity is too low, the
heat and by-products of the reaction (hydrogen gas bubbles and sludge) build in the
gap causing nonuniform material removal. A velocity that is too high will cause
cavitation, also promoting uneven material removal. In addition, increased
electrolyte velocities require larger electrolyte pumps that add capital cost to the
system. A rule-of-thumb relationship for determining electrolyte flow when using
sodium chloride, one of the most popular electrolytes, is 0.95 L/min (0.25 gal/min)
for every 100 amp. Electrolyte pressure and temperature also play an important role
in controlling the process. The electrolyte pressure is dependent upon the flow rate
and varies between 69 KPa and 2.7 MPa (10 and 400 psi), depending upon the
application. The temperature of the electrolyte can be between 24 and 65°C (75 and
150°F), but the selected temperature must be maintained within a few degrees
because electrical conductivity and process repeatability are affected by these
changes.
Depending upon the selection of the parameters, feed rates for most applications are
between 0.5 and 19 mm/min (0.020 and 0.750 in./min). The amount of overcut that
occurs at the sides of the ECM tool is dependent upon the feed rate. A low feed rate
will produce a large overcut, and conversely, a high feed rate will reduce the amount
of overcut. At this point, it is interesting to note the relationship between several of
these ECM parameters, namely current density, feed rate, and overcut. As the
current density is increased, the feed rate increases (to maintain a constant cutting
gap), the overcut is reduced, and the surface finish is improved. Table 9.1
summarizes the major ECM process variables and their ranges.

PROCESS CAPABILITIES

Under ideal conditions, ECM is capable of producing tolerances of

approximately }0.012 mm (} 0.0005 in.), although in daily production the number is
closer to } 0.05 mm (0.002 in.). The typical overcut at the side of tools is
approximately 0.12 mm (0.005 in.). Depending upon the tool design being used,
taper can be held to 0.025 mm/mm (0.001 in./in.). Surface finish is dependent upon
the workpiece material, the type of tool used, the electrolyte flow, and the current
density. Usually, the surface finish at the tip of an ECM tool will be 0.1-1.5 ju (4-63)
juin. The side of the tools may produce surface finishes as rough as 5 JU (200 juin.)
because of low current density.

ECM: Machined products

CM has wide range of applications ranging from small to very large workpieces for
generating desired shape profiles. Some of the typical applications are identified
below:
(i) CM is greatly applicable for generating the metallic parts like enclosure
screens, recording heads, instrument panels, semiconductor device, printed
circuit boards (PCB), integrated circuit (IC) and other circuit devices to be
utilized in electronics industry.
(ii) Chemical machining is applied to etch different metals such as titanium,
copper, nickel, aluminum and its alloys as well as various types of non metal
components like glass, plastic, ceramics, etc.
(iii) This process is employed for producing shallow cavities and holes over large
surface area, contours, pockets, depression, machining of edges of sheet
metal, and engraving on metal workpiece.
(iv) Machining of huge work surfaces like airplane wing to tiny workpiece like IC
chips, and fabrication of stainless steel edge filter by photochemical
machining, batch size production of various other components in chemical
and missile industries.
(v) Other popular applications of chemical machining engage minimizing
thickness of ribs, webs and walls of components produced by conventional
process, narrow cuts in large thin sheets applicable in aerospace industries,
etc.
(vi) Photochemical machining has provided a quick response service to deliver
the components to electrical, electronic and mechanical engineering
industries. The demand is growing day by day for utilization of CM or PCM
to fabricate on thin, complex and precision parts due to its economical
consideration. Some prime examples are TV shadow aperture masks,
integrated circuit leadframes, disk drive suspension head assemblies and
etched gaskets in mob

60mm wide integrated circuit lead frames

 Conclusion

The Conclusions delivered from the experiment are summarized as below:

1. The machining process is carried out ion by ion so it is possible to machine
intricate shapes and sizes.
2. The machining can be carried out for any material irrespective of its hardness.
3. As there is no tool contact with work piece the important post process defects
such as thermal damage, stresses, tool wear does not exist and smooth surface
is obtained
 Name of the Course : NTMP

Name of the Unit : High energy Machining process

Name of the Topic : Plasma Arc Machining

PLAMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)

S
AIM & OBJECTIVE
 To make the students understand the evolution of PAM process
 To provide student with knowledge on mechanism of PAM process
 To make the students learn about parametric analysis in PAM process
 To acquaint students with various process capabilities of PAM process
 To teach the students about various applications of PAM process

INTRODUCTION
Plasma-arc machining (PAM) employs a high-velocity jet of high-temperature gas to
melt and displace material in its path. Called PAM, this is a method of cutting metal
with a plasma-arc, or tungsten inert-gas-arc, torch. The torch produces a high-
velocity jet of high-temperature ionized gas called plasma that cuts by melting and
removing material from the workpiece. Temperatures in the plasma zone range from
20,000° to 50,000° F (11,000° to 28,000° C).
Solids, liquids, and gases are the three familiar states of matter. In general,
when solid is heated, it turns to liquids and the liquids eventually become gases.
When a gas is heated to sufficiently high temperature, the atoms (molecules) are split
into free electrons and ions. The dynamical properties of this gas of free electrons
and ions are sufficiently different from the normal unionized gas. So, it can be
considered a fourth state of matter, and is given a new name, PLASMA’. In other
words, when the following gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature of the
order of 11,000°C to 28,000°C, it becomes partially ionized and it is known as
‘PLASMA’. This is a mixture of free electrons, positively charged ions, and neutral
atoms.

PREREQUISITES

 Basics of conventional Machining process

 Basics of application of PLASMA

MCQ Pre-test

Sun is heated by which source…

A. atoms
B. fission
C. ions
D. nuclear fusion

Plasma and light produce electric current when passed through…

A. sulphur
B. hydrogen
C. oxygen
D. neon gas

Plasma is created by Magnetic fields which is known as…

A. stable state
B. shifted state
C. metastable state
D. all of above
4. Plasma is discovered by which English Scientist…
A. William Crookes
B. Wilson
C. Watson
D. None of above

Particle accelerators and lasers are used to drive…

A. motors
B. fans
C. Plasma
D. Cars
THEORY BEHIND
In the plasma arc machining process, the material is removed by directing a high-velocity jet
of high temperature (11000°C to 28,000°C) ionized gas on the workpiece. This high-
temperature plasma jet melts the material of the workpiece.
The schematic arrangement of plasma arc machining is shown in Fig. The plasma arc
cutting torch carries a tungsten electrode fitted in a small chamber. This electrode is
connected to the negative terminal of a DC power supply. So, it acts as a cathode.
The positive terminal of a D.C power supply is connected to the nozzle formed near
the bottom of the chamber. So, nozzle acts as an anode. A small passage is provided
on one side of the torch for supplying gas into the chamber. Since there is a water
circulation around the torch, the electrode and the nozzle remains water-cooled.

 When a D.C power is given to the circuit, a strong arc is produced between
the electrode (cathode) and the nozzle (anode).
 A gas usually hydrogen (H2) or Nitrogen (N2) is passed into the chamber.
 This gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature of the order of
11,000°C to 28,000°C by using an electric arc produced between the
electrode and the nozzle.
 In this high temperature, the gases are ionized and a large amount of
thermal energy is liberated.
 This high velocity and high-temperature ionized gas (plasma) is directed
on the workpiece surface through the nozzle.
 This plasma jet melts the metal of the workpiece and the high-velocity gas
stream effectively blows the molten metal away.
  The heating of workpiece material is not due to any chemical reaction, but
due. to the continuous attack of plasma on the workpiece material. So, it
can be safely used for machining of any metal including those which can
be subjected to the chemical reaction.

Plasma Gun

Gases are used to create plasma-like, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen, or a mixture of

these gases. The plasma gun consists of a tungsten electrode fitted in the chamber.
The electrode is given negative polarity and the nozzle of the gun is given positive
polarity. The supply of gases is maintained into the gun. A strong arc is established
between the two terminals anode and cathode. There is a collision between
molecules of gas and electrons of the established arc. As a result of this collision, gas
molecules get ionized and heat is evolved. This hot and ionized gas called plasma is
directed to the workpiece with high velocity. The established arc is controlled by the
supply rate of gases.

Power Supply and Terminals

Power supply (DC) is used to develop two terminals in the plasma gun. A tungsten
electrode is inserted to the gun and made cathode and nozzle of the gun is made
anode. Heavy potential difference is applied across the electrodes to develop a
plasma state of gases.

Cooling Mechanism

As we know that hot gases continuously come out of nozzle so there are chances of
its overheating. A water jacket is used to surround the nozzle to avoid its
overheating.
Tooling
There is no direct visible tool used in PAM. Focused spray of ho0t, plasma state
gases works as a cutting tool.
 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS

These are parameters that characterize the properties of the laser beam which
include the wavelength, power, intensity and spot size, continue wave and pulsed
power, beam polarization, types of beam, characteristics of beam, beam mode.
Wavelength
The wavelength depends on the transitions in the process of stimulated emission
with respect to the physical mechanisms involves in energy coupling and the process
efficiency, stability and quality, the wavelength plays a most decisive role. It has
important effect on material ‘s surface absorptivity. For a specific material type, there
is a certain wavelength which can have maximum absorption of laser energy with a
lowest reflection. Due to the shorter wavelength of fiber lasers (in the range of 1 μm
almost the same as Nd-YAG laser) compared to CO2 lasers (10.6μm), it leads to the
higher absorption in metallic material.
Power, intensity and spot size
The size of a laser system is usually specified in the term of power. The power of
laser system is the total energy emitted in the form of laser light per second. Without
sufficient power, cutting cannot be started. The intensity of the laser beam is the
power divided by the area over which the power is concentrated. The high intensity
of laser beam causes rapid heating of the material, which means that little time is
available for heat to dissipate into the surrounding material. Additionally, the
reflectivity of most metals is much lower at high intensities, compared to the low
beam intensity. Moreover, the intensity determines the thickness of material which
can be cut. Spot size is the irradiated area of laser beam. In laser cutting application,
it is required to focus beam into minimum spot size. Due to the better beam quality
of fiber laser with very low divergence, the user can get spot diameters smaller than
conventional lasers producing longer working distances.
Continuous wave (CW) and pulsed laser power
Both the continuous wave and pulsed laser power can achieve the high intensity
needed for laser cutting.
Process Parameters
These are parameters that characterize the properties of the laser beam which
include focusing of laser beams, focal position and dual focus lens, process gas and
pressure, nozzle diameter, stand-off distance and alignment, and cutting speed.
Focusing of Laser Beams
The focal length of lens is about the distance from the position of focal lens to the
focal spot. In the fiber laser system, the laser beam is delivered by the fiber optics
and use a collimator to form the divergent laser beam. After that, it comes to the
focusing lens or mirror and it focuses the parallel laser beam onto the work piece.
The cutting process requires the spot size is small enough to produce the high
intensity power. The focal length of the lens has a large impact on size of the focal
spot and the beam intensity in the spot [03,4}.
Focal Position
In order to get optimum cutting result, the focal point position must be controlled.
There are two reasons: the first reason is that the small spot size obtained by
focusing the laser beam results in a short depth of focus, so the focal point has to be
positioned rather precisely with respect to the surface of the work piece; the other
one is differences in material and thickness may require focus point position
alterations [4]. Process Gas and Pressure
The process gas has five principle functions during laser cutting. An inert gas such
as nitrogen expels molten material without allowing drops to solidify on the
underside (dross) while an active gas such as oxygen participates in an exothermic
reaction with the material. The gas also acts to suppress the formation of plasma
when cutting thick sections with high beam intensities and focusing optics are
protected from spatter by the gas flow. The cut edge is cooled by the gas flow thus
restricting the width of the HAZ. The commonly used gases are the oxygen and
nitrogen. Nitrogen is mainly used for stainless steel and aluminum, whereas the
oxygen is used for mild steel [3, 4]. In the process of oxygen cutting, the presence of
oxygen contributes to an exothermic reaction, which effectively increases the laser
power. It results into high cutting speeds and the ability to cut thick material. When
cutting thick material, the gas pressure must decrease with the increasing thickness,
in order to avoid the burning effect, whereas the nozzle diameter is increased [3, 4].
Nozzle Diameter, Stand-Off Distance
Nozzle is used to deliver the assist gas. The nozzle has three main functions in the
laser cutting process: to ensure that the gas is coaxial with the beam; to reduce the
pressure to minimize lens movements and misalignments; and to stabilize the
pressure on the work piece surface to minimize turbulence in the melt pool [3, 4].
The stand-off distance, which is the distance between the nozzle and the work piece,
is also an important parameter. The stand-off distance is usually selected in the same
range as the diameter of cutting nozzle-between 0.5 and 1.5 mm-in order to
minimize turbulence. A short stand-off distance provides stable cutting conditions,
although the risk of damage to the lens from spatter is increased. The stand-off
distance is optimized to maximum the cutting speed and quality [3, 4].
Cutting Speed
The cutting speed must be balanced with the gas flow rate and the power. As cutting
speed increases, the cutting time decreases and less time for the heat to diffuse
sideways and the narrower the HAZ. The kerf is also reduced due to the need to
deposit acertain amount of energy to cause melting. However, striations on the cut
edge become more prominent, dross is more likely to remain on the underside and
penetration is lost. When the cutting speed is too low, excessive burning of the cut
edge occurs, which degrades edge quality and increases the width of the HAZ. In
general, cutting speed for a material is inversely proportional to the thickness.
 PROCESS CAPABILITIES

Plasma arc cutting is best known for its ability to cut very thick materials, up to ISO-
mm (6 -in.) thick. However, most applications lie in the thickness range of 3-75 mm
(1/8-3 in.). The thickness of the material being cut directly affects the cutting speed.
For example, a rough estimate of the cutting speeds that can be achieved when using
a 500-amp PAC system
Cutting speed is also influenced by the type of material being cut. Aluminum will
cut about 25% faster than steel at a given set of parameters (Landry, 1984). In
general, cutting speeds for PAC are typically five to eight times faster than oxy/fuel
cutting methods. Tables list PAC operating parameters for various materials and
thicknesses when cut with water injected systems. The tolerances that can be
achieved with PAC are approximately } 0.8 mm ( } 1/32 in.) in thicknesses of less
than 25 mm (1 in.) and } 3 mm ( } 1/8 in.) when thicknesses are greater than 25
mm (1 in.). The kerfwidth is typically twice that of oxy/fuel cutting — 2.5-9.S mm
(0.100-0.375 in.) Taper can vary with parameters but is generally 5-7° when swirl
injection is not being used.
Good results are difficult to achieve when cutting corners with PAC. When
attempting to cut sharp outside corners the PAC torch must be allowed to dwell or
slow down at the centre of the corner to allow time for the plasma “flame” to catch
up to the torch motion. The tendency for the plasma stream to lag around corners is
known as following error. Sharp inside corners cannot be obtained with PAC because
of the relatively wide diameter of the plasma stream.
LBM: Machined products

 It is used for cutting alloy steels, stainless steel, cast iron, copper, nickel,
titanium, aluminum, and alloy of copper and nickel, etc.
 It is used for profile cutting.
 It is successfully used for turning and milling of hard to machine materials.
 It can be used for stack cutting, shape cutting, piercing, and underwater
cutting.\
 Uniform thin film spraying of refractory materials on different metals,
plastics, ceramics are also done by plasma arcs.
 Conclusion

In the latest field of technology respect to welding and machining, plasma arc
welding and machining have a huge success. Plasma arc machining (PAM) is one of
the widely used unconventional machining method that is capable of producing the
complex shapes. There are certain process parameters such as gas pressure, cutting
speed, arc voltage, arc current, standoff distance and gas flow rate that affect the
quality distinctiveness of plasma cut like bevel angle, heat affected zone (HAZ), kerf
generated and surface finish. Due to its improved weld quality and increased weld
output it is been used for precision welding of surgical instruments, to automatic
repair of jet engine blades to the manual welding for repair of components in the
tool, die and mould industry. PAM and its assisted processes as well as optimization
techniques, which made some new research scopes in the PAM. But due to its high
equipment expense and high production of ozone, its been outnumbered by other
advance welding equipment’s like laser beam welding and electron beam welding.
Developments in modelling techniques have made new research scopes in the PAM
and improves the performance of PAM process

MCQ POST-TEST

What is the full form of PBM in the advanced machining processes?

a) Plasma Beam Manufacturing

b) Plasma Beam Machining
c) Plasma Blast Manufacturing
d) Plasma Blast Machining

When the Plasma Beam machining process came into the industrial world?
a) 1920s
b) 1930s
c) 1950s
d) 1970s

PBM is the only process which works faster in ________ steel than _________ steel.
a) Stainless, mild
b) Mild, stainless
c) Remains same all
d) All of the mentioned
 Name of the Course : NTMP

Name of the Unit : High energy Machining process

Name of the Topic : Laser beam Machining

LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)

S
AIM & OBJECTIVE
 To make the students understand the evolution of LBM process
 To provide student with knowledge on mechanism of LBM process
 To make the students learn about parametric analysis in LBM process
 To acquaint students with various process capabilities of LBM process
 To teach the students about various applications of LBM process

INTRODUCTION
Laser beam machining (LBM) is one of the most widely used thermal energy based
non-contact type advance machining process which can be applied for almost whole
range of materials. Laser beam is focussed for melting and vaporizing the unwanted
material from the parent material. It is suitable for geometrically complex profile
cutting and making miniature holes in sheet metal. Among various type of lasers
used for machining in industries, CO2 and Nd:YAG lasers are most established. In
recent years, researchers have explored a number of ways to improve the LBM
process performance by analysing the different factors that affect the quality
characteristics. The experimental and theoretical studies show that process
performance can be improved considerably by proper selection of laser parameters,
material parameters and operating parameters
THEORY BEHIND

The mechanism of material removal during LBM includes different stages such as (i)
melting, (ii) vaporization, and (iii) chemical degradation (chemical bonds are broken
which causes the materials to degrade). When a high energy density laser bream is
focussed on work surface the thermal energy is absorbed which heats and
transforms the work volume into a molten, vaporized or chemically changed state
that can easily be removed by flow of high pressure assist gas jet (which accelerates
the transformed material and ejects it from machining zone). The schematic of LBM
has been shown in Fig
 The major LBM configurations are: drilling (1-D), cutting (2-D) and grooving,
turning and milling (3-D), and micromachining of different workpiece materials.
Laser beam drilling has become the accepted economical process for drilling
thousands of closely spaced holes in structures. Two types of laser beam drilling
exist: trepan and percussion laser beam drilling. Trepan drilling involves cutting
around the circumference of the hole to be generated, whereas percussion drilling
‘punches’ directly through the workpiece material with no relative movement of the
laser or workpiece (Fig. 2). The inherent advantage of laser percussion drilling
process is the reduction in processing time. Laser beam cutting and grooving
operations have found applications in punching, cut-off and marking of metals,
ceramics and plastics. Schematic of laser beam cutting is shown in Fig. 3. Laser beam
cutting is superior to any cutting method conventional or non-conventional because
of material versatility, no wear or change of tool, high material utilization and
ARTICLE IN PRESS Lasing Medium (Nd:YAG Rod) Excitation Source (Flash Lamp)
CNC Controller Motor Supply of gas jet to nozzle Cooling Unit Front Mirror (Partial
reflective) Rear mirror (Reflective) Bending Mirror Focusing Lens Workpiece Fig. 1.
Schematic of Nd:YAG laser beam cutting system. Fig. 2. Schematic of laser beam (a)
percussion drilling and (b) trepan drilling [19].
 production flexibility and high accuracy and edge quality [5]. Laser beam
turning and milling are 3-D operations and require two simultaneous laser beams to
get desired profile in the workpiece (Fig. 4). The beams can be focussed at desired
angles with the help of fibre optics. Laser milling allows the production of parts with
complex shapes without expensive tooling. Laser milling is most suitable for
machining parts with one-sided geometry or for partial machining of components
from one side only. Complete laser milling of parts is also possible but difficulty in
accurately re-positioning the work-part is a big challenge. The researchers have
proposed different mechanisms of material removal during laser milling. Tsai et al.
[7] have proposed the laser milling of ceramics by fracture technique in which a
focused laser beam is used to scribe the grooves on the work surface all around the
machining zone and then a defocused laser beam is used for heating this zone. The
heat induces the tensile stress and the stress concentration increases at the groove tip
which results the fracture in the direction of groove cracks. The application of laser
milling for rapid manufacturing of micro-parts of difficult to machine materials by
using layer by layer material removal technique through chemical degradation.
Qi et al. have studied the laser milling of alumina ceramic and found that the
milling quality was superior for laser milling in water but the efficiency was reduced
as compared with laser milling in air. Micromachining refers to machining of
workpart or features having dimensions below 1 mm. Lasers are being used for
micromachining operations with short pulses (pulse duration varies from
microsecond to femtosecond) and very high frequencies (in kHz range). Pulsed
Nd:YAG, and Excimer lasers are most commonly used for micromachining
applications in medical and electronic industries

PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS

These are parameters that characterize the properties of the laser beam which
include the wavelength, power, intensity and spot size, continue wave and pulsed
power, beam polarization, types of beam, characteristics of beam, beam mode.
Wavelength
The wavelength depends on the transitions in the process of stimulated emission
with respect to the physical mechanisms involves in energy coupling and the process
efficiency, stability and quality, the wavelength plays a most decisive role. It has
important effect on material ‘s surface absorptivity. For a specific material type, there
is a certain wavelength which can have maximum absorption of laser energy with a
lowest reflection. Due to the shorter wavelength of fiber lasers (in the range of 1 μm
almost the same as Nd-YAG laser) compared to CO2 lasers (10.6μm), it leads to the
higher absorption in metallic material.
Power, intensity and spot size
The size of a laser system is usually specified in the term of power. The power of
laser system is the total energy emitted in the form of laser light per second. Without
sufficient power, cutting cannot be started. The intensity of the laser beam is the
power divided by the area over which the power is concentrated. The high intensity
of laser beam causes rapid heating of the material, which means that little time is
available for heat to dissipate into the surrounding material. Additionally, the
reflectivity of most metals is much lower at high intensities, compared to the low
beam intensity. Moreover, the intensity determines the thickness of material which
can be cut. Spot size is the irradiated area of laser beam. In laser cutting application,
it is required to focus beam into minimum spot size. Due to the better beam quality
of fiber laser with very low divergence, the user can get spot diameters smaller than
conventional lasers producing longer working distances.
Continuous wave (CW) and pulsed laser power
Both the continuous wave and pulsed laser power can achieve the high intensity
needed for laser cutting.
Process Parameters
These are parameters that characterize the properties of the laser beam which
include focusing of laser beams, focal position and dual focus lens, process gas and
pressure, nozzle diameter, stand-off distance and alignment, and cutting speed.
Focusing of Laser Beams
The focal length of lens is about the distance from the position of focal lens to the
focal spot. In the fiber laser system, the laser beam is delivered by the fiber optics
and use a collimator to form the divergent laser beam. After that, it comes to the
focusing lens or mirror and it focuses the parallel laser beam onto the work piece.
The cutting process requires the spot size is small enough to produce the high
intensity power. The focal length of the lens has a large impact on size of the focal
spot and the beam intensity in the spot [03,4}.
Focal Position
In order to get optimum cutting result, the focal point position must be controlled.
There are two reasons: the first reason is that the small spot size obtained by
focusing the laser beam results in a short depth of focus, so the focal point has to be
positioned rather precisely with respect to the surface of the work piece; the other
one is differences in material and thickness may require focus point position
alterations [4]. Process Gas and Pressure
The process gas has five principle functions during laser cutting. An inert gas such
as nitrogen expels molten material without allowing drops to solidify on the
underside (dross) while an active gas such as oxygen participates in an exothermic
reaction with the material. The gas also acts to suppress the formation of plasma
when cutting thick sections with high beam intensities and focusing optics are
protected from spatter by the gas flow. The cut edge is cooled by the gas flow thus
restricting the width of the HAZ. The commonly used gases are the oxygen and
nitrogen. Nitrogen is mainly used for stainless steel and aluminum, whereas the
oxygen is used for mild steel [3, 4]. In the process of oxygen cutting, the presence of
oxygen contributes to an exothermic reaction, which effectively increases the laser
power. It results into high cutting speeds and the ability to cut thick material. When
cutting thick material, the gas pressure must decrease with the increasing thickness,
in order to avoid the burning effect, whereas the nozzle diameter is increased [3, 4].
Nozzle Diameter, Stand-Off Distance
Nozzle is used to deliver the assist gas. The nozzle has three main functions in the
laser cutting process: to ensure that the gas is coaxial with the beam; to reduce the
pressure to minimize lens movements and misalignments; and to stabilize the
pressure on the work piece surface to minimize turbulence in the melt pool [3, 4].
The stand-off distance, which is the distance between the nozzle and the work piece,
is also an important parameter. The stand-off distance is usually selected in the same
range as the diameter of cutting nozzle-between 0.5 and 1.5 mm-in order to
minimize turbulence. A short stand-off distance provides stable cutting conditions,
although the risk of damage to the lens from spatter is increased. The stand-off
distance is optimized to maximum the cutting speed and quality [3, 4].
Cutting Speed
The cutting speed must be balanced with the gas flow rate and the power. As cutting
speed increases, the cutting time decreases and less time for the heat to diffuse
sideways and the narrower the HAZ. The kerf is also reduced due to the need to
deposit acertain amount of energy to cause melting. However, striations on the cut
edge become more prominent, dross is more likely to remain on the underside and
penetration is lost. When the cutting speed is too low, excessive burning of the cut
edge occurs, which degrades edge quality and increases the width of the HAZ. In
general, cutting speed for a material is inversely proportional to the thickness.
 PROCESS CAPABILITIES

The capability of LBM to cut complex shapes and drill micro size holes with close
tolerances in wide variety of materials has opened a new door to industries.
Nowadays, industries related to almost all manufacturing fields are adopting the
LBM processes. Some unique applications of LBM involves cutting of stainless steel
pipes with high cutting rates and at less cost than diamond saw cutting, cutting
complex shapes in car doors, cutting QFN packages in electronic industries,
producing cooling holes in turbine engines in aircraft industry, micro-fabrication of
vias in PCB. The coronary stents used in medical field are micromachined by LBM.
Unlike other thermal energy based processes such as EDM and ECM it provides
lesser HAZ that makes it suitable for micromachining applications.

LBM: Machined products

 LBM has wide applications in the field of automobile sectors, aircraft

industry, electronic industry, civil structures, nuclear sector and house
appliances. Stainless steel, a distinguishable engineering material used in
automobiles and house appliances, is ideally suitable for laser beam cutting.
 Advanced high strength steels (AHSS) machined by laser beam have
applications in car industry and boiler works. Titanium alloy sheets used in
aerospace industry to make forward compression section in jet engines are cut
by lasers. Aluminium alloys used in aeronautics are one of the most
promising for laser machining implantation. Also, aluminium alloy samples
of slot antenna array can be directly fabricated on laser cutting system.
 Cutting of complex geometry in metallic coronary stents for medical
application is done by pulsed Nd:YAG laser beam cutting. LBM is the most
suitable and widely used process to machine nickel base superalloys, an
important aerospace material. Besides metals and alloys LBM is also used in
different industrial applications to machine ceramic work materials
 successfully. Commercial piezoceramic discs are laser cut to provide complex
shapes in RAINBOW actuators.

Conclusion

 LBM is a powerful machining method for cutting complex profiles and

drilling holes in wide range of workpiece materials. However, the main
disadvantage of this process is low energy efficiency from production rate
point of view and converging diverging shape of beam profile from quality
and accuracy point of view.
 Apart from cutting and drilling, LBM is also suitable for precise machining of
micro-parts. The micro-holes of very small diameters (up to 5 mm) with high
aspect ratio (more than 20) can be drilled accurately using nanosecond
frequency tripled lasers. Cutting of thin foils (up to 4 mm) has been done
successfully with micro-range kerf width.
 The performance of LBM mainly depends on laser parameters (e.g. laser
power, wavelength, mode of operation), material parameters (e.g. type,
thickness) and process parameters (e.g. feed rate, focal plane position,
 frequency, energy, pulse duration, assist gas type and pressure). The
important performance characteristics of interest for LBM study are HAZ,
kerf or hole taper, surface roughness, recast layer, dross adherence and
formation of micro-cracks.

MCQ POST-TEST

LBM offers a good solution for which material properties below?

a) Thermal conductivity
b) Specific heat
c) Boiling temperature
d) All of the mentioned

What is the abbreviation of Laser?

a) Light allowed simple emission of radiation
b) Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
c) Light amplified simultaneous emission of rays
d) Light amplified stimulated emanation of rays

Which of the following are the properties of a laser?

a) Highly collimated
b) Monochromatic
c) Coherent light beam
d) All of the mentioned

Laser beam machining uses which type of power sources for machining?
a) Very low power
b) Low power
c) Medium power
d) High power

Which of the following are different types of lasers used in Laser beam
machining?
a) Solid-state ion
b) Neutral gas
c) Semiconductor
d) All of the mentioned

Which types of lasers are used in Laser beam machining?

a) Continuous wave
b) Pulsed mode
c) Continuous wave & Pulsed mode
d) None of the mentioned
 Name of the Course : NTMP

Name of the Unit : High energy Machining process

Name of the Topic : Electron beam Machining

ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING

AIM & OBJECTIVE

 To make the students understand the evolution of EBM process
 To provide student with knowledge on mechanism of EBM process
 To make the students learn about parametric analysis in EBM process
 To acquaint students with various process capabilities of EBM process
 To teach the students about various applications of EBM process

INTRODUCTION
Electron beam machining (EBM) is a thermal material removal process that utilizes a

focused beam of high-velocity electrons to perform high-speed drilling and cutting.

Just as in electron beam welding (Chap. 18), material-heating action is achieved

when high-velocity electrons strike the workpiece. Upon impact, the kinetic energy

of the electrons is converted into the heat necessary for the rapid melting and

vaporization of any material.

Invented in Germany in 1952 by Dr. K. H. Steigerwald, EBM is able to drill

materials up to 10-mm (0.394-in.) thick at perforation rates that far exceed all other

manufacturing processes. Although EBM is capable of producing almost any

programmable hole shape, it is most often applied for high-speed drilling of round

holes in metals, ceramics, and plastics of any hardness

  Electron Beam Machining (EBM) is a machining process in which material is
removed from the workpiece by focusing a beam of high-velocity electrons
towards the workpiece. The source of energy in electron beam machining is
high velocity electrons. A high voltage DC power supply is used to generate
electrons with high energy in this process.
 It is a non-traditional machining process for material removal. Generally,
electron beam machining is carried out in a vacuum chamber for removing
unnecessary scattering of electrons and for making the process more efficient.
This process is best suited for the micro-cutting of metals. It can also be used
for boring of wide range of metals.

The EBM process begins after the workpiece is placed in the work chamber
and a vacuum is achieved. The creation of a hole by an electron beam occurs in four
stages (Fig. 19.1). First, the electron beam is focused onto the workpiece to a
diameter that is slightly smaller than the final desired hole diameter. Power is
adjusted so that the electron beam will generate a power density at the workpiece in
excess of 10^ W/cm^ (1.5 x 10^ W/in.^). A power density of that magnitude is more
than sufficient to instantly melt any material regardless of thermal conductivity or
melting point. Drilling is accomplished through the combination of an electron beam
pulse and an organic or synthetic backing (auxiliary) material, which is applied to
the exit side of the surface being drilled. When the focused beam strikes the
workpiece, local heating, melting, and vaporization take place instantly. Only about
5% of the affected material is actually vaporized. The pressure of the escaping vapor
is sufficient to form and maintain a small capillary channel in the material. The beam
and capillary rapidly penetrate through the workpiece and a finite distance into the
backing material. The volume of backing material that is contacted by the beam is
almost totally vaporized resulting in the explosive release of backing material vapor.
As a result of the comparatively high pressure of the backing material vapor, the
molten walls of the capillary are expelled in a shower of sparks leaving a hole in the
workpiece and a small cavern in the backing material.

EQUIPMENT
Electron gun:
It is the main part of electron beam machining. It generates the beam of an electron
which is further used to remove material from the workpiece. This electron gun
contains tungsten or tantalum filament which acts as cathode.
Bias Grid:
This bias grid is used to control the flow of electrons which is generated by an
electron gun.
Anode:
This anode is used to accelerate the electrons to very high velocity.
Magnetic Lens:
This magnetic lens is made up of the magnet. The main function of this magnetic
lens is the same as that of an optical lens that is to concentrate the beam of electrons.
Aperture:
This aperture is similar to the aperture of the camera but the purpose of this aperture
is a little different from the aperture of the camera. This aperture is used to capture
the stray electrons so that only focused and concentrated beam of electrons beam
passes through the aperture.
Electromagnetic Lens:
The electromagnetic lens is finally used to focus the electrons beam on the
workpiece.
Diffusion Pump:
The diffusion pump is used for maintaining the vacuum within the electron beam
chamber. The level of vacuum in this chamber is from 10 to the power minus 4 to 10
to the power minus 6 torque.
Deflector Coil:
This deflector coil is used to deflect the electron beam by a small amount in case a
proper hole is not being created by an electron beam.
Optical Viewing System:
Optical Viewing System is used by the operator to check whether the process is
under control or not.
This optical viewing system consists of a telescope and illumination system.
Slotted Disc:
This spotted disc is used to remove the vapour and fumes created while machining
the workpiece using electron beam machining so that this vapour and fumes do not
obstruct the optical windows if the electron beam gun. This slotted disc is
synchronized with the electron beam.
PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS

Beam current, pulse duration, lens current, and the beam deflection signal are the
four most important parameters associated with electron beam machining.
Determining the initial parameter settings for new applications usually involves
some amount of trial-and-error testing. However once established, each parameter is
computer controlled during processing to ensure repeatability on a day-today basis.
Beam current is continuously adjustable from approximately 100 /amp to 1 amp. As
the beam current setting is increased, the energy per pulse delivered to the work
piece is also increased. Electron beam machining systems are available that can
generate pulse energies in excess of 1 2 0 joules/pulse, a value that is 2 0 0 -400%
higher than that available from industrial laser-drilling systems. The extremely high
pulse energy available with EBM explains the ability of the process to rapidly drill
very deep and large-diameter holes. Pulse duration affects both the depth and the
diameter of the hole. The longer the pulse duration, the wider the diameter and the
deeper the drilling depth capability will be. To a degree, the amount of recast and
the depth of the heat-affected zone will be governed by the pulse duration. Shorter
pulse durations will allow less interaction time for thermal affects to materialize.
Typically, electron beam systems can generate pulses as short as 50 psec or as long as
10 msec.
The lens current parameter determines the distance between the focal point and the
electron beam gun (the working distance) and also determines the size of the focused
spot on the workpiece. The diameter of the focused electron beam spot on the
workpiece will, in turn, determine the diameter of the hole produced. As mentioned
earlier though, to achieve a desired hole diameter, the beam power must be
sufficient to generate more than 1 0 8 W/cm2; otherwise the power density will be
insufficient to promote vaporization and drilling.
The depth to which the focal point is positioned beneath the workpiece surface
determines the axial shape of the drilled hole. By selecting different focal positions,
the hole produced can be tapered, straight, inversely tapered, bell shaped, or center-
bowed. A cross-sectional view of tapered electron-beam drilled holes is shown in
Fig. 19.3.
When hole shapes are required to be other than round, the beam deflection coil is
programmed to sweep the beam in the pattern necessary to cut out the shape at the
hole’s periphery. Beam deflection is usually applicable only to shapes smaller than 6
mm (0.236 in.)

PROCESS CAPABILITIES

 A wide range of materials, such as stainless steel, nickel and cobalt alloys,
copper,aluminum, titanium, ceramics, leather, and plastics, can be
successfully processed by EBM. Some materials are easier to process than
others. For example, aluminum and titanium require less beam power to
remove a given volume of material than either steel or tungsten.
 Because EBM is a thermal machining process, some thermal effects remain on
the machined edge after processing. However because of the extremely high
beam power density and the short duration of the beam/workpiece
interaction time, thermal effects are usually limited to a recast layer and the
heat-affected zone, which seldom exceeds 0.025 mm (0.001 in.). Typically, no
burr is generated on the exit side of the hole, although, a small lip of solidified
material may remain around the rim of the hole on the entrance side. Another
capability of the electron beam process made possible by the high power
density is the ability to drill deep, high aspect ratio holes. Aspect ratios as
large as 15:1 can be achieved in most materials. The hole diameters that can be
drilled range from 0.1 to 1.4 mm (0.004 to 0.055 in.) in thicknesses up to 10
 mm (0.390 in.). The tolerance on the hole diameter is typically } 5% of the
diameter or 0.03 mm (0.001 in.), whichever is greater

EBM: Machined products

 Applications best suited to EBM are those that require either thousands of
simple holes to be drilled in each workpiece, or those that require more than 2
0 0 holes that are difficult to drill conventionally because of material hardness
or hole geometry. Most current applications of EBM are for the aerospace,
insulation, food and chemical, and clothing industries.
 The drilling of a turbine engine combustor dome made of a CrNiCoMoW
steel has been performed for several years using EBM. The part has a wall
thickness of 1.1 mm (0.043 in.) and is perforated with 3748 holes that are 0.9
} 0.05 mm (0.035 } 0.002 in.) in diameter. Each part is drilled in 60 min for a
drilling rate of approximately one hole every second (Messer Griesheim
GmbH, 1982).
 The insulation industry relies on EBM to drill thousands of small holes in
cobalt alloy fiber spinning heads that are used in the production of glass fiber
and rockwool materials.
 Conclusion

Electron beam machining is one of the non-conventional machining under thermal

process category. The principle of this method is using high velocity electron beams
to induce melting and rapid vaporization of material. The equipment which works
to generate the beams is called electron beam gun. Almost all materials can be
handled using electron beam machining, which is one of many benefits coming from
this technique. This method is also very fit for micromachining, with the jobs of
drilling fine holes, cutting narrow slots, and cutting contours in sheets. However, the
high capital cost of equipment and the mandatory requirement of high-skilled
operator of the system should be taken into consideration before instalment.

MCQ POST-TEST

Mechanism of material removal in Electron Beam Machining is due to _____

a) mechanical erosion due o impact of high of energy electrons
b) chemical etching by the high energy electron
c) sputtering due to high energy electrons
d) melting and vaporisation due to the thermal effect of impingement of high
energy electron

2. Electron beam machining is a/an _____ process

a) adiabatic
b) thermal
c) iso-thermal
d) isentropic

3. Electron beam machining is carried out in _____

a) high pressure vessel
b) thermally insulated area
c) vacuum
d) in a room at atmospheric pressure

During EBM _____ is kept under vacuum.

a) electron gun
b) whole setup
c) the workpiece
d) laser generation setup

As the electrons strike the work material _____