global sustamable energy solutions

Grid-Connected PV Systems
Design and Installation

Fifth Australian Edition

 Dedication:
For who love our book
献给热爱这本书的人
For who study hard
献给热爱学习的人
For all the Dota mates
献给所有的刀友们
For all the dinner mates
献给所有的吃友们
For kind friends, helped us all the time
献给热心帮助我们的朋友们

Finally
最后
For all the friends stand beside us during our unforgettable
University life
献给与我们一起度过难忘大学生活的挚友们
For memorization of our perishing golden time.
为缅怀我们正在逝去的青春
Acknowledg ments

The early chapters of this manual were based on the "Stand Alone Power Systems- Design
and Installation Training Manuaf' which was originally developed by The Solar Energy
Industries Association of Australia Inc (SEIAA), and subsequently updated by various
members of that association and by Global Sustainable Energy Solutions Ply Lld (GSES).

The original version of this book was written in Malaysia for Pusat Tenaga Malaysia (PTM)
for their BIPV project. The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions provided by staff
at PTM (MBIPV Project) and also individual members of the Malaysian Photovoltaic
Industries Association (MP lA) for the original version .

This version of the manual has converted the Malays ian version to be suitable for
Australian conditions and in accordance w ith the relevant Australian Standards.

In particular, the authors wish to acknowledge Or Sulaiman Shaari, for his support in
developing some of the drawings used in this manual and also with the formatting of many
of the formulae.

Authors: Geoff Stapleton, Stephen Garrett and Belinda Thorne

Version: Fifth Australian Edition March 2009

Copyright

This manual is for study and training purposes only .

Photocopying , reproduction, storage or retrieval of this manual is only permitted with the
written permission of Global Sustainable Energy Solutions Pty Lld

Enquiries should be directed to:

Global Sustainable Energy Solutions Pty Lld
P.O. Box 57
Ulladulla, NSW 2539
AUSTRALIA
Phone: 61 244573057
Fax 61 2 4457 3666
E-mail gses@bigpond .com

Disclaimer

While all care has been taken to ensure this training manual is free from omission and error, no
responsibility can be taken for the use of this information in the design or installation of any grid­
connected PV system

Cover photo: 1kW System at the GSES Training Centre, Pambula NSW
Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

CONTENTS
PAGE

Chapter 1 Occupational Health & Safety

Chapter 2 Solar Radiation 11
Chapter 3 Electrical Basics 25
Chapter 4 Series & Parallel Circuits 33
Chapter 5 PV Cells 39
Chapter 6 PV Modules 53
Chapter 7 Inverters 65
Chapter 8 Balance of System Equipment 85
Chapter 9 What is a Grid-Connected PV System? 93
Chapter 10 Applying Energy Efficiency Techniques 101
Chapter 11 Designing a Grid-Connected PV System 107
Chapter 12 System Installation 141
Chapter 13 Commissioning a Grid-Connected PV System 157
Chapter 14 Maintenance and Trouble Shooting 169
Chapter 15 Economics of Grid-Connected PV Systems 177
Glossary of Terms 185
Index 189
Summary of Formulas 190

CONTENT S I
Oesign and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 1 Occupational Health & Safety (OHS)

1.1 Introduction
In New Sou th Wales, under the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Act 2000, any
person working on a construction site is required to have a valid Constru ction
Induction Certificate (previously kn own as a 'green card'). Under the OHS Act 2000, a
"construction site" encompasses all constructions activities deemed as constructio n
which also include cabling, maintenance and telecommunications work. Therefore a
person entering a constructIon site to inspect or install a grid connected PV system
MUST have a Construction Induction Certificate . There are similar requirements In
other states w ithin Aust ralia.

This type of certificate is generally obtained by completing a 1 day safety course conducted
by an accredited trainer.

Each state in Australia has a different legislation that relates to workplace health and
safety. It is important to familiarise yourself with the relevant laws in the state where
you are working.

Workplace Australia recommends that all employers adopt a six-step approach towards
safety:
1. Develop an OH&S Policy
2. Consult with employees and outside organisations
3. Provide information and training
4. Identify and assess hazards
5. Implement and follow risk control measures.
6. Maintain and improve an OH&S program.

The information in this chapter relate to safety issues which are specific to grid-connected
photovoltaic systems. PV is the use of photovoltaic (PV) modules/material as part of the
building itself. It contains information that will be useful for a person installing a PV system.

As with any activity, safety is a full-time job and is the responsibility of everyone working with
building integ rated PV systems, whether that is in the design, installation or maintenance. To
work safely, you must have:
• Good work habits;
• A clean and orderly work area;
• Proper equipment and training in its use;
• An awareness of potential hazards and how to avoid them;
• Periodic reviews of safety procedures; and
• (ideally) Instruction in cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and basic first aid.

These constitute good, safe practice for any type of job. Following these will reduce the
potential for accidents and injuries.

1.2 On-site risk assessment

Prior to starting any on-site work it is recommended that the installer undertake an on-site
risk assessment. This requires :
• The identification of all possible risks ;
• Determination of the work practices that will be undertaken to remove the risk , or to
minimise the risk if it cannot be removed altogether; and

Chapter 1 - Safety Page 1

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems o
• Communicating with all the stall working on-site about these risks and how they will be 1
removed or minimised. p
el
With res pect to the installation of PV systems the typical risks are : th
• Falling from the roof when installing the PV modules ; th
• Electrocution when the wiring of the PV modul es in series creates a solar array with a
d.c. voltage that reaches "deadly'· voltages (2120 V d.c.); In
• Injuries from lifting and installing heavy inverters; and d,
• Injuries from objects falling from roofs and/or high locations. It
se
The following section identifies the risks that are associated with the installation of the sa
individual items of equipment. The risks highlighted in that section will be comm on to the
majority of installations and th erefore it is recom mended that the installer develops a PI
standard risk assessment form. In undertaking an on-site risk assessment you should loc
identify the risks particularly to that site and include these on the risk assessment form . An tOl
example of some of the site specific risks could include:
• Vehicles can only be parked away from the actual building and the equipment must then Th
be carried over uneven ground . be
• There are other tradespeople on site who will have tools and equipment located on the rei
ground that will be moved around the site.

Even though the installation may take place on the same site for a few days or weeks , it is
important to realise that some condit ions could change, and introduce a new risk . For
example, it has rained heavily the night before and there is now mud which will make it
difficult moving heavy loads.

One advantage of using a risk assessment form is that risks can be quickly reviewed daily
and any new risks can be added.

1.3 Safety relating to individual PV system components

When working with PV systems, you need to understand the basic safety aspects :
• You are your own best safety system: be alert, check everything , and work carefully.
• Never work on a system alone!
• If maintenance is to be undertake n on an existing system , study and understand the
system before you start work on it.
• Review the safety procedures, installation procedures and test procedure steps with
everyone involved in the installation before starting work.
• Make sure that your too ls and test equipment are in proper working order.
• Check your test equipment before going to the job site.
• Wear appropriate clothing, including a safety helmet and eye protection when required .
• Remove all jewellery that might come in contact with electrical components .
• Remembe r that d.c. voltages can produce significant arcing and the higher voltages will
give a nasty tingle through damp hands or even electrocution if voltages are above 120V
d.c.
• Dry insulated gloves should be worn while performing electrical work. In N
• Measure everything , electrical and dimensional! Measure the conductivity from exposed corn
metal frames and junction boxes to ground . Measure voltage from all conductors to (http
ground. Measure the operating voltage and current.
• Expect the unexpected. Do not assume that switches always work ; that the actual The
configuration agrees with the electrical diagrams , that cu rrent is not flowing in the cont
earthing circu it, etc.

Chapter 1 - Safety Page 2

Chap
Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

1.3.1 PV modules
Photovoltaic (PV) devices generate electricity, and they should always be considered
electrically "live". They generate electricity as long as light falls on them. Attempting to cover
them , using a blanket or cardboard for example, is not a safe practice. Light could still reach
the PV, or the covering could come off.

In many PV systems, some PV arrays are in excess of 120V d.c. This voltage level is
dangerous and any installation or maintenance work must be undertaken with extreme care.
It is recommended that the array strings are able to be isolated into sections , where each
section has an open circuit voltage no greater than 120V d.c. The array can then be made
safe before any work is performed.

PV modules generally have aluminium frames and are mounled on metal array frames often
located on metal roofs. All these metal objects can become very hot during the day and
touching these could cause burns on the skin. Wear gloves and suitable clothing .

The PV array is often mounted on the roof of buildings or on high structures. Ladders must
be secured and safety harnesses or scaffolding should be used . It is important to refer to the
relevant OH&S rules in each state.

Figure 1.1 Worki ng on roof wearing harness- also note ladder on roof
(Photo : Courtesy of G Stapleton)

In NSW, Workcover has listed range of resources for people working on roofs (both
commercial and residen tial) freely available on their website;
(http ://www.workcover.nsw.gov.au/OHS/FallsPrevention/defauit.htm ).

The "Safe Work on Roofs - Residential Buildings" booklet states that before starting work the
contractor should :
• undertake an assessment of the risk involved in carrying out the work. This must
include an assessment of al/ manual handling risks arising when carrying out the
work

Chapter 1 - Safety Page 3

 Oesign and Ins tal/ation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

• determine the most effective methods of controlling the risk of falls and injury
• provide a written sale work method statement. describing how the work is to be done
safely. This safe
work method statement should take into account an assessment of the risk involved
in carrying out
• the work
• provide suitable and safe access to and from the roof
• install roof edge protection, anchor points or other fall protection measures resulting
from (b) above
• ensure all persons carrying out the work are provided with appropriate training and
ms/ruclliJn
.5
The code states the following with respect to prevention of falls: a
w
" A system to control risks should be provided for persons exposed to a risk of falling:
(a) from the perimeter. including the gable end, of a new or existing roof, or 1
(b) through the roof where the spaCing between rafters exceeds 600mm, or M
(c) through the roof where the following material covers the roof or is being used to el
cover the roof: c,
- asbestos cement sheets Se
- fibreglass skylights cc
- other brittle or fragile material. ar

It should be noted that the Construction Safety Regulations require that; 1..
• safeguards or accident prevention measures be taken where necessary or advisable, S(
and thl
• where persons are exposed to a risk of falling 1. 8 metres or more, fencing or other sy
safeguards be provided... sh
op
The book emphasise the level of detail that must be undertaken to ensure people work BL
safely on roofs and similar paints would be included in the general risk assessment that was
discussed in the previous section Since all roofs are above 1. 8 metres some form of Be
prevention must be implemented (eg harness) so
re(
All students should obtain copies of these booklets as the information contained is relevant thE
to this course. a\
1.3.2 Inverters 1.4
In general the greater th e power (Wattage) rating of an inverter, the greater the weight. ME
Care should be taken when carrying an inverter and installing an inverter, particularly if it is it i.
to be mounted in a high location. Typically two or three people might be required to safely glc
mount the inverter in its location. an

The output of the inverter is 240V a.c , which is potentially a deadly voltage. It is important 1.­
that all electrical interconnections between the inverter and Ihe switchboard are undertaken Mc
by a licensed eleclrician. mL
OCI
1.4 Hazards wi l
This section highlights the general hazards that occur when working with PV systems. CUI
Some of these have been mentioned in the previous section but are repeated below to thE
emphasise the significance of the hazards related to these systems. or
jus
pri

Chapter 1 - Safety I Page 4

Ch
Design and Instal/ation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

1.4.1 Physical (non-electrical, non-chemical) hazards

When working on a PV array, you will be working outdoors, possibly in remote areas , and
using hand and power tools on metal and wire equipment.

1.4.1.1 Exposure
When designed properly, PV arrays are installed where the sun is brightest , where no
shading occurs. When working on a PV array , you should wear a hat and keep your limbs
covered . Drink plenty of fluids (preferably water, and never alcohol) and take regular breaks
in the shade for a few minutes each hour.

1.4.1.2 Insects, etc.

Spiders and a number of insects, including wasps, often move in and inhabit junction boxes.
array framing , and other enclosures of a PV system. Always be prepared for the unexpected
when you open junction boxes and other enclosures.

1.4.1.3 Cu ts and bumps

Most PV arrays use metal framing, junction boxes , bolts , nuts, guy wires , and anchor bolts ,
etc. Many of these common items have sharp edges and can cause injury if you are not
careful. You should wear gloves when handling metal, particularly if you are drilling or
sawing. Metal slivers from a drill bit often remain around the edges of a hole. and these can
cause severe cuts to a bare hand. Wear a hard-hat at all times when you are working under
an array or on a system with hardware higher then your head.

1.4.1.4 Falls, sprains, strains and fractures

Some PV systems are installed in buildings located in an active building site and sometimes
the ground could be rough terrain. Walking to and around the site, particularly carrying
systems components and test equipment can result in falls and/or sprains. Wear comfortable
shoes, preferably with soft soles . Steel toe reinforced shoes should NOT be worn around
operating, stand-alone power because they lower the resistance of a potential current path,
BUT should be worn when undertaking the installation work prior to commissioning.

Be careful when lifting and carrying heavy equipment, particularly large inverters and large
solar modules. Lift with your legs and not with your back to avoid back strains. If climbing is
required , be sure the ladder is firmly anchored and that you have a partner available to hold
the ladder and assist with handling equipment. Also , remember that a PV module can act as
a windsail and knock you off a ladder on windy days .

1.4.1.5 Burns: thermal

Metal left exposed to the sun can reach temperatures of 80 "C. This is too hot to handle , but
it is unlikely to cause burns if you break contact quickly . To be safe, however, always wear
gloves while working on PV arrays. Survey the system prior to beginning work to be aware of
any elements that might become hot.

1.4.2 Electrical hazards

Many common electrical accidents result in shocks and/or burns, and these can cause
muscle contractions and traumatic injuries caused by shock-induced falls . These injuries can
occur whenever electric current flows through the human body. The amount of current that
will flow is determined by the difference in potential (voltage) and the resis tance in the
current path. At low frequency a.c. (50 Hz or less), the human body acts like a resistor, but
the value of resistance varies with conditions. It is difficult to estimate whe n current will flow
or the severity of the injury that might occur because the resistivity of human skin varies from
just under a thousand ohms (1 kO) to several hundred thousand ohms (> 1OOkO), depending
primarily on skin moisture .

Chapter 1 - Safety Page 5

Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

If a current greater than O.02A a.C. (only 20mA) is flowing in a wire: and you touch it, as the
current flows through your body, you are in serious jeopardy , because you may not be able 1.
to let go of the current-carrying wire . The effect is magnified with d.c. current as it does not
So
regularly pass throug h zero.
shr
tes
This small amount of current can be forced through sweaty hands with a voltage as low as
20V, and the higher the voltage, the higher the probability that current will flow. High voltage
Bel
shock (greater than 400V) may burn away the protective layer of outer skin at the entry and
trai
exit points. When this occurs, the body resistance is lowered and lethal currents can cause
instant death.
Ber
Electrical shock is painful and a potentially minor injury is often aggravated by the reflex tYPI
sys
reaction of jumping back away from the source of the shock.
sysl
nee
The best way to avoid shock is to measure-always measure-the voltage between any
conductor and any other wires, and to ground. Use a clamp ammeter to measure the current
At 11
flowing. Never disconnect a wire before you have checked the voltage and current. Do not
presume that everything is connected and working as designed . Do not trust switches to •
operate perfectly and do not "believe" schematics. A digital voltmeter is a wonderful •
instrument, and using it could save your life.
•
Alternating current (a.c.) power is supplied by the inverter, typically at 240V, while PV array •
strings can be interconnected to have d.c voltages greater than 120V. These are deadly •
voltages and no exposed terminals should be touched when live.
•
1.5 Safety equipment
Following is a list of recommended safety equipment that you should have available. Check
Only
these items against a site safety plan and check to make sure all equipment is in working
testi,
order before beginning a job.
In adl
1.5.1 Personal safety resources
• ~
• A work partner (never work alone.~ ;
• ~
• An understanding of safety practices, equipment, and emergency procedures;
• K
• Safety checklists ;
• Safety helmets;
• V
• L
• Eye protection; rE
• Dry leather gloves for electrical work; p
• Appropriate safety harnesses, if working on roofs or other elevated sites; • C
• Proper measuring equipment: electrical and dimensional; Cl
• Tape and use wire nuts or cable connector on end of cables (never leave wire ends
exposed.~ .
1.7
The f,
1.5.2 Job·site safety resources syster
• Safety plan ; or ma
• First-aid kit; followi
• Fire extinguisher; trainin
• Appropriate ladders;
• Appropriate lifting equipment; If you
• Suitable labels on all equipment, wiring , etc. • SI
Se
Sometimes, safety equipment standards refer to what you do not wear. in
Remove all jewellery that might come in contact with electrical components! Do not wear elO
loose clothing or have loose hair. a

Chapter 1 - Safety Page 6 Chapte

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

1.6 Site safety

Sometimes it is necessary to troubleshoot a PV system that is not working correctly. Safety
should be the main concern both in planning, before you go to the site and during the actual
testing.

Before travelling to the site, know the following: Who will assist you? Always work with a
trained partner or team.

Before working with any PV system, become familiar with the electrical configuration. What
types , size and number of PV modules and inverters are there in the system? What are the
system voltages and expected current flows? How many circuits are there? How can the
system be disconnected? What safety equipment is available, and what equipment will you
need to bring?

At the remote power system site:

• Remove jewellery;
• Wafk around the system and record any apparent hazards in the system logbook or a
notebook;
• Check the actual system configuration against the electrical schematics;
• Determine where the system is earthed;
• Locate and inspect all disconnect switches, check any fuses, and determine if the
switches are designed to interrupt both positive and negative conductors; and
• Disconnect the source circuits and measure the open-circuit voltage to verify the proper
operation of the disconnected switch;

Only when you are sure tha t you understand the circuit should you proceed with
testing.

In addition keep:
• Keep the work area clear of obstacles , particularly the area behind you.
• Never disconnect a wire before measuring voltages.
• Keep your hands dry and/or wear gloves .
• Work with only one hand ever coming in contact with bare conductors, if possible.
• Use circuit lockout equipment and lockout procedures to prevent inadvertent
reconnection . This includes safety tagging. Where this cannot be guaranteed, have a
partner or team member stationed near the disconnect switches.
• Once a wire is disconnected, don't leave the end exposed - either tape it or use a cable
connector for temporary covering .

1.7 First aid

The following is a review of the first aid procedures with which anyone working on PV
systems should be familiar . It is recommended that each person working on the installation
or maintenance of PV systems also complete a first aid course or equivalent training . The
following is a summary of first aid suggestions, but it is not intended to replace formal
training in first aid.

If you witness an accident or are the first person to arrive at the scene:
• Survey the scene for potential hazards. The first consideration must always be personal
safety. The worst thing that could happen would be to have the rescuer injured or killed
in the attempt to provide assistance to the victim. Try to determine if a shock hazard still
exists. Is a live conductor still lying on or near the victim's body? Is the victim still holding
a live conductor? Are there other hazards, such as fire that would put you in jeopardy?

Chapter 1 - Safety Page 7

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems De

You will be safer in assisting a victim if you are with so meone else, but don't delay your car
help to wait for a partner. Also , be aware that some otherwise trustworthy people cannot rai ~
be trusted in an emergency situation - everyone reacts differently. You are on your
own in relation to protecting you rself and saving the victim. If tl
• Check the victim for breathing and pulse. Determine the victim's status. the
• Call for help and give the victim 's status. During an emergency , do anything you can to the
quickly attract attention to the scene. Call an ambulance or get someone else to do it ­
or even pull a fire alarm. but get qualified emergency personnel to the scene as quick ly 1.7
as possible. Having called for appropriate help , then attend to the victim using accepted A ~
first aid and CPR techniques. COL
red
Both electrical and non -electrical injuries can occur when working around/with PV systems. bre
insl
1.7.1 Non-electrical injuries aWi
These injuries include cuts , sprains, broken bones , exposure, and insect and snake bites. In put
most cases , they are not life threatening, but if care is not provided immediately , then victim bittl
may go into shock and could die. Respond quickly.
Fev
1.7.2 Cuts rec,
Stop the bleeding by using the following methods, in this order: bele
• Direct pressure - If possible, apply direct pressure with a sterile dressing (gauze pad) an c
between the wound and your hand. Use a clea n cloth if a sterile dressing is not available ; sucl
• Elevation· If the bleeding does not stop, elevate the wound area. if possible;
• Pressure Points - If the wound is still bleeding , apply pressure on a nearby pressure 1.7.
point (Ior example, if the lower arm is cut, apply pressure with the fingers on the middle The
inside of the upper arm where the pulse is felt); and rese
• Pressure Bandage - Lastly, use a pressure bandage by adding more sterile dressings if bec(
necessary and wrap with a roller bandage. Use overlapping turns to cover the dressing cont
comp lete ly and secure it by tying off the bandage over the wound. sho(
bod;
nea l
1.7.3 Sprains, strains, dislocations, and fractures
burr
It is sometimes hard to tell the difference among these injuries , so treat them all as you
would a fracture. Help the victim move into th e shade and/or a comfortable position with as
Free
little movement to the injured area as possible . Th e injury (usually an arm or leg) needs to be
and
splinted to lessen the pain and prevent further injury.
largr
arre,
Splints ca n be made from rolled-up newspaper, magazines, pieces of wood, blankets, or
pillows. The splint can be tied up with bandages or cloth (a shirt torn into strips will do). The
W hE
following principles apply:
rela)
• Firstly, splint the injury only if you can do it without causing more pain. deat
• Splint an injury in the position you find it. stop
• Immobilise the limb and joints above and below the injury. Check the blood circulation defit
(you can do this by pinching the nail beds of the fingers or toes). When you do this, the quail
red colour should return within two seconds - if not, loosen the splint.
If yo
If the Injury is a closed fracture (with no bone extruding), apply a cold pack to it. Do not apply haza
a cold pack to an open or compound fracture. chaf1
discc
1.7.4 Exposure-heat with
This is a common hazard for system installation and maintenance personnel because of the to fir
location of the systems. If you or your partner suffers from cramps , heavy sweating, cool and equi~
pale skin , dilated pupils, headaches, nausea, or dizziness, you may be nearing heat poss
exhaustion. Get the victim to the shade and give them one half of a glassful of water (if they use ,

",,','"
Chapter 1 - Safety Page 8 Chap
Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

can tolerate it) every 15 minutes. If heavy sweating occurs, have the victim lie down and
raise their feet , loosen their clothing, and put wet towels or sheets over them .

If the victim has red, dry skin , they may have heat stroke, which is life threatening. Immerse
them in cool water , if possible, or wrap their body with wet sheets and/or fan them . Don't give
them anything to drink. Call an ambulance.

1.7.5 InsecUsnake bites

A small number of people may have an allergic reaction to an insect bite or sting. If so, it
could be life threatening. Signs of an allergic reaction include pain, swelling of the throat,
redness or discolouration , itching , hives, decreased consciousness, and difficulty in
breath ing . If these symptoms occur, call an ambulance immediately. If a stinger from an
insect is embedded into the flesh , remove it (do not squeeze it) with tweezers or scrape it
away (using a credit card, rigid strip of plastic, a playing card, etc.). Then , wash the area and
put on a cold pack with a cloth between the skin and the ice . Try to arrange the victim so the
bitten area is below the heart.

Few people die from snakebites, however, if someone is bitten by a snake, they should
receive immediate medical help. Call an ambulance. Keep the victim still and the bitten area
below the heart to slow absorption of the snake venom. A splint can be used if the bite is on
an arm or leg . Try to remember what the snake looked like . Never cut a snakebite and try to
suck the venom out. This only increases the chances of infection .

1.7,6 Electrical injuries

The number one priority in assisting injured people should always be your own safety as the
rescuer. This is especially important in situations involving electrical hazards. Avoid
becoming a second victim. Electrical injuries consist mainly of shocks, burns, muscle
contractions, and traumatic injuries associated with falls after electrical shocks. Electric
shock is a general term , indicating any situation where electric current flows through the
body. The intensity of a shock can vary from a barely perceptible tingle, to a strong shock, to
near-instant death. Electric shocks often cause stabbing pains or intense tingling and
burning, and the points of entry and exit can also often be badly burned.

Freq uently, a shock causes involuntary muscle contraction. If the strong muscles of the back
and legs are caused to contract, this can lead to falls and broken bones (or worse). If the
large muscles of the chest , throat, and diaphragm contract, this can even cause respiratory
'O.nes\.

When electric current passes through the heart, it can cause a spasmodic contraction and
relaxation of the ventricles, called ventricular fibrillation. This is one of the major causes of
death associated with shocks. Once a person's heart has begun fibrillating , it is difficult to
stop. Sometimes, another electric shock, administered by a trained technician using a
defibrillator, can restore the heart to its normal beating cycle. Victims in fibrillation need
qualified (paramedic) help in minutes if they are to survive.

If you are at the scene of a suspected electrical accident, you must survey the scene for
hazards before you rush in to help the victim. If the victim is holding a live conductor,
chances are that they may be physically unable to let go. You must find some way to
disconnect the power so that you can help them. (This is one more reason that familiarity
with the power system is very important). If there is no way to switch off the power, you have
to find a way to remove the conductor from the victim's body (or vice versa) . A properl y
equipped PV site should have a grounding stick or non-conducting wooden cane near
possible electrical hazards. Use one of these to move the conductor from the victim. You can
use a rope or belt to drag the victim away from the live wire, or even cut the live wire with a

Chapter ' - Safety Page 9

Design and Instaflafion of Grid-Connected PV Systems De.
wooden handled axe. 8e creative with what you have around you-remember that the
victim's life is in danger. Time is of the essence. Cl
It is important 10 nole that, in the case of spinal injuries (possibly resulting from a fall after 2.1
being shocked), moving the victim could cause more harm than good. 00 not move a victim Th.
unless it is absolutely necessary. However, ilthe person is likely to die unless you do move yet
them - possible spinal injury may be a small price to pay for a lile. You have to decide. vah
Ira\
Once you and the victim are free from the shock hazard, you can begin assessing injuries am<
and treating the victim . Remember the ABC's 01 CPR: Airway . Breathing, and Circulation. par,
Determine il the victim is conscio us. If they are unconscious. open the airway and check for
breathing . Put your cheek close to their mouth and feel for breath as you watch lor the chest
to rise and fall. (You should take 5-10 seconds to check for a neck pulse at this time, too ­
ch eck closely , as it may be very faint). If the victim is not breathing, begin mouth-ta-mouth
(with a clean sterile mouth shield, if available) , and give two breaths. If the air doesn't go in,
check to be sure the viclim's airway is clear (it could be blocked by their tongue ). Once
yo u've cleared the airway, if they are still not breathing. begin artificial respiration. In
addition, if there is no pulse, begin CPR. (Artificial respi ration and CPR need 10 be
performed in accordance with current firsl aid standards) . Hopefully, the victim will begin to
breathe and their heart will beat. Only when this happens should you stop CPR. If you stop
sooner, they may die. If they do breathe and their heart beats, watch closely until the
ambu lance arrives . They may need your help again.

The victim should also be treated for ord inary shock, which is the body's attempt to correct a
failing circulatory system_To treat for shock, have the victim lie down. Raise the feet. This
helps keep the blood flowing to the vital organs. If it is cool, cover the victim 10 keep them
warm .

1.7.7 Electrical and thermal burns

Minor burns (red skin with no blistering) should be lIushed with cool water. Deep burns (with
blistering and/or charred skin) are life threatening and an ambulance must be called 2.2
immediately . 0 0 not put water on a deep burn (unless it is a chemical burn [e .g., battery Lalit
elecl rolyte], which should be flushed with clean waler). Calt for help and stay with the victim flat,
until medical professionals arrive to take charge . an91
the'l
strik;
surf,
can

It the
hori,

Chapter 1 - Safety I Page 10 Chap

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 2 Solar Radiation

2.1 Irradiance
The sun is a nuclear fusion reactor and is likely 10 conlinue 10 shine for a few million years
yet. While il does, energy from Ihe sun arrives al the lop of the earth's atmosphere at a peak
value of 1,367kW/m:? and this is called the solar constant. This energy is attenuated as it
traverses the atmosphere and reaches the sea level at a peak of about 1 kW/m:? The
amount of solar power available per unit area is known as irradiance. A summary of these
parameters is listed in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Summary of Solar Parameters

Parameter Svmbol Quantitv and unit
kW/m
Irradiance G W /m'
mW/cm'
Pyranometer
Measuring (thermopile or
device reference solar
PV cell-)
Solar constant G 1,367 W/m
1.0 kW/m'
Peak value at
sea level
Go 1,000 W/m'
100 mW/cm'
0.8 kW/m
Nominal value - 800 W/m'
80 mW/cm'

2.2 Geometri c effects

Lalilude, time of day and season all affect the amount of energy impinging on a surface laid
lIat on the earth's su rface. Imagine a flat plate coll ector having an area. A, of 1 m Z tilted at an
angle, J3, from the horizontal and faces the su n perpendicularly. At a lime, of say 0900 hours,
there are 12 rays of the sun 'S beam coming from an allitude angle, y. (or incidence) that
strikes the collector at this posit ion. However, jf the collect or is laid horizontally on the Earth 's
surface, i.e. at ang le J3 "" 0 0 Irom the horizontal, the collector only captures 9 rays . This idea
can be visualised in Figure 2.1a.

Collector A
Incorrring \2 r ys from the sun L all
......... receiving
:or 12 rays

Collector A
I angle of' receiving only
Sun 's altitude'f
co~eclor'p ~ 9 rays
angle r
Figure 2.1 a Effect of varying tilt angles on solar capture.

It then becomes apparent that if the su n is overhead and the collector is laid flat on the
horizontal, it will capture all at the sun 's rays as shown in the following Figure 2.1b.

Chapter 2 - Solar Radiation Page 11

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

Incoming 12 rays from the sun

Collector A
receiving all
~ 12 rays
•
Figure 2.1 b Maximum capture of solar radiation al solar noon.

For a solar module 10 obtain maximum power Irom the irradiance it must always be facing
the sun. This could be achieved by the use o f a ~ tracking " device, which follows the sun. but
though trackers might be used in stand alone PV power systems, they are not practical for
PV grid connected systems.

Ideally in PV systems, the solar module should therefo re be tilted at an angle to the
horizontal (fJ deg) as shown in Figure 2.2, facing either true north or south (depending
whether you are in the southern or northern hemisphere) such that there is a 90" angle In thE
between the sun (at solar noon) and the solar module. north
north
14 5"
north,

~ ~
Tilt angle
of module J
f3<) r Altitude 01 Sun

Figure 2.2 Placement of solar module in relation to Sun 's altitude. (at Solar Noon)

Note: Solar Noon is the time of day when the sun is at its' highest altitude and in Australia
this is typically between 11am and 1pm.

In the northern hemi sphere the modules will be positioned facing due south. In the southern
hemisphere the modules will be positioned facing due north. The optimum til t angle is
generally latitude plus 5° to 15 " but this is dependent on the exact location and the
application. The am oun t of solar radiation falling on a tilted plane lor Sydney is shown in w.
Table 2. 2 below.

Chapter 2 . Solar Radlalion I Page 12 Chapte

 Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

. S oar
T abl e 22 :iv,d nev A ustra rla
I 0 ata for S
Tilt
Month Horizontal 20· 30· 40· 50 · 60 ·
January 6.64 6.67 6.44 6.06 5.56 4.94
February 5.47 5.61 5.75 5.56 5.25 4.8\
March 4.94 5.67 5.61 5.63 5. 69 5.39
I April 3.64 4.39 4.61 4.72 4.69 4.56
May 2.69 3.64 3.97 4.22 4.36 4.39
June 2.47 3.44 3.61 4.06 4. 25 4.26
July 2.39 3.31 3.67 3. 92 4. 06 4.11
Auaust 3.36 4.39 4.75 4.97 5.06 5.06
SeClember 4.44 5.19 5.39 5. 44 5.36 5. 14
Oclober 5.36 5.63 5.66 5.75 5.50 5.11
November 6.14 6.26 6. 11 5.61 5.39 4.63
Oecember 6.97 6.66 6.56 6.06 5.50 4.81
AVQ 4.54 5.12 5.23 5.21 5.06 4.19

In the tropics (between Tropic 01 Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn) the sun ca n be either
north or south of the solar modu le. Whether you point you r solar module due south or due
north is dependent on the exact lat ilude of the location. For example Darwin's latitude is
14.5 0 South. Though many designers and installers wou ld slilllend to lace the modules due
north, technically they can be pointed in either direction.

North

Altitude

Azimuth

West East

South

Figure 2.3 Altitude and azimuth angles

Page 13
Chapter 2 ~ Solar Radiation
Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

The location of the sun is specified by two angles:

( I ) The solar altitude angle (y) is the angle between the sun's rays and the horizontal plane.

(2) The solar azimuth (ex) is the angle between the projection of the sun's rays on a
horizontal plane and the north direction. The azimuth is measured clockwise going from
0° (true north) to 359°. East is 90 °, South is 180 ° and W est is 270 °.

The following table shows the variations in the altitude and azimuth angles with the tim e of
day and lime of year lor Sydney.

Table 2.3 Altitude and azimuth angles for Sydney, June and December
Note: All times are Eastern Standard Times (EST)
'" ,at NASA
June
~ ,- tEST ~
' Sam nlo nlo 113 5.51
6am nlo nlo 106 17.1
7am 60.4 1.77 99.1 29.3
Bam <11 12 91.5 41.6
.am 4r 20 .• 82.4 54
l Oam 2: 27.B '6. 1
--,-,-;;m ----,,-:a 3 1.9 /6.2
""""i2NOOr1 3s5 32.7 /7.7
I DOl 339 30 295 - 68.6
2Dm 325 24.3 279 56.8
'nm 313 16.2 270 44.4
'om 303 6." 262 32
50m n/. n/a ?SS 19.8
60m n/a nla 2.7 807

The azim uth angle is measured in degrees from north in a clockwise direction. The altitud e is
the angle between the su n and the horizontal when you are lacing the su n. The table also
provides the tim e fo r solar noon - when the sun is at the highest daily altitude and the hall
way time between sunrise and sunset.

2.3 Sunpath diagram

The sun's path in the sky for any particul ar location can be depicted on a two -dimensional
su rface in a sunpath diagram. This diagram can be used to determine the position of the sun
in the sky at any time of the day, for any day 01 the year. Two different projections exist :
cylindrical projection and polar projectio n. The most common form used in the PV indu stry is
the polar projection known as the stereographic projection.

The sunpath diagram is composed of:

• The azimuth ang les, represented on the ci rcumference of the diagram . In some
diagrams it is marked showing 0 ° to 360 ° relative 10 T RUE NOR TH (see Figure 2.4a and
2.4b) wh ile in some diagrams just th e four directions: North South, East and W est are
shown (see Figure 2.4c);
• Alt itude ang les, represented by concentric circles;
• Sun Path lines from east to west lor different dates in the year;
• Time of day lines crOSSing the sun path lines;
• Location information that refers to latitude.

Chapter 2 . Solar Radiation Page 14

Design and InstaJlation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Figure 2.4a is a sun path diagram lor latitude 32 0 South , while Figure 2. 4b is a sun path
diagram for the equator.

(Source: Adapted from Square One Content Archive webslte:

hnp:/twww.squ1 .com/archiveJindex .php?http://www.squl .comJarchiveJsolarlsolar-position. hIm I)

Figure 2.4b Sun path diagram equator

(Source: Courtesy 01 Comfortable Low Energy Architecture websile:
http://www.learn .londonmel.ac. uklpackageslclearlindex .him I)

Chapler 2 - Solar Radiation Page 15

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems D

2.4 Magnetic North & True North o

Magnetic North is the direction that a compass will point at any given localion. Sotar modules re
must be inline with true north (or Geographic North)). wh ich is the direct ion from a point on
the earth's surface to the North Pole along the earth's surface. Though magnetic and true
north should In theory be the same direction. quite often. there is a diflerence between the
two , due to deviation in the magnetic lIux lines al different places on earth. ,
2:
For example. in Sydney, the magnetic deviation is approximately 13 ° East. That means that
AI
True North is approximately 13 " wes! 01 magnetic north. rn,
True North
Ne
Magnetic
North
the
Magnetic
Deviation

West East

Figure 2.5 True North, Magnetic North and magnetic deviation

2.5 Atmospheric effects

As solar radiation reaches the top of the Earth 's atmosphere. a large fraction of it is
reflect ed. This is called albedo. The presence 01 the earth's atmosphere changes the
amount 01 radiation reaching the surface . Clouds and other particles in the atmosphere can
reflect or scatter solar energy (see Figure. 2.6)

II
The sun ~cJ
<l t>

Solar radiation at top P V""

of atmosphere
G n ", 1,367 W/~.,. 2.E
Diffu se so lar ,.,~:.: ":::" .' Irra
radialion .l........,".' perl

............... Dail
..... The
lk~
Figure 2.6 Albedo, direct and diffuse radiation . Exa
The
The radiation reaching the surface of the earth is made up of direct and diffuse radiat ion. srna
Diffuse rad iation is not usually as intense as direct radia tion, but can st ill produce heat lor lem
solar collectors and energy lor solar cells. who
rate
Because of the atmosphere's eltec!, the more of the atmosphere the radiation has 10 pass
through to (each Ihe earth, the lower the level of solar radiation will be at Ihe earth's surface. The
The radiation reaching the earth's surface also has a different spectral content than the
radialion outside the atmosphere. In particular , water and CO2 in the atmosphere absorb
some wave length bands. t kV

This

Chapter 2 . Solar Radiation I Page 16

Ch
Oesign and Installalion of Grid-Connected PV Systems

One indication of the relalive distance that radiation must travel through in the atmosphere to
reach a given location is the air mass. Air mass, AM, is defined as :
I
AM = - - (2 .1)
cos e

where 9 is the angle between the sun and the line to a point directly overhead. (See Figure
2.7) Outside the earth's atmosphere the air mass is relerred to as air mass zero (AMO) .
AM1 corresponds to the sun being directly overhead . (The standard condition for rating solar
2
modu les is AM1 .S al1kW/m irradiance at a cell temperature 25"C).

Note: During the day when the sun is shining , the cell temperature is normally greater than
the ambient temperature.

---------I----------..,.L__ Upper atmosphere _

a ~ 482 deg

AM • • 1.5
cos 48.2

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..._ _ _ _ _ _ _ Earth 's surfac8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Figu re 2.7 Air Mass

2.6 Irradiation and Peak Sun Hours

Irradiation is the lotal quantity of rad iant solar energy per unit area received over a given
period, eg monthly or ann ually.

Daily irradiation is commonly referred to as daily peak sun hours (PSH) .

The number of PSH for the day is the number of hours for which energy at the rate of
2
1kW/m would give an equivalent amount of energy to the to tal energy for that day.
Example:
The Systeme International (SI) unit for energy is called joule (J) . Since this unit is a relatively
small quantity. large energy quantities. such as solar radiation data is often expressed in
terms of MegaJouJe ~MJ). So, if the solar radiation energy on a horizontal su rface for the
whole day is 25 MJ/m then we must work out the number of hours for which radiation at the
2
rate 011000 W /m would result in the same overall energy gained for that day.

The conversion lactor MJ and kWh is ...

1
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ or 1 MJ = - kWh
3.6
2
ThiS means that 25 MJ/m wou ld be equal to

Chapter 2 - Solar Radiation Page 17

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems De~

2S MJ x 1 kWh = 6.94 kWhlrn '

rn ' 3.6MJ
Mon
2
In 1 hour radiation at 1kW/m delivers 1 kW h of energy per meter square of surface. Jam
Therefore to produce 6.94 kWh of energy per m2 the radiation would have to continue at the Febl
rate of lkWI m2 for 6.94 hours. Thu s, the number 01 peak sun hours (PSH) is 6.94. M art
rl
ie. To convert MJ/m 2 to peak sun hours first divide the number of MJ/m 2 by 3.6 Ma
Jum
Figure 2.8 represents the typical variation of Irradiance during the day. The area under the Jul
curve is the lotal energy (MJ or kWh) received over the period of the day. The area of the Au I
rectangle equals the whole area under the curve. If energy were received only at the rate of Se I
1 kW it would provide the same overall energy in 4 hours (10 am to 2 pm).The number of Octc
PSH is 4. Novj
Irradiance DecE
Av

Mon
Jam
Irradiance varies Febr
during the Marc
A ril
Ma
June
Jul
Hour of Au ,
the day Se I.
Octo
7.00 am 10.00 am 2.00 pm 5.30 pm NOVE
Dece
Figure 2.8 Concept of Peak Sun Hours Av

2.7 Solar radiation data

It is important that you use the solar radiation data for the area where you will be designing
systems. This data is often ava ilable from the meteorological bureau in your country or it
might be able 10 be supplied by the solar module supplier. In Australia the reference book is
the Solar Radiation Data Handbook based on data Irom the Australian Meteorological
Bureau. It is available Irom Austra lia New Zealand Solar Energy Society (ANlSES ). NASA in
the USA also provides data on the web for most of the world . This can be obtained from the
following web site: http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/ (Note: There is no www in this address).

Solar radiation tables are often developed based on measurement of the direct and diffuse
radiation each hour and recorded as hourly irradiance (W /m2) which then provides the total
daily irradiation (MJ/m2). The sum of direct and difluse irradiation provides global irradiation
which is then used to calculate peak sun hours as detailed above. Table 2.3 shows the PSH
for some major towns in Au stralia while Figure 2.9 provides a map 01 the annual irradiation
for Australia.

Chapter 2 - Solar Radiation I Page 18

Chap
Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Table 2.4 Solar Irradiation Data for selected sites in Australia

Adelaide Alice SprinQs Brisbane Melbourne
Month 20° Till 50° Till 100 THI 50 0 T ilI 20° Tilt SooTil1 20° Tilt 60 ° Tilt
January 8.14 6.72 7.58 5.36 6.53 5.17 6.86 5.22
February 7.58 6.86 7.11 5.78 6.17 5.3 1 6.4 2 5.50
March 6.31 6.39 7.14 6.86 5.72 5.47 5.22 5.19
April 4.81 5.39 6.50 7.39 4.78 4.89 3.78 4.28
May 3.50 4. 14 5. 19 6.64 4.1 9 4.81 2.75 3.39
June 3.19 3.97 5.00 6.78 4.06 4.78 2.39 3.08
July 2.97 3.56 5.17 6.89 4.17 4.94 2.69 3.47
AUQust 3.86 4.39 5.86 7.06 5.19 5.75 3.28 3.83
September 5.28 5.53 6.64 6.89 6.00 5.97 4.25 4.44
October 6.53 6.19 7.28 6.33 5.86 5.28 5.31 4.83
Novembe r 7.25 6.22 7.44 5.53 5.97 4.86 6.06 4.83
December 7.33 5.97 7.47 S.11 6.31 4.83 6.6 1 4.92
Avg 5.56 5.44 6.53 6.39 5.41 5.17 4.63 4.42

Canberra Syd ney Perth Hobart

Mo nth 20 ° Tilt SooTilt 20" Tilt SOO Tilt 10 ° Till 40 0 Tilt 10 ° Tilt 40 " Till
January 7.61 6.39 6.67 5.56 7.97 6.33 6.53 5.28
February 7.08 6.44 5.81 5.25 7.47 6.56 5.89 5.31
March 6.11 6. 17 5.67 5.69 6.86 6.81 4. 72 4.89
Ap..!il 4.61 4.92 4.39 4.69 5.08 5.67 3.50 3.97
Mav 3.56 4.28 3.64 4.36 4. 14 4.97 2.53 3.31
June 3.28 4.03 3.44 4.25 3.4 7 4.33 2. 14 2.92
Julv 3. 17 3.83 3.31 4.06 3.61 4. 39 2.53 3.44
Aug ust 4.25 4.86 4.39 5.08 4.50 5.14 3.28 4.08
September 5.03 5.17 5.19 5.36 5.67 5.92 4.17 4.39
October 6.17 5.83 5.83 5.50 6.64 6. 17 5.31 5.03
November 6.78 5.86 6.28 5.39 7.42 6.1 4 5.75 4.83
December 7.42 6.03 6.86 5.50 7.94 6.14 6.08 4.69
Ava 5.42 5.32 5.12 5.06 5.90 5.71 4.37 4.34

(Sou rce- Australian Solar Radiation Handbook Version 3)

Chapter 2 . Solar Radiation Page 19

Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

-. _­­
............,
.IraII.Coow. _
...... -. -
-
---"~ I
"
- ,".
-
-- ....-
.

_. -­
•
•
•
r .....
•

--..
- ~.
1 ­

-
Average daily solar exposure
Annual
• 1
\~ .. ­ -"--------
. __-­
.0 ......,_
Figure 2.9 Solar irradiation map of Australia
(source : Cou rtesy of Bureau of Meteorology webslte :
http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climatelcgi_bin_scripts/so lar-radiation.cgi)

2.8 Solar altitude

As a resul t of the earth rotating around the sun, than the sun apparently moves between the
Tropic of Cancer (23.45'1\1 ) in the Northern Hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn
(23.45OS) in the Sou thern Hemisph ere. When the sun is over either of the two tropics, it is
known as solstice and when the sun is over the equator Is known as equinox.

The Sun reaches the Tropic of Cancer at the north ern solstice (June 221'(1) and the Tropic of
Capricorn at the southern solstice (December 221'(1). The sun crosses the equator at the
equinoxes in March 21 11and September 23,d.

This means that the altitude of the sun at solar noon varies a total 46.9 0
during the calendar
year.

The formula lor calculating Lhe altitude (Y.) of the sun when it is over the equator lor a
specif ied latitude is:

l . = 90 ' -latilude (in degrees) (2.2)

The formula for calculating the altitude (Yl) of the sun when it is over the tropics (Cancer and
Capricorn) is:

y, = 90 0
-latitude (in degrees) ± 23.45 0 (2.3)

Chapter 2 • Solar Radiation I Page 20

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Determining the exact altitude angle for a specific location (latitude) when the sun is over a
specific "tropic- (either Cancer or Capricorn) is found by applying the above formula.
Whether you use the + or - is dependent on what hemisphere (northern or southern) you are
located and over which "t rop;c ~ (either Cancer or Caprico rn) you wa nt to determine the suns
altitude. When applying this formula it is assumed that you are facing the equator, that is
lacing nOr1h in the Southern hemisphere.

As a rule of th umb, when the latitude is in the same hemisphere as the tropic then add
23.45 ° and when the latitude is in the opposite hemisphere as the tropic then subtract
23.45 ".

For example Darwin is 12.46"5. Therefore the altitude of the sun when it is over the two
tropics and the equator are as follows :

Equator (Ma rch 21~r and September 2:rt)

Ye == 90 ° - latitude (in degrees) = 90 0- 12.46 0 = 77.540

Tropic of Cancer (June 221d)

y, :90 " - Iatilude (in degrees) - 23.45 " = 90" - 12.46" - 23.45" = 54.09"

Tropic of Capricorn (December 2;j1d)

y,=90 ° - latitude (i n degrees) + 23.45 °= 90 ° - '2.46 " + 23.45 ° = 100.99 0
Remember this is facing nOr1h (towards the equator), so the fact the answer is above 90 is 0

indicating that the sun is actually south of Darwin at this time. The altitude of the sun
(respeclla facing saulh) could also be expressed as 79.01 "(180 "-100.99 ,

The altitude of the sun for Darwin, is shown in Fjgure 2.10

Southern SolstIce 6
<J
\),OaC>
Northern Solstice

December t>1J~
22'"
March 2 1st
September 23'0

79.010
540~ No rth
•
Figure 2.10 Solar altitude far Darwin at Equinox and Solstices

Chapter 2 - Solar Radialian Page 21

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

In the tropics it is important to remember that the sun can be in both the northern and the
southern skies as shown in Figure 2.10. At the equator, it spends an equal amount of time
in both hemispheres. If you are in the tropics it is important to determine the amount of time,
and at what time of the year, the sun is in the northern and southern directions. This is to
ensure that objects like trees and building will not shade the so lar modules.

For Sydney (wh ich is outside 01 the tropics) , the sun will never be direclly overhead, as
depicted in Figure 2.11 . It is important to understand this when siting solar modules. For the
period from March 29th to September 14th, the sun will actually be in the northern direction.
Therefore you will also need to look for potential obstacles that could cause shading in that
direction as well as looking to the south.

Winter: June 21

r 32.6 0

Figure 2.11 Solar altitude tor Sydney during the yea r

Above , we have used Sydney as the example. Table 2.5 provides information on altitude of
the sun for various latitudes in the southern hemisphere tropics (L e. Australia). Th is table
provides the altitude at the two equinoxes and also indicates when the sun is in the northern
sky with respect to the latitude. This can help locate possible obstacles thal will shade the
modules at various times of the year .

Table 2.5 Altitude Information for Southern Hemisohere

Latitude Altitude Sun at Eauinoxes Sun in Southern
2J'CJune 22"" December Sky
3" October to 9m
S· S 61.55 · N 71.55 · S
March
17 October to
10 0 S s6.ss · N 76.55 · S
241h Februarv
15· S 31 October to
51.55 · N 81.55· S m
9 Februarv
19- Noy to 21 '
20· S 46. ss · N 86.55 · S
Jan

Chapter 2 . Solar Radiation I Page 22

Oesign and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Questions for Chapter 2:

1) What is the appro xima te peak vatue for irradiance allhe earth 's surface?

2) If the su n's rays are impinging vertically on a plane flat on the earth's surface, what is the
effect of lilting the plane to an angle of 60 ° to the horizontal ?

3) Define the two angles used to specify the position 01 the sun in the sky.

4) If a pl ane was lying flat on the earth's surface , at what angle would the sun's rays
impinge on that plane at 3.00 pm on December 22 (June 22) in Darwin?

5) Define the following terms: solar constant; Irradiance: irradiation: air mass; peak sun
hou r.

6) What factors altect Ihe amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of the earth?

7) Name the categories of solar radiation reaching the surface of the Earth at sea level.

8) Explain why it Is important to have the surface of a flat plate collector to lace the sun
directly at all times.

9) What is Ihe reference condition used for air mass when rating solar cells?

10) What would be the number of peak sun hours if the prof ile of the power from the sun is
as follows?

Time Irradiance
lW/m')
7.00 am - 8.00 am 200
8.00 am - 9.00 am 250
9.00 am - 10.00 am 350
10.00 am - 11 .00 am 450
11 .00 am - 12.00 noon 600
12.00 noon - 1.00 pm 700
1.00 pm - 2 .00 pm 650
2.00 pm - 3 .00 pm 500
3.00 pm - 4 .00 pm 400
4.00 pm - 5.00 pm 250

(Hint: Work oullhe lotal energy for the day in kWh/m2)

Chapler 2 - Solar Radialian Page 23

Oeslgn and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 3 Electrical Basics

This chapler provides an introduction to Ihe common terms and basic Jaws used in electrical
systems.

3.1 Polarity
A lack of electrons (positive charg e) or an excess of eleclrons (negative charge) results in a
material assuming a charge. When the electron distribution is equal, the material will be
electrically neutral. Changing the balance of electrons produces a potential difference, which
can then be applied to a circuit to do work. To do this energy is applied to the material. This
may be as simple as generati ng a sIalic charge by rubbing a piece 01 plastic or II may be the
chemical energy stored in a battery which gives rise to positive and negative polarity.

Charged Discharging Discharged

Fig ure 3.1 A charged battery with a large potential difference
discharges, until the potential difference is zero

3.2 Conductors
When electrons can move easily from one atom to another within a maleriallt is a conductor.
Generally, all metals are conductors, with silver being the best conductor and copper
second. Copper is generally used because it costs les5 Ihan silver . although long
transmiss ion lines are now more likely to be aluminium. wh ich is only slightly behind copper
as a conductor but Is Ilghter and cheaper. The purpose of a conductor is to allow electric
curren t (electrons) to flow from a source to a load with the least amount of opposition. For
example. the wires connecting a torch globe to the battery of the torch are conductors.

3.3 Insulators
A material in which the electrons do not move easily, but are more tightly bound in their
atomic orbits, is known as an insulator. These materials resist the flow of electric current and
are used to isolate electric current from areas where it is not req uired or where it might prove
dangerous. An example would be the coaling/covering on cables .

Because it resists the movement of electrons within its structure an insulator is able to Slore
an electric charge . An insulator used to store a charge is called a dielectric. Dry air is a
dielectric, as anyone that has received a static electricity shoCk can confirm . On days when
the air is moist. static electricity drains away through the air 10 ground.

3.4 Semi-Conductors
Malerials which are neither insulators nor conductors but exhibit so me of the properties of
both are called semi-conductors. Examples of semi-conductor materials are carbon. silicon
and germanium . Germanium was very popular in early transistor manulacture but has largely
been replaced by silicon. The microchip industry, as well as the solar cell industry, is a large
cons umer of silicon.

Chapler 3 - Electrical Basics Page 25

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

3.5 Potential Difference

Potential refers to the possibility of doing work. When energy is applied 10 a material to
cause a change in ils state of charge (that is, we give it 'potential' ) it is given the ability 10 do
wo rk as it ahempts to retu rn to the neutral state. One unit 01 charge is called a Coulomb (C)
18
has a quantum number 016.27 X 10 electrons. The difference between two charge states is
called the Potential Difference (PO) and is measured in units called Volts.

3.6 Volts
The Volt (V) is the unit that measures the work needed to move one unit of charge between
two paints. Brielly, when 1 Joule at energy is needed to move 1 Cou lomb of charge between
two points there is a potential difference between the two points at 1 Volt . Voltage is the
potential difference between two points. Voltage is sometimes referred to as Electromotive
Force or EMF and given the symbol (E) but the standard symbol lor a potential difference is
V, either for a generating source or a voltage drop across a passive component.

3.7 Current
When a pote ntial difference causes a charge to move between two points, the charge in
motion is called an electric current. The number of electrons that can be forced to move
depends on the potential difference between the two points. The greater the potential
difference, the greater the current flow. Cu rrent flow is measured in Amperes (A).

3.8 Amperes
Current is the flow of electrons between two points, so when 1 Coulomb (6.27 x 10 18
electrons) flows past a given point in 1 second it is called 1 Ampere (A) of curren!. The
symbol for current is J (th is stands for 'intensity', as it is a measure of the concentration or
intensity of electron flow). All electrons move with the same speed, only the quantity
changes. So if potential difference doubles , the quantily of electrons doubles, but the speed
at which they travel is the same. Electrons flow from a negative terminal to a positive
terminal. See Figure 3.2 Conventional current flow, is in the direction 01 the positive charge,
i. e. the direction of current is reversed to the direction of flow of electrons in a conductor.

Voltage Extemal
Source Circuit

Figure 3.2 Direction 01 electron flow

The flow of electrons from negative to positive (electron flow) is equiva lent to a flow of
positive charges from positive to neg ative (conventional flow). Conventional current /Iow is
normally used to explai n the operation of electrical and electronic, devices and circuits.

Conventional flow is used in Chapter 5 where the operation of a solar cell is exam ined.

Chapler 3 - Electrical Basics I Page 26

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

3.9 Magnetic effect

When any current flows in a conductor, a magnetic field is set up around the wire . The
magnetic field exists in a plane perpendicular to th e direction of the current. This magn etic
field is the basis for many electromagnetic applications such as speakers, electromagnets,
relays, tran sformers, motors etc.

+
r Iron filings
showin!J
magna!ic
lield

Figure 3.3 Magnetic Effect produced by current flow in a wire

3.10 Resistance
A conductor carrying electric current will always provide some amount of opposition to that
current. The temperature 01 th e conductor will rise as evidence that the voltage being applied
is required to do work to accomplish the flow of cu rrent against that oppOSition. This
opposition is caUed res istance and lim its the amount of current that can be mad e to Ilow
through the conductor. Good conductors have very little resistance: insulators have large
values of resistance . The unit used to measure resistance is the Ohm (O).

A resistance that develops one joule of heat energy when one ampere flows through it for
one second has one ohm 01 resistance. Resistance is abbreviated to R and is represented
by the Greek lette r, Omega (n). A good conductor such as copper wire has a typical
resistance of O.018OJmm2 lor a one metre length. Resistan ce wire such as that used as the
heating element in a toaster may have a value 01 240. In circuit diagrams resistance is
represented by a rectangle as shown in Figure 3.4.

---ANv-
OR

Figure 3.4 Schematic representation of resistance

3.11 Circu its

The path that current (I) flows from one charged point to another is called a circuit. A
potential difference (V) is appl ied to a circuit to cause current to /Iow. Current flows through a
circuit from an energy source to a load. The current that flows is referred to as load current.
When any part of the current path IS broken we have an open circuit and no curren t can flow .

Chapter 3 • Electrical Basics Page 27

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Syslems Des.

If a fault should occur and current is lIowing in a closed path across the terminals of a source
we have a short circuit. Current in a short ci rcuit condition can be very high and we generally By I
fit a fuse in the circuit to protect against this. Circuits may be series or parallel, or even a This
combination of both. and are dealt with in more detail in Chapter 4 . and
be t
3.12 Fuses and circuit breakers usin
A fuse is a device fitted to protect against excessive current flows that could damag e
conductors in a circuit, and to red uce the risk of fire due 10 overheating of conductors . T his 3.1
will commonly consist of a short section of conductor, mounted in an insulating enclosure The
that is of sufficient size to carry the load current but will open circuit under a fault cond ition. rela '
They may be either rewirable, or a cartridge style.
V =
Another alternative is the circuit breaker, which is a mechanical device that will open the
circuit under fault conditions and can be reset when the fault is removed. This

Currents in excess of the fuse or ci rcuit breaker rating will cause the device to operate
(open). Rewirable type luses are no longer considered sufficient to protect a wiring system, 1=
so cartridg e (HRC) fuses or appropriately rated (a.c. or d .c.) circuit breakers should be used.

3.13 Direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.) R=

Figure 3.2 depicts a direct current (d.c.) circuil with current flow in one direction only.
Current can only flow in one direction in a d.c. circuit because the polarity of the battery is
Fror
fixed. To reverse Ihe current flow reverse, the connections to the battery must be reve rsed.
unkr
The terminal voltage of the battery is relatively constant and so there is a steady d.c. voltage
applied to the circu it.
The
sece
An alternating current (a.c.) sou rce regularly reverses the polar ity of Its output. In Aust ralia
Cou
the grid supply reverses polarity 100 times per second to give us a 50-cycle (50Hz) a.c.
of V,
supply at 240 Volts. Alternati ng current has the advantage at be ing easily co nverted to a
different voltage by the use of a transformer.
Pc
Table 3.1 Comparison of a.c. voltage and d.c . voltage Wat
US8(
d.e. a.c. the
large
Polarity Fixed Pola rity Reverses regularly
Magnitude varies constantly Ene
Steady or Variable Mag nitude
throughout cycle
En
Originally not easily stepped up or
down but with the developm ent of Easily stepped up or down
Lar~
d.c. -d.c. converters, this is now via transformers amo
possible
runr

3.14 Electromagnetism The

Figure 3 .3 showed that a magnetic field is produced when current flows in a wire . The as 11
strength of the field is directly related to the amoun t of current flowing in the wire. This
magnetic field can be concentrated by form ing the wire into a coil (primary winding). By
varying the cu rrent flow, such as would happen with an a.c. su pply the strength of the
magneti c field is varied . By placing another conductor (secondary wiring) into the varying
magnetic field a current will be induced into it. Th is is the basis of a tran sformer. The vol tage
and curre nt that will flow in the secondary ci rcuit wi ll be in re lationship 10 Ihe ratio of the turns
of wire in the primary and secondary windings.

Chapter 3 - Electrical Basics Page 28

Design and Instal/a/ion of Grid-Connected PV Systems

By moving a conductor in a stationary magnetic field , again, a current will be induced in it.
This is the basis 01 a generator. The outpUI will vary with the strength of the magnetic field
and the number of turns of the conductor interacting with the magnetic field. The output can
be taken as varying d.c. (a generator, by using a commutator, or as a.c. (an alternator, by
using slip rings.

3.15 Ohms law, power and energy

There is a direct relationship between Current (I), Voltage (V) and Resistance (R). These
relationships are expressed in Ohm's Law, as follows;

v = IR (3.1a)

This can be rewritten as

V
1 =­ (3.1b)
R

V
R=- (3.1 c)
1

From these fo rmulae , given any two known parameters, it is possible 10 calculate the third
unknown parameter.

The unit of electric power is the Watr (W). One Watt of power equals the work done in one
second by one Volt (V) of potential difference in moving one Coulomb of charge. As one
Coulomb per second is an Ampere (A) , it follows that power in Watts is equal to the product
of VolIs x Amperes.

Power (Watts) == Vollage (Volts) x Current (Amperes) (P = V x I) (3.2)

Watts, as the unit of power, is the rate of doing work. For example, the amounl of energy
used to walk up a set of stairs compared 10 walking up a ramp to the same leve l is equal but
Ihe rate at which the work is done varies. Kilowatts are the term most commonly used for
large amou nts of power. i.e. 1000 watts", 1kW

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work.

Energy (W h) = Power (W) x lime (h) (3.3)

l arge amounts of electrical work or energy are expressed in kilowatt-hours being simply the
amount of power multiplied by the time it is used for. For example, a 60 Watt ligh t globe
running all day will use 60 Waits x 24 hours = 1440 Wh = 1.44 kWh.

The difference between power and energy is an important concept as energy usage is used
as the basis for determining the output of renewable energy systems for a given period.

Chapter 3 - Electrical Basics Page 29

Design and Installation 01 Grid·Connected PV Systems De.

3.1 6 Electri c shock

Anytime that a person is working on an electric circuit they are in danger of an electric shock! OL
M
As little as 10 millionths of an Amp is enough to produce an electric shock. The · shock is
the sudden involuntary co ntraction of muscles caused by the current lIow through the body. 1)
Sufficient cu rrent through the body will cause death by electrocution . The human body
normally has a high resistance thanks 10 the skin but if the skin is broken even very low 2)
voltages can produce enough current to be fatal. High vollages may break down the skins
resistance and produce sufficient current 10 be fatal. The body can act as a conductor and 3)
severe internal burns can resu lt. A 500 Volt potential across the body's resistance of
approximately 25,0000 will produce a current of 20 mA, wh ich can be lalal. 4)

Because of the contraction of the muscles, a person may not be able to -let go" of a live
5)
cond uctor. This is even more pronounced in d.c . circuits where the current is constant in one
direction and th e muscles In the hand wi ll clamp shut on the live conductor. The threshold
current for "letting go" in men is about 9 mA and only about 6 mA for women.

Always test conductors for the presence of voltage using appropriate insulated test
equipment, even if you are " sure" the power is off.

3.17 First aid 6)

11 is advisable that everyone worki ng in the electrical or associated trades be familiar with 7)
Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (C PR) . Also be aware that you may receive a fatal shock if
you atlempt to free a person from a live conductor. Switch 011 the power first or if that's not 8)
possible use an insulated material 10 free them . Dry timber Is a good insulator. wet or green
tim ber is not. 9)
Always put SAFETY FIRST'

Chapter 3 . Electrical Basics I Page 30 Ch.

Design and Instalfarion of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Questions for Chapter 3.

1) An atom has 14 protons and 14 electrons. What is ils' net charge ?

2) If one electron were removed, what would the net charge be?

3) What are conductors? Insulators? Semiconductors?

4) Silver is a good conductor. What feature makes it so?

5) Define the following term s:

al Potentia l difference,
bl Volts ,
cl Cur rent.
dl Resistance,
el Power.
6) What is an electromagnet? Give some examples.

7) Write the form ula that relates power, voltage and current.

S) Write Ohm's law and therefore write formu las that relate power 10 voltage and resist ance .

9) Write the lormuJa that relates power to energy.

l a) What is the minimum fatal current for the human body ?

Chapter 3 • Eleclrical Basics Page 31

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

Chapter 4 Series & Parallel Circuits

4.1 Series ci rcu it s
The path a current follows from one pote ntial to a different potential is called a circuil. When
the current passes through all the com ponents 01 a circuit in succession it is a series circuit.
In Figu re 4.1, resistors R I and R2 are in series with the batt ery.

-"'" +
V + I

--,.... R,

.....
R,
+
Figure 4.1 A series circuit

AS a result, there is onty one path for current to follow and therefore the current will be the
same in all parts of the circuit. This cu rrent will be opposed by all the individual components
in the path so the total resistance RTis

The total vol tage VT applied to a series circuit will be shared proportionally by all the
components , VI and V2 . Thus

For example. if the battery in Figure 4. I is 12 Volts and :

a) If RI = R2, then the voltage across RI & R2 will be equal at 6 Volts each
b) If Rt t:% R2 x 2, then the voltages would be 4 Volts across R2 and 8 Volts across A1 .
To clarify this . assume R1 = 4 Ohms and R2 = 2 Ohms and therefore the current. I,
would be 12V/(4+2) =- 2 Amps . So the voltage across Rt is 2A x 4Q "" av
while for
R2. il is 2A x 20 z 4V.

Figure 4.2 shows two batteries VI and V.. connected in series with a resistor R.

Chapter 4 • Series and Parallel Circuits Page 33

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems [

I,
aJ
v, dl

Figure 4.2 Batteries is series

In this case, the voltag es of the batteries will combine (be added together) to obtain the total
voltage Vr. If each battery is 12V. then the potential difference applied to the resistor, A, will
become 24V.
In
Vr = V, + V2 frc
VT = 12V+12 V =24 V the

If Ai s constant, as we add batteries in series. the current flowing through it wi ll increase (see
Ohm 's Law),

- I, -
I,

R
- Ir

Figure 4,3 Solar modules in series.

A sol ar module in sunlight is simitar 10 a battery. In Figure 4 .3, if the solar modules PV1 and
PV2 are nominally 12V each, with a current capability of 11 =: 12 =:; 3.SA, then the output 4.:
vo ltage from both modu les that appear across resistance A will be the su m 01 the individual WI
voltages from the PV modu les, pa
brc
PVT = 24V, i. e. 12V + 12V = 24V CUI

but the current IT will be as for one module . i.e. Th,

+ I
bra
a s~
As more modules are added in series the current stays the same but the voltages contin ue cur
to add. A solar module can be viewed as a current limited device. Solar modules connected
in series are called a string. VT
anc
I,

Chapter 4 . Series and Parallel Circu its I Page 34 Ch,

Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

In Figure 4.4 the batteries, while appearing to be in series, are connected in opposition and
assuming th em to be equal vollages, no current will flow in the circuit. The potential
difference across R will be zero.

Batterv 1 -I -I Ballery 2

T R
T
Figure 4.4 Batteries in Opposition

In Figure 4.5, we see an open circuit condition in a series circu il. An open circuit may result
from a switch being opened or a fuse opening under a fault condition. No current will flo w in
the circuit and the tull supply voltage will be measurable across the open circuit point.

+
Battery 1
--

R
Figure 4,5 An Open Circuit

4.2 Parallel circuits

When two or more components are connected across one voltage source they form a
parallel circuit. Each parallel compone nt forms an individual 'branch', and although each
branch will have the same potent ial difference applied. there is the possibility of a different
current flow in each branch.

The total current flow, IT. in the circu it in the Figure 4.6 is equal to the su m of the currents (11
+ '2) flowing in the parallel branches, but the potential difference V is the same across all
branches. If we provide multiple energy sources in parallel, such as solar modules, and
assuming that they are all the same, the potential difference remains constant , but the
current capability is eq ual to the sum of the individual supplies, i.e.

Vr = VI = V2 (43)
and
IT= 11+ 12 (4.4)

Chapter 4 - Series and Parallel Circuits Page 35

Oesign and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

~
IT={I+l l
+ +
R, R,
+
--r- V
f,
- I,
1 1
- -
Figure 4.6 A parallel ci rcuit

For example , if the sol ar modules in Figure 4.7 are nominally PV1 =: PV2 =: 12 V each and
with a current capabil ity of 1\ = {2 == 3.5 A respectively, then the output of the circuit will be

PV,= 12V

And have a total curre nt of

1,= 3.5A + 3.5A =lA

If we continue to add modules in parallel the voltage wi ll remain constant but the current
capability of the complete array wi ll continue to increase.
III
01

~ th
I,

PV, t
I,
PV2 t I,
PV/

Figure 4.7 Solar modules in parallel

4.3 Combination Series/Parallel Circuits

By combinin g ttle features of both series and parallel circuHs we can arrange solar modules
(or batteries) in any voltage or current conf iguration that we desire. When there is a
co mbination of solar modules connected in series and/or parallel the combinat ion is called
an array.

Figure 4.8 shows an array of 2 parallel strings of 2 modu les in series. Assuming th e same
va lue s as in previous examples, this solar array has an output voltage of:

12+ 12 = 24V
and an output current of

3.5 + 3.5= lA.

Chapter 4 - Series and Parallel Circuits Page 36 Ch,

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

PV,

Figure 4.8 Solar modules in series/parallel

Note:
When solar modules are in series, the voltages add together while the cu rrent remain s
constant. The current is equal to the minimum current provided by the smallest (in Watts)
solar module that is in series .

When solar modules are in parallel. the voltage is the same and is equal to the average
output of the parallel modules. The curre nt in the circuit connected to the parallel modules is
the sum 01 the output currents of the parallel modules,

Chapter 4 . Series and Parallel Circuits Page 37

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems 0,

Questions lor Chapter 4:

1) Define the terms :

c
a) Series circuit, 5.
Hi
b) Parallel circuit is
av
2) 11 three solar modul es 01 nominal 12 Volt , 3 .SA output are connected in series, what will ch
be the voltage and current available? de
be
3) If the same three modul es as in Question 2 are connected in parallel , what will be the ar
voltage and current? in:
o~
4) What vol tage would we measure across the contacts of a fu se holder if th e fuse is
rem oved? Assume a system vo ltage of 48V and a circ uit resistance of 240.
5.
5) In the parallel circuit shown, assuming a system voltage of 24 V and resistance values Si
sh own. what are the current s 11and 12? pr
sll
c~
lik
(n

+
--.­ R, = IOO n RI = 2400
-

A,
nt
nt
lh

TI
lh
rE

Chapter 4 • Series and Parallel Circuits I Page 38 C

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

Chapter 5 PV Cells

5.1 Introduction
Historically the majority of commercial solar cells were composed mainly of silicon (Si). This
is still true today though there are many other technologies and types of solar modu les
avallabte and being developed. An overview of the various technologies is provided in this
chapter. This chapter uses the silicon solar cell to explain how solar cell works and to
describe the basic characteristics . Under certain conditions electrons Irom silicon atoms can
be released and will become available to move as part of an electric current. Sections 5.2
and 5.3 are provided lor reference only. it is not really necessary that a system designer,
installer or supervisor completely understands or remembe rs how a solar cell actually
operates at the atomic tevel!

5.2 Atom ic structure of silicon

Silicon atoms, like any other element, are made up 01 protons, neutrons and electrons. The
protons, which have a positive charge, and the neutrons (no charge) are held together by
strong nuclear forces and form the nucleus 01 the atom. Electrons, which are negatively
charged and much smaller than the prolons and neutrons, move around the nucleus rather
like the planets around the sun and are kept in their poSitions by electrostatic lorces
(remember that opposite charges attract · like charges repel ).

Under stable conditio ns, silicon has 14 protons, 14 neutrons and 14 electrons and IS
therelore electrically neutral. See Figure 5.1 for a diagram of a silicon atom.
. ........-"............".".. ..........
"""

2 electrons In ~./ .... ~ 4 electrons

inner shell / ' " .. in outer
,/ ...•. ... ...... .......••.... ' \ \ shell

\i
'. \
! '--L 8 electrons
\
Nucleus - \ \.
14 p' o1ons
14 neu1rons
&\
~'.
~
"........

.,.•..,
. . . .. . . . . . . . --
-...-..­
..../
/ "
.J
.., '
i
./ second shell

.......... .. /
-..,., ........................................./
Figure 5.1 Atomic st ructu re of si li con

AS can be seen th e electrons are arranged in orbits (called electron shells) around the
nucleus. The inner shell can only hold two electrons and these are tightly bound to the
nucleus. The second shell (also furt) has eight electrons which are also quite tightly bound to
the nucleus. These first two electron shells are lull; they can hold no more electrons.

The third shell however, can accommodate up to eight electrons and there are only fou r in
the third shell of neutral silicon. These electrons are less lightly bound to the nucleus. 11 they
receive an amount of energy equal to (or greater than) the amount 01 energy required to bind

Chapter 5 . PV Cells Page 39

Design and Installation 0/ Grid-Connected PV Systems De:

them to the nucleus (binding energy) they can be ejected from their electron shells and will 01 I
becom e free electrons. its

Energy in the fo rm of sofar radiation can give up its energy to these electrons. When a Ifl
photon 01 solar radiation strikes an outer s hell electron a transfer 01 energy takes place. The loll
incom ing photon loses the amount of energy required to eject an electron from its shell. This
is known as the photovoltaic eftec!. If the incoming photon has just the right amount of
ene rgy to eject the electron then the photon will be annihilated and a free electron produced.
If th e photon's energy is more than the electron's binding energy then the electron will lake
on ly the energy required to break away from the electron shell . The remainder of the energy
will appear as heat in the silicon. Therefore not all solar radiation is used to produce free
electrons . This will limit the maximum conversion efficiency 01 silicon PV cells to below 40%
(see Figure 5. 2)
Incoming photon Hole left after the ---'"
eleclron has been • ~ ­
ejected a. ~~~

Outer
shell
electron

Belore collision of the After collision the silicon atom has

photon with the electron a nel positive charge and has lost
one of its elecUons. Th
the
.Figure 5.2 The photoelectric effect pr!

Th is free electron would quickly be reabsorbed by a silico n atom wh ich had lost an electron if P·I
it was left to drift at random , and this absorption would also be accompanied by an emission 5.~
of light. T he freque ncy of that light emission is determined by the amount of energy released
when the electron "Ialls ~ back into an electron shell. This frequency farms the characteristic
absorption spectrum of the atom, and this can be used to identify diff eren t materials.

5.3 Creating a P-N Junction

Silicon atoms are joined together in crystal form when electrons in Ihe outer sheIJ are
"shared" by neighbouring nuc lei (see Figure 5.3) This material is electrically neutral.

Electrons shared bv neiahbourina atoms

Th

• enl
Chi
mi(
ele

Th

• vol
ele

Figure 5.3 Structure 01 silicon

Impurities can be added to crystalline silicon to change its behaviour . Boron (B) and
Phosphorous (P) are often used. Boron has only three electrons in its outer shell (a nd a total

Chapler 5 • PV Cells Page 40 Ch

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

01 five in all shells) whereas phospho rous has live in its outer shell (and a total of fifteen in all
its shells).

If boron or phosphorous atoms replace silicon atoms in the crystal structure then the
following situations arise.

Boron atom

Phosphorous atom
Figure 5.4 Silicon with boron and phosphorous atoms added

The silicon ~do ped" with boron creates "p_type" (positive type) silicon due 10 the presence of
the hole. Silicon doped with phosphorous creates "n_type" (negative type) silicon due to the
presence of the excess electron.

P-Iype and n-type silicon can be brought together to form a p-n junction as shown in Figure
5.5.

n type silicon

.'
p type silicon
p·n junction

Figure 5.5 Formation of p-n junction

The excess electrons in the n-type silicon which are near the junction , cross the junction,
enter the p-Iype region and fill the holes. As a result of this migration, a region 01 positive
charge is created in the n-type region, as positive protons are still "f ixed~ in the nuclei. The
migration also creates a region of negative charge in the p-Iype section due to additional
electro ns.

There is an electric field formed by this separation of charge, see Figure 5.6. The size of the
voltage potential difference created by this electric field is about 0.5-0.6 Volts . The flow 01
electrons ceases as the build up of electrons repels the further flow of electrons.

Chapter 5 - PV Cells Page 41

Design and Jnstalfation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

n type silicon Direction of electric field

/­
+.+~~ + +.~+~ +-+i + +
---------- .... - , /
Net positive
charges in n type Net negative charges in
region p type region due 10
due 10 protons p Iype silicon electron migration

Figure 5_6 The electric field at a pn junction

8
Note Ihat the direction of an elec tric field is -by convention the direct ion thal a positive
charge wou ld move if placed in that field _ 11 is the opposite direction to the direction 01 the
flow of electrons.

5.4 The photoelectric effect and p-n junctions

11 light with sufficient energy falls onto silicon arranged to form a p-n junction and penetrates
10 a point near the junction, then, because of the photo-electric effect, it will create free
electrons near the junction . These electrons immediately move under the influence ollhe p-n
At the
junction's electric field . The electrons continue to move through the cell to Ihe surface of the
the el,
cell. On the way towards the surface of the cell some of the electrons may be re-absorbed
increa
by the silicon atoms, but many electrons still reach the su rface of the cell. These electrons
circuit
can be collected by a metallic grid and an electric current will flow If the grid is connected to
will be
the metal contact on the other side of the cell by an external ci rcu il (see Figure 5.7).
Every

'-
Sunlight cell.
.' f-? Electric field

Metallic ":'
,,'
grid ' [
• It •
\
Back metal contact
\
\
J, FIOWOf
electrons ntype ptype
Direction of movement 01
free electrons
Ammeter

I
A Eleclrica l load

Figure 5.7 The photo-electric effect and p-n junct ions

5.5 Characteristics of a solar cell

The performance of a solar cell is best indicated by its current voltage characteristics. It is
therefore importan t to know th e output voltage (V) and the outpul cu rre nt (I) and how they
vary with respect to each other. To determine its characteristics, a solar ce ll can be set up as
in Figure 5.8:

Chapter 5 - PV Cells I Page 42 Chapl

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected P V Systems

Constant Irradiance

111111!

Voltmeter
v
Ammeter

A
I electrical load

Figure 5.8 Set up for determining the characteristics of a solar cell

At the open circuit situation (R=RMAX ) an open circuit voltage Vac is measu red. In this case
the electric current ;s zero . As the elect rical resistance is decreased the electric current
increases and at the same tim e the voltage decreases. Maximum cu rrent is called the short
circuit current (Ise) is measured under a short circuit situation (R=O). At this point the voltage
will be zero. Figu re 5.9 shows a typical I-V curve for solar ce lls.

Every so lar cell has a characterist ic I-V curve. Ise and Voc are quoted to help characterise a
cell.

IK 1 - - - - - - -___

Current

Volta e
v~
Figure 5.9 Typical IV characteristic curve for a solar cell

Chapter 5 - PV Cells Page 43

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems De
5.6 Power curve for a solar cell As
va,
The power (P) produced by a solar cell is the pmducl of the voltage and the current for the
inc
particular operating characteristics.
de.
Chi
p = IV (5.1 ) wh
PiS zem when either lor Vare zero . Th is occurs at lse (when V:: O) and Voc (when I :: 0).
If f
dis
If we plot power on the I-V axes we can see how power varies in between the two extremes , ad,
as shawn in Figure 5.10. arc
sh<
Current ( A) Power (W)
P Th
ten
I~ an,
I"" 1-- - - - --7""---=- COl
op.
cel
hig
tee

5 .7
Voltage (V) V""
As
Figure 5.10 Power curve fa r a solar cell op'
irra
Max imum power (P,wp) is produced when V "", V...,p al which point the current is IMP. Th is is
known as the maximum power point (MPPJ . ThE
irra
It is important to ensure that solar cells operate at or near the point of maximum power.

5.7 Factors whic h affect the performance of solar cells

The critical factors that affect the power output of solar cells are temperature and irradiance.

5.7 .1 T empe ratu re

As the temperature of a solar cell increases the open circuit voltage Voc decreases but the
shart ci rcuit current Ise increases marginally. The combined effect is a decrease in power as
shown in Figure 5.11 .

---.-•.........
Current (A)

Decreasing
maximum power \
point, Pmp

,o 'C
, 2 ~"C
soat \
Voltag e (V) 75

Figure 5.11 Variation of characteristics w ith tempera tu re

Chapter 5 - PV Cells I Page 44 Ch.

 Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

As a rule of thumb, for crystalline silicon cell the output power changes 0.5% for every 1 "C
variation in temperature. The output power decreases for temperature s above 25"(; and
increases for temperatures below 25 "C. As can be seen in Figure 5.11 , the vottage
decreases, while there is a very slight increase in current, with increasing temperature. This
change in voltage (in percentage) is very similar to the percentage change of the power;
which is also approximately 0.5% for every 1 "C variation in temperature.

11 PV cells (in modular form) are mounted flat on a roof. it becomes difficult for heat to be
dIssipated through convective cooling. A stand of! mounting frame could be used to provide
adequate ventilation around the modules. but with grid -connected PV many customers and
architects want the solar modules to blend in with the roof , therefore some form of ventilatio n
should be incorporated in the design to minimise the adverse effect of higher temperature.

The temperature at which solar cells are rated is 25"C. However, under normal operating
temperature condition s, the temperature is generally higher than the ambient temperature
and there lore higher than the standard test cell temperature of 25 <C. Standard lest
conditions (STC) give the conditions under which all cells can be compared but nominal
operating cell temperature (NOC T) gives a better indication of what oulpullO expec! trom !he
cell under normal operating conditions. Note that cells can still operate at temperatures
higher than NOCT and tYPIcally can be 25"(; above ambient temperature , depending on cell
technology, solar module design and mounting technIques.

5.7.2. Irradiance
As the irradiance varies there is an almost linear variation of the short circuit current . The
open circuit voltage, does not change dramatically, however it increases stlghtly with higher
irradiance . This is shown in Figure 5.12.

The graph assumes that the cell temperature is constant, ie. unaffected by the differing
irradiance.

Current 1.25 kW/m~

1 .00kW/m~

0.75 kW(m~

0.50 kWlm~

0.25 kW/m~

Voltage
Figure 5.12 Variation of characteristics with irradiance

Page 45
Chapter 5 - PV Cells
Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

5.8 Performance of Solar Cells

5.B.1 Efficiency
The efficiency of a solar cell is the ratio of the power produced by the cell to the power
impinging on the cell. In a perfect world all the incoming energy would be converted into
electricity, but this is certainly not the case in reality. The pie chart (Figure 5. t3) shows
typical reasons for the losses of efficiency from 100% .

... • Grid eo..r.g. La..

• 1w~EO

C OuIntt.nl En.gy 01 iO'JC.

• Corr.efIIon EI!c'-:y
• FIt F.:tOl 01 0.711
• SpurIous AtMorpCiQn
DE.e.. HNI Iw,. Eg
, • "blorpIlon ~ ~ Junction

Figure 5.13 Typical Losses In Solar Cell s

The typical figures for the losses result in an overall conversion eUiciency of about 17%,
which is the resultant efficiency of the solar cell.

Commercially the cells can vary from 12% to over 20% subject to the manufactu rers being
able to reduce some of the losses. Explanation 01 the dill erent losses are as follows:

a) Grid coverage:
The surface of th e cell has to be covered with a metallic grid to collect the electrons
produced by the photoelectric eUect. Typical loss = 4.0%

b) Refle ction loss:

Some of the incoming so lar radiation is reflected from the front surf ace of the cell.
Typical loss = 2.0%

c) Spurious absorption:
Some of the electrons ejected from their electron shell will be absorbed by impurity atoms in
Ihe crystal. Typical loss = 1.0%

d) Photon Energy less than required absorption energy

Some of the incom ing solar radiation does not have sufficient energy to ejec1 an electron
from its electron she ll. Typical loss = 19%

e) Photon Energy greater than required absorption energy

Some of the incoming solar radiation has more than enoug h energy 10 eject an electron from
its electron shell. The extra energy is dissipated as heat in the crystal.
Typicalloss = 28%

f) Quantum efficiency
Of the photons with the correct energy to eject an electron from its electron shell only
approximately 90% will actually strike an electron and eject it.
Typical loss = 4.5%

Chapter 5 - PV Cells I Page 46

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

g) Absorption not near junction

Some photons are absorbed by the crystal far from the junction. These photons create
electron hole pairs which do nothing but immediately recombine, leaving only a little heat as
their legacy. Typical loss := 19%

h) Electrical Resistance (fill factor)

The solar cell and its circuit have a small but significant electrical resistance. Typical loss ""
4.7%

Commercially available silicon cells have average efficiencies about 14-17%, whereas
laboratory efficiencies of over 24% have been achieved. Considerable research is in
progress to improve efficiency.

5.8.2 Fill Factor

The fill factor (FF) is a reflection of how much series resistance and how little shunt
resista nce there is in a solar cell and its circuit The fill factor IS the ratio of maximum power
10 the product of Ise and Voc and is an operating characteristic which indicates the
performance of a cell.

Decreases in fill factor may indicate problems with the cell. The fill factor can be calculated
as·
rr = I •.! V• .; " P"'I'
(52)
I. V.. I V.

Typical fill factor values range between 0.6 and 0.7.

5.9 Types of solar cells

There are two major types of solar cells:
1 Crystalline Cells
2 Thin layer (f ilm) Cells

Figure 5.14 Examples of different cells

(Source: Courtesy of FLABEG ISolar International Gmbh , Germany)

Research in th is field is on -going , manufacturers are always looking for ways to make a solar
cell cheaper and more efficient. One product that is currently on the market is Hybrid HIT
cells which includes both a crystalline (mono) component and a thin film (amorphous)
compo nent.

Chapter 5 - PV Cells Page 47

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems 1

5.9.1 Types of Crystalline Cells f

The two common types are monocrystalline (sing le) and polycryslalline (multi-crystalline)
silicon solar cells and these are described in more del ail below. There are a number of r
manufactu rers involved with specific types of crystalline cells and these include: I
• Polycrystalline Power Silicon Cells
• Ribbon-Drawn Silicon Cells and Crystalline Silicon Thin Film Cells
• Polycryslalline EFG Silicon Cells
• Polycrystalline String-Ribbon Silicon Cells
• Mono Crystalline Dendrite-W eb Silicon Cells
• Polycryslallin e APEC Cells

This manual describes the two main crystalline cells , intormalion on the other cells and how
they are manufactured can be obtained trom the World Wide Web or in books like MPfanning
and Inslalfing Photovoltaic Systems - A Guide /or Installers, architects and enginee'" , (2005­
German Energy Society)

a) Monocrystalline solar cells (also called single crystal)

Metallurgical grade silicon (obtained from sand) is purified using chemical processes until
semiconductor grade silicon is produced. This is melted and the required amounl of dopant
(boron to produce p-type silicon) is added. A seed crystal is introduced into the molten silicon
and is drawn slowly out from the molten silicon. Silicon solidifies around the seed crystal and
a single crystal 01 silicon is produced. The size of the crystal depends on the rale at which
th e seed crystal is removed from the molten silicon. Crystals with diameters around 15+ cm
are not uncommon.

•
•

.­
•
~
· + .­
­

_+L-l +! _ j

• I'
• -+ +
••
- . - +-
• • •
• • •
• • +
Figure 5.158 Figure 5.15b
Typica l Monocrystalline module An array comprising 01 monocrystalline modules
(Photos: Courtesy of G Stapleton)

Once the crystal. a solid cylinder of silicon, has been formed it is sliced into wafers about 0.2
- 0.4 mm th ick . which are then texture etched to improve light trapping . The phosphorous
impurity is introduced to the surface layers of the wafer by a process known as diffusion.
Metal grids (sometimes ca lled finge rs ) are attached to the front and the back of the wafer to
facilitate the collection Of the electrons.

Chapter 5 • PV Cells I Page 49

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Recently laboratory developed mono crystalline cell s tested have given elficienc ies of over
24%. In this case various ineff iciencies such as reflection and grid coverage have been
reduced. Produclion control in laboratory batches is far tighter than that achieved in large
production facilities . Commercial products currently achieve efficiencies of 15% to 18%.

b) Polycrystalline solar cells

Polycrystalline silicon is a block of material, which instead of being a single crystal , is made
by casting an ingot of silicon , resulting in many small crystals pieced together. Several
manufacturers have pioneered processes for mass -producing in ex pens ive polycrystalline
cells , taking advantage of the fact that it 1s inherently easier to grow liltle crystals Ihan big
ones. A potential disadvantage of potycrystalline cells is that the boundaries belween the tiny
crystals tend to trap electrons. These boundaries either act as barriers which slow carrier
motion or actually provide a path for electrical shorts across the cell. Manufacturers of
polycrystaUine cells ensure that the crystals are large enough lor photo-generated electrons
10 be collected by the pn junction and grid before they reach a crystal boundary. Efficiencies
of 13% t016% are normal, although research ceUs have reached 21%.

I.:l
­-
- :;I
'"
.
,
I :
,
,
, ,;
I. I 11' ,

Figure 5.16a Typical polycrystalline Figure 5.16b Solar array with polycrystallin e
module modules
(Photos: Courtesy 01 G Slapleton )

5.9.2 Thin Layer (Film) Cells

To produce single and po ly crystall ine cells , the crystal is grown out of a pool of molten
silicon. Once grown the material must be cut into wafers. The only active part 01 a
photovoltaic cell is the region near the pn junction, a few millionths of a centimetre thick.
Since it is impossible to cut anyt hing this thin , much of the material in a photovoltaic cell
goes to waste, One way around this is to abandon the crystalline state altogether and apply
photoactive semiconductors onto a substrate in thin layers, hence the th in film solar cell.
Where crystalline modutes are made from silicon, the different thin film modules available
generally differ in th e semiconductor material that is used.

a) Amorphous silicon (a-Si) solar celfs

Amorphous means not having a crystal lattice structure. Using a process that involves the
condensation of gaseous silicon can create cells whose thickness can be measured in
numbers of ato mic layers. The atom s In such thin films of silicon are arranged in completely
random fas hion, and the cell is called an amorphous silicon (a· Si) thin· film cel1.

Chapter 5 - PV Cells Page 49

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems l

Ughl

GLASS

Sn02

I a·Si
n
lnO
r'~
~

~ .. ,"
""
.-. -.
. ....
-- . --- ..~

Figure 5.17 Example of Figure 5.18 The layered structure of the

a- s ilicon flexible module amorphous cells
(Photo: Courtesy of Unisolar)

Since Ihe material is so thin free electrons cannot survive in a direct pn junction. Therefore
an undoped (intrinsic) i-layer is applied between the nand p doped layers creating the p ~i- n
structure as shown in Figure 5.18.

Though these cells are inexpensive, abandoning the crystal structure reduces their
efliciency. About 13% is the best that has ever been achieved for multi-layer cells with
average single layer elficiencies of around 5 to 8%. Modules with triple-layer construction are
currently available with an average eff iciency of 10% , however stability and degradation of
performance over time have provided technical challenges for researchers and
manufaclurers .

b) Copper-/ndium diSe/inide Cells IC/S)

Copper Indium diSeJinide is the active sem iconductor material and is often alloyed with
gallium and/or sulphur. The active material is deposited on a glass substrate. The p-type CIS
absorber layer is formed by simu ltaneously vaporising elements coppe r, indium and
selenium. Aluminium-doped zinc oxide (ZnO:AI) is used as the transparent front contact
which is n-conductive. An intrinsic ZnO is located between the n-type ZnO Aluminium and
the p-type CIS with an Ootype cadmium sulphide (CdS) located between the intrinsic layer
and the CIS. Unlike the amorphous modules, the CIS are nol subjecl to degradation when
placed in the light but they have shown instability problems in hot humid conditions and
therefore must be well sealed.

c) Cadmium Telluride

Cadmium TeUuride Cells (CdTe) are manufactured on glass. Indium Tin Oxide is typica lly
used as the front transparent co nductor layer. The layers , as shown in Figure 5.19, consist
01 Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) as the n-type layer followed by a Cad mium Tell uride P-type
layer wilh a back contact. The Main problem with CdTe cells is the loxicity of the cadmium,
but CdTe is a non-toxic compound.

Chapter 5 . PV Cells I Page 50

Design and InstaJ/alion 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

~ Light
~ Light
ZnO:AI
GLASS
i- ZnO
ITO
CdS
CIS CdS
Contact CdTe
I"" '--[:-~ ~~~r~r-;-I'-r ".... ~
Glass ~ '.- f • '.~:"'~J •... 1 M, ']
' - ........._ ~ __ ....l,.. - _ •_ .JI:

Figure 5.19 The Layered Structure Figure 5.20 The Layered Structure
of the CIS Cells of the CdTe Cells

5.9.3 What is new in solar cells?

Research on new solar modules is continually being undertaken. In recenl years a number 01
new technologies have been re leased or are in the pilot manufacturing si age.
These include:
a) Dye Sensitised nanocrystalline Cells- light is absorbed in an organic dye 01 Titanium
dioxide (Ti02 )
b) Microcrystalline and micromorphous solar celts are deposiled al 900- 1000
o
for the first e
technique and 200-300(lC lor the second type. The lirst is based on depositing high quality
silicon films onto a substrate such that they have similar characteristics as polycrystalline
silicon. The second is creating films using very fine-grained microcrysta lline structures but
deposited the same way as amorphous modules- hence the term micromorphous.
c) He/ra-Junction with Intrinsic Th;n Layer (HIT) - This is a hybrid solar cell which combines
crystalline and th in IiIm solar cells.
d) Sliver cells - very small Ashver" cens, with many 01 them connected in series and parallel.

The efficiencies of the various types of solar cells are shown in Table 5.1

Table 5.1 Maximum efficiencies in different types of solar cells

(Source : Cou rtesy of Planning and Installing Photovoltaic Systems- DGS )

Cell Efficienc y Cell Efficiency

Solar Cell material 11

I1 18%
1 Ii 19. 8~ 16%
1 19.n 14%
1 1 1 1 9 . 2~ 9. ;%
1 0% "/0.

~~I~r6ell
0%

i III-V 27.4%
0 I cell 12.0% 7%

Chapter 5 - PV Cells Page 51

Design and Jnstalfation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Questions for Chapter 5:

1) W hy can't all solar radiation be used 10 produce free electrons when it impinges on a
solar cell?

2) What is meant by

a) ~type silico n
b) n-type silicon

3) W hat is a pn junction? What happens when a n-type and a ~type sem iconductor are
l used tog ether?

4) Oescribe what happens at the deplellon region .

5) W hat causes the free electrons 10 move when they are produced by Ihe photoelectric
eHect near the pn junction in a solar cell?

6) Briefly explain the follo wing terms and label them on a typical IV curve:
a) Vac
b) lse
c)V""
d) I...,

7) Why is the output of PV cells recorded and rated at 25"C?

8) Which characteristic of a solar cell is reasonably constan t under varying irradiance?

9) What factors altecl the efficiency of solar cells?

10) List the types of solar PV cell technology currently available .

Chapter 5 . PV Cells I Page 52

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 6 PV Modules

6.1 Understandi ng cell connection

The PV module is the basic unit in a complete PV system for most practical applications.
Understanding how a module is designed and assembled provides key understandin g to
designing of real systems. Towards this end, Jet's consider the IV characteristics of a si ngle
cell are as shown in Figure 6.1:
Current (A)

4t-- - .

-D-
Voltage (V) 0.6

Figure 6.1 The IV characteristics of a single cetl.

With three Identical cells connec ted in series, the combined characteristics are shown in
Figure 6.2:
Current (A)

41T-- - - -_ _.......

Voltage (V) 0.6 1.2 1.8

Figure 6.2 The combined IV characteristics of three identical cells connected in series

Connecting cells in series maintains the same current. only th e voltage of each ceU is added
together.

If cells with different characte ristics (dissimilar) are wired together in series. the result is
shown in Figures 6.3a and 6.3b:

Current (A) Current (A)

1-_....
-.. . ;;;::_..... . . . . . . . . .C.......
•............ +/-- ­

,
Voltage (V) A El Voltage (V) A B
Figure 6.38 The individual IV characteristics of two dissimilar cells

Chapter 6 - PV Modules Page 53

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Current (A)

C
01-- - -___

Voltage (V)
Figure 6.3b The combined IV characteristics of the two dissimilar cells connected in
series

ThuS it is apparent that the series connected dissimilar cells produce an added voltage
output, but the series current is equal to the lower value of the two.

Connect ing cells in series keeps the current th e. same, the voltag e of each ceU is added
together.

6.2 Solar (PV) Modules

When solar cells are joined physically and electrically they form a solar module.

Originally most commercially available modules were con figured to produce an open circuit
voltage of around 20V and a nominal charging voltage of 14V to make them suitable for
charging a 12V battery. They were generally made up 0136 cells in series and referred to as
12V modules. Figure 6.4 shows a module wi th 36 ce lls connected In series.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.4 (a) A module ; (b) A module representation in a wiring diagram.

In recent years with the growth of the grid connected markets manufacturers are produci ng
modules with higher voltages. Typically the y are nominally 24 V modules with 72 solar cell s
but there are some with vo ltages not suitable for battery charging (eg 100 cells) that are just
designed to be connected in series to suit the voltage windows of the grid inleract ive
inverters.

6.3 Commercial Modules

In recent years the number of solar modules manufactured has increased from 39MWp in
1994 10 over 1900MW p in 2006. This growth in the industry has resulted in many more
manufacturers now prodUCing solar modules. It is important thal only quality modules are
installed and standards do exist. The most common standard s applied to PV modules are:

• IEC61215·Crystalline Silicon Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV ) modules. Oesign qualification

and type approval
• IEC61646·Crystalline Thin-Film Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV ) modules. Design
qualification and type approval

Chapler 6 - PV Modules I Page 54

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Figure 6.5 Various types 01 solar modules

(Source: Courtesy 01 IEA-PVPS)

The modules avai lable on the market range from 2W to over 300W . Some of the module
manufacturers include:

BP Solar Scholt Solar

Isofotol1 Solarworld
Kaneka Sharp
Kyocera Sunlech
Mitsubishi Electric Unisolar
Photowan

A quality manufacturer should provide at least the following information on their specification
sheets:

Rated Power (PMAXl warranty

Power Tolerance Maximum system voltage
Voltage at Pmax (V"p) Open Circuit Voltage (Vac )
Current at Pmax (IMP) Short Circuit Current (Ise)

11not provided on the standard brochure , a quality manufacturer should be able to provide
on request the following information:

Temperature co-efficient of Power NOCT

Temperature co-ellicient of Voc Temperature co-eff icient 01 Ise

Chapter 6 - PV Modules Page 55

 Design and Installation 01 Grid -Connected PV Systems

Figure 6.6 provides an example of specifications on a typical module. Below are some
manulaclurer's websites with specifications on some modules that are avail able in Australia.

• BP So lar www.bpsolar.com .au

• Kyocera www.kyocerasolar .com .au
• Sharp www.sharp.net.au/catalogue/catalogue.asp
• Suntech www.suntechaustralia.com .au
• Unisolar www.unisolar.com .au

SHClFICAnONS ABSOLUrE MAXIMUM RAnNGS

. o;; n~Yolldhllt ~JIttJa ..... «fI

1 )~nlDl
~lIln
'"'1,II1I'I:
..nm
K.Jtn l llll

J hp \1JItlF ~
M.d m u," " l i T'" IlIII1Wt' or IOOOV
M.d...... jlG"rr 1':'\0 \11 (\ lIn) OUTPUT nRMINAL
11oi_ ..Ion- HUh q"' h 400im
W 11,(

EUCTRO-OPn CAL CHARACTERISTICS

--- ,...
--
\l iIde'l
,- ' l .... .f..U
r_...
,.,..
\ ' 111/l1li ,,"- 1
\'~ \
\I..lm.... P""''''~'''' \ \' rmdiIlIIII(q(')
SIIort clmdl "'""""
, ,~
IJ1 A .­
\In hll.'"
"b,h,.•• ,..tr
"Cf ",",",I

r.-.,..bolN IObr"" tfIkWlK'

... 1110
7Bl

.,.
""
A

,•
t1)OOW ut'
' It.!
<,.c11cmpcr1llln
,\I..hdr riftrirlln '" ' )7 ~ >'"
Figure 6.6 Specification sheet for a 180Wp module
(Courtesy of Sharp Solar)

6.4 Arrays
Just as individual ce ll s can be connected to fo rm modules, modules can be connected to
form a solar array. The array will comprise 01 modules connected in a string (see Figure
6.7a) and then these can be connected in parallel, to form the array (see Figure 6.7b). Note:
Some arrays may cons ist of a single string (i.e. in a typical1kW grid -connect system).

Figure 6.7a Modules wired in Figure 6.7b Strings in parallel

series to make a string to make an array

Chapter 6 - PV Modules Page 56

Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

The wiring of [h e array can be done to match the cha racteristics 01 the load. Prior to grid­
connect PV systems the load was typically a bank of batteries connected to sto re d.c.
electricity at 12V, 24V or higher. This is referred to as th e nominal system voltage in stand
alone power systems. Therefore the output fro m th e array had to be higher than the battery
voltage so that th e battery bank could be charged from the array under varying levels of
irradiance.

Each cell produces about O.5-0.6V und er STC. Originally the typical standard so lar modules
consisted of 36 cells connected in series to form a module so that th ere was sufficient
voltage and current, at the expected operating temperature. to charge the battery bank.

With the growth of the grid-connected market, the load for the solar module is the electricity
grid via a grid interactive inverter. These inverters are not required to operate al vollages of
the typical battery banks (that is 12, 24, 48 or 120 V) and are able to operate at different
voltage windows dependent on the actual design of the particular inverter.

Many of the module manufacturers commenced manufacturing larger modules to facilitate

easier installaHon of the larger grid connected systems. The most common module voltage
now is 24V, because the manufacturers still wanted the modules to be able to be used in
battery charging applications. There are, however, a number of manufacturers that
manuf acture modules just for the grid connect market and these ca n have a voltage output
that is nol suitable for battery charging .

6.4.1 Modules in parallel

Consider the modules shown in Figure 6.8.

If the output of the single module is, for exa mple, VMP = 17V and IMP = 4A. then under the
sam e conditions th e output of the array of Ihree identical modules wired in parallel, the
voltage (VMP) will still be 17V but the current (IMP) will be increased from 4A to 12A.

Figure 6.8 An array of three modules connected in parallel

6_4.2 Modules in series

Consider the modules shown in Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9 An array of 3 modules connected in series

Chapter 6 - PV Modules Page 57

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems [

The same modules connected in series, u.nder the same conditions , will result in an output of
V..., = 51 Volls (3 x 17V) but still only 4 Amps (IMP).

6.4.3 Modules in series and parallel

•
•
Series/parallel arrangements are used in combination for larger arrays to suit the d .c . voltage
and current requirements of the system . 1
a
Output voltage and current follow the same principle as above:
ft
• add the vo ltage i n each series st ring s
• add the cu r rent for each para llel string c

In grid connected systems, the array consists of so lar modules wired in series to provide a
maximum power pOint (MPP) voltage that lies within the window Of the grid interactive
inverter. As seen in Chapter 5, the output voltage of the so lar module and therefore the array
will be dependent on the temperature, so when designing systems (see Chapter 10), it wi ll
be important th at the solar array operates within th e operating range of the inverter for all the
expected day time temperatures for the actual location where the solar array will be installed.

In a grid interactive system , the number of modules connected in series (il any) will be
dependent on Ihe output power rating of the inverter and the number of modules connected
in a string- such that the total power rating of the array must be suitable for the power rating
01 Ihe inverter (see Chapler 11). T
is
6.5 Electrical protection c.
Consider what happens 10 the output of an array il for anyone of selleral reasons one or
more of the PV cells will not pass an etectric current (see Figure 6.10).

Figure 6.10 String with one defecti ve c ell or shaded section

Because the ceUs in the module are connected in series and a cell is damaged (or some
cells are shaded), then the current from the whole modute is reduced . If the same module
forms part of an array then the current from the array will be reduced as well.

If one ceU is damaged then the rest of the array can lorce current through it, producing a In
sig nificant temperature fise in the cell and leading 10 further damage. This phenomenon is w
called -hot-spor formation . In the extreme case of an open circuit cell, the array output will 01
be zero. th
fiI
The effect of the above situation can be minimised by the use of diodes in the wiring of the m
modules into the array. Diodes are semiconductors which allow current to flow in on e be
direction on ly.
N

Chapler 6 - PV Modules I Page 58 Cl

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

6.5.1 Bypass diodes

11 a whole string of cells is connected in series to form a module then the module will
produce less power if:
• One or more of the cells is defective
, One or more of the ce lls is shaded

The output will be reduced even though the rest o f the cells are in perfect working order and
are in bright sunshine.

An operating module or array will cause a reverse voltage to appear across a defective or
shaded cell. A diode can be used, as shown in Figure 6,11, to provide an alternative path for
cu rrent when a reverse voltage is present. This diode is calted a bypass (o r sh unt) diode.

+
Diode

Figure 6.11 Use of a bypass diode.

The polarity shown on the cel l/module above exists for a normal operation. If the celVmodule
Is defective or shaded the polarity produced by series connected elements is reversed,
causing the diode to conduct (shunt) any current flow .
diodes

(.) (b)
Figure 6.12 Schematic and photo of bypass diodes in module junction box

In most commercial crystalline modules bypass diodes are not fitted to every cell, though this
would be the ideal situation . Some manufacturers do provide a bypass diode across a string
of 18 cells , that is two diodes in a 36 cell module. It is recommended that in an array where
the modules are connected in series each module should have at least one bypass diode
litted if not already provided by the manufacturer. Figure 6 .12 (a) shows a schematic 01 a
modu le junction box showing the bypass diodes while (b) shows an actual module junction
box . The diodes can be seen connected between the terminals

Note: Many thin film modu les have integrated cell bypass diodes.

Chapter 6 - PV Modules Page 59

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

In Figure 6.13 the effect 01 bypass diodes is shown. In (a) with no bypass diode, but no
defective cell , the output is X Volts . In (b) with no bypass diode the output of the array can
be zero , when one of the modules is open circuit. Where 2 bypass diodes have been fit1ed ,
as shown in (c), the output of the array is O.SX Volts and where 4 bypass diodes are fitted ,
as shown in (d). the output 01 the array is O.7SX Volts . Generally the greater the number of
bypass diodes the greater will be the output if one of the modules is shaded (or defective). 1
c
~
I
IV
I
IV
I
,.. ~
L

. 1
,
~
~

IV IV ,.. IV
X Volt oVoll 0.5X Voll 0.75 X Voll
IV IV , .. IV
-r"

IV
,.. ~

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 6.13 The eHect of installing bypass diodes

If each 01 the modules in Figure 6 .13 is operating V,vp = laV, and the string of modules
above is being used to put power into the grid through an inverter with a voltage window of
40 to 100V, then ;
a) the maximum power goes into the grid (V",p= laV x 4 = 72V)
b) there will be no power going into the grid (V,vp = 0)
c) there will be no power going into the grid (VMP = 2 X 18V =; 36V and the inverter only
operates above 40V)
d) there will be some charge going into the grid (VMP " lav x 3 :: 54V)

Therefore. if more bypass diodes are used in an array, the greater is the chance that the
output voltage will be In the operating window of the Inverter if one of the modules is shaded.

More importantly the purpose of the bypass diode is to protect cells from local heating
(called a ~ hot - spon in the even t of one cell being defective. In the case of a defective cell a
reverse voltage is produced across the cell and there will be a build up of heat. Excessive
heat can lead to a permanent damage of the encapsulating material and/or solder and the
module will ultimately have to be replaced .

6.5.2 Blocking diodes

Blocking diodes (also known as series or isolation diodes) conduct current during normal
system operatio n and are placed in series with a module, or sIring 01 series wired modules.
Its' main purpose is to prevent current from flowing backwards through the modules at night
and prevent current flowing into a fau lty parallel string . Figure 6.14 shows a blocking diode in
place.

Chapter 6 - PV Modules I Page 60

Design and fnsta/fation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

Figure 6.14 Placement of a blocking diode

The need for blocking diodes depends upon the PV technology and its ' dark electrical
characteristics. These were common in the past in stand alone power systems, but not often
used in systems today.

The blocking diodes are not required in grid-connected systems because the inverter will not
allow a back-Ieed from the grid.

6.5.3 Selecting diodes

The two major param eters which are important in diode selection are:
• What is the maxim um current th at the diode will allow in the forward direction (maximum
continuous forward current 'F) and
• What is the maxi mum voltage that the diode wi ll tolerate in the reverse direction before
failure (peak inverse voltage VR ).
NOT E: 6A or 9A , 600V diodes are commonly used lor bypass and blocking diodes.

AS5033 :2005 Section 2 outlines the requ irements for selecting and installing both block ing
and bypass diodes .

A further consideration is the voltage drop across the diode. The voltage drop of a silicon
rectifier diodes at its rated current is 0.6 - 0.7V i.e. the above diode will consume 3.6W at BA
(6 x 0.6). Schottky diodes only have a 0.2 to O.4V drop and so if the voltage drop (and power
loss ) is critical, then Schottky diodes shou ld be used.

6.6 STC and NOeT

Standard Test Conditions (STC) was briefly mentioned in Chapter 2 (Section 2.5) while both
STC and Nominat Operating CeJl Temperature (NOCT) were briefly mentioned in Chapter 5
ISection 5.7. t).

The specifications in manufactu rer's data sheets are all determin ed using standard test
conditions. Because the performance of " modules varies with cond itions such as
temperatu re , irradiance etc., the operating conditions must be considered . Only under
exactly the sam e conditions can the performance 01 different modules be com pared.

Under international standards all modules are tested at the following standard test
conditions:
• Cell Temperatu re 25"'C
2
• Irradiance 01 1000 W /m
• Air Mass of 1.5
STC test ing is useful in rating the power output of modu les in order to compare different
modules and modules are sold based upon their power output measured at STC.

However, under normal operating tem perature conditions when th e modu le is under full sun
the temperature of the solar cell can be 250C above ambient temperature and therefore
higher than the standard test ceU temperature of 25"C:.

Chapler 6 - PV Modules Page 6 1

Design and tnstallation of Grid-Connected PV Systems Des

For this reason many module manufacturers provide the nominal operat ing cell temperature Cu
(NOCT). This is the temperature of the cell within their modules under the following
reference conditions: 1)
• Ambient air temperature 20"C
• Irradiance of 1kW/m2 2)
• Wind Speed 1 m/s wInd speed
• electrically open circu it

The difference between the NOCT, provided by the manufacturer, and the ambient
temperature of 20 CC ca n be used to estimate the actual cell temperature for the typical 3)
ambient temperature in the location where the module is located. In Chapter 11. wh en
looking at syste m design , we have assumed that this difference is approximately 25"C.

6.7 Module reliability

4)
The life of a solar module is typi cally 25+ years . However, since the PV array is exposed to
the weath er, the individual modules must be able to withstan d variations in weather
conditions and still perform up to expectations.

PV modules are often co nstructed with an aluminium frame to allow mechanical fixing and
with a glass cover over the cells of th e module. Th e most common form 01 construction is a 5)
module comprising solar cells laminated to glass in an encapsulant of ethytene vinyl acetate
(EVA) with one or more protective rear surface layers.

If moisture penetrates this, there will be problems with corrosion of the electrical connections
between the cells.
6:
Other conditions which the module must be able to with stand are:
• Thermal cycling; which occurs when the module is exposed to the variations in
temperature from day to nigh t.
• Humidity and freezing
• Cyclic pressure loads: caused by gusting winds.
• Twisting of the mounting surface; caused by mounting the modules on a non-planar 7
surface, and
• Hail test ing: ice balls are projected at high speed onto the module surlace.

Chapter 6 - PV Modules I Page 62

Design and Instalfation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

Questions for Chapter 6

1) How many cells are connected in a typical monocrystal line module?

2) What would the output be, in terms of current and voltage, of three identical cells if they
are connected in:
a) Series
b) Paraliel

3) How would the output in terms of current and voltage of three dissimilar cells be like if
they are connected in:
a) Series
b) Paraliel

4) Describe the following terms and state how each is linked with each other:
a) Cell
b) Module
c) Array
d) String

5) What would the current and voltage outputs be if seven identical PV modules are
connected in:
a) Series
b) Parallel

6) What would the current and voltage outputs be if six identical PV modules are connected
in the following string combinations:
al 1 string of 6 modules
b) 2 strings of 3 modules
cl 3 strings of 2 modules
d) 6 strings of 1 module

7) Describe what a hot spot is and how it could happen.

8) What is a bypass diode? Explain how it should be integrated into an array.

9) What is a blocking diode? Explain how it should be integrated inlo a string.

10) Ust the tests done to check the reliability of a solar module.

Chapter 6 - PV Modules Page 63

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

Chapter 7 Inverters

7.1 Purpose of inverters

PV modules produce direcl current (d.c.) outputs but the typical electrical distribution system
is alternating current (a. c.) . The Iypical LV feed (supply) into a domestic dwelling or small
commercial build ing will be either 240V a.c. si ngle phase or 415V a.c. three phase La rger
voltages can be applied to larger commercial buildings which will then have transformers for
stepping down to the above voltages. All a.c. appliances are designed to operate at either
240V a. c. or 41 5V a.c.

To convert the d.c. power from the PV modules to 240V a. c. an inverter is used.

7.2 Characteristics of a.c.

A.c. voltage, current and power formu lae are funda mentally different from the d.c. formulae.
In order to express these parameters it is necessary to arrive at some kind of average of the
waveform because the instantaneous voltage and current in a.c. is constantly varying. There
are two types of averages com monly used in a.c. electric circu its.

The first kind is the RMS or "root mean squared" voltage (VR1AS ) which allows for the fact that
the power consumed by a resistive load is proportional to the square of the instantaneous
vol1age.

The second " average~ voltage is the simple sum 01 the voltages divided by lime. The
average voltage is used to determine the magnetising behaviour of transformers and motors.
Depending on the wave shape the average voltage may be above or below the ''true RMS ~ .
Peak Voltage
./
/
I-+--+------+-~- .- AMS Vo ltage . 0.7 x peak v<:ftage

Figure 7.1 a.c. sine waveform

A third important feature of a wavetorm is its peak value . A sine wave for a 240 Volt system
will have a peak voltage (Vp ) 01 about 339V.

The expression that relates the RMS and peak voltages is

v
V =!:: = O.707xV (7 .1 a)
....... ",2 p

Chapler 7 . Inverters Page 65

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems l

£
It follows that in a.c. circuits, the current also has RMS and peak values related as ; I,

I
(7.1b)
I
1
7.2. 1 Frequency (Hertz)
The frequency of an a.c waveform is defined as the number of cycles per second (Hertz, Hz) ,
(

Frequency afl ects the function of some appliances to varying extents . Many appliances with
timers depend on the supply frequency and their clocks will drift unless the frequency is
accurate . Major deviations will adversely affect transformers and induction motors. Low
frequency often burns out this equipment. The standard grid (sometimes called mains or
supply) frequency in Australia is 50Hz.

7.2.2 Harmonic distortion

Harmonic cu rrents are also present in a.c. They can cause distortions in the waveform.
Harmonics are generated by non-linear loads such as switch-mode power supplies, battery
chargers and fluorescent lighting. In mains power, these dIstortions are generally sinusoidal.
but at higher frequencies, so that the waveform is distorted.

In an inverter the accuracy of a sine wave is expressed in terms of harmonic djstortion: the
lower the harmonic distortion, the better.

In grid interactive inverters, the lotal harmonic dislortio n must be less than 5% or they will
typically not be accepted by the authorities and not to be allowed to be connected to the
distribution grid.

7.2.3 Power factor

A further consideration in a.c. circuits is the impedance. Impedance can be thought of as the/
analogy for resistance based on Ohm's Law applied to a.c. circuits. Impedance is a
combination of reactance and resistance in an a.c. circuit. Reactance is the behaviour of
inductance and capacitance to a sine wave a.c. Inductance, L. is a property of inductors (e.g.
a coil of conducting wire) and capacitance. C. is a properly of capacitors, both of which are
common components in a.c. powered circuits and equipment. besides the om ni-presen t
resistance. R. Thus, for an a.c. circuit, it is very comm on that the circuit is called an RLe
circuit.

Reactance is either capacitive or inductive, but the ellect of either type is to cause current
flow in the circuit, without dOing work. However. resistance uses all of the cu rrent flow in the
circuit to perform work. Th us. in this sense . fo r an ideal a.c. circu it, it is best to have the
minimum reactance and the maximum resistance.

Power (in W aits ) in d.c. cirCUIts is sImply the product of voltag e (in Volts) and current (in
Amperes). Le.

Power (P) = Vollage (V) x Cu rrenl (I) (7.2)

A Wattmeter averag es power over a short period of time and accumulates the results to
record energy (Watt-hours ).

In a. c. circuits the reactance of a load will cause a phase shift of the current waveform in
relation to the applied voltage. Because of this phase shift the ene rgy supplied to the load is

-
Chapter 7 - Inverters Page 66
I
Design and Instaflation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

greater than th e energy recorded on a Wattmeter. The measure of power supplied to an a.c.
load is Apparent Power and the units used are Volt-Amps (VA).

Apparent Power (VA) = Voltage (V ) x Current (A) (7 .3)

All reactive loads cause a phase shift dependant on their inductance and/or capacitance.
The measu re of the phase difference between voltage and current is caUed the Power Factor
(PF). Th is is the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current and is expressed
as:

PF =cos~ (7.4)

Purely resist ive loads (e.g. heaters, in candescent lam ps) will not cause any phase difference
and in this case the power used is eq ual to the apparent power (Power (W) = Apparent
Power (VA»). Because there is no phase difference between voltage and current (ie 4l =0")
the Power Factor is equal to 1 (cosQ o= 1).

In a.c. circuits the power consumed by a load, measured in Waits , is called Ihe true power
(PJ and is expressed as:

P, = I ,."..V... x PF (7.5)

Generally, inductive (or lagg ing) power factors are created in electrical systems by electric
motors , transformers and ballasts. Capacitors are then installed with in the system to
compensate for the lagging power factors by providing capacitive (or leading) power factors .

An a.c. motor, in particul ar, is able to regIster low true power readings. as measured on a
watt meter, but at the same time ca use hig h apparent power to, flow in the a.c. distribution
equipment such as transform ers and cabling 1 resulting in add iti onal heat losses.

To calcu late power factor lor an appliance. the measurement of both the a.c. RMS cu rrent
and voltage are both taken and th e two values are multiplied together. This gives the value
of the Apparent Power with the units of Volt-Amps (VA) . A True Power measurement is also
taken using an a.c. Wattmeter.

The power factor for the appliance is then calculated from the lormula:

True power(W)
Power Factor (PF) = -,--e-.:;.;.---'-T____
Apparent power (V A ) (7.6)

The relat ionship between the th ree proceeding parameters can be related in a phase
diagram as shown in Figure 7.2:

Apparent power (VA)

\ ower Factor (cos $)

True power (W)

Figure 7.2 Phase diagram

Chapter 7 - Inverlers Page 67

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Note : The value of the power factor can only be between 0 and 1.

low power lactor appliances (PF < 0.7) can be a problem to eleclricity authorities since the
high apparent power causes additional losses in their distribution system . So the industrial
consumers are olten directed by the supply authorities 10 ~ correct" any power lactor
problems by installing power factor correction capacitors on site . This has the desired effect
of bringing the power factor closer 10 the ideal value of 1.

Grid interactive inverters have a power factor 01 1; i.e. their kVA and kW rat ings are identical.

7.3 Types of inverters- introduction

Grid interactive inverters can be categorised in three ways :
1. How the d. c. is converted to a.c.
a. Line commutated inverters
b. Self commutated Inverter
2. Whether the inverter has
a. A transformer
i. High frequency
ii. low freq uency
b. No transformer
3. How the PV array and inverter interface:
a. Modular
b. String
c. Multi-string
d. Central

The size of the inverter will determ ine whether it is a single phase or three phase inverter.
Typically in the majority of small grid-connected systems (less than 10kW), the inverter will
be sing le phase.

All inverters will perform the following functions :

• Convert the d.c. power from the PV array into a.c. power and will include an MPP to
ensure that the maxi mu m power available from the PV array is being converted.
• Active and passive protection on the grid side to ensure the inverter is isolated from the
grid when it either lails or is too high or low in frequency or voltage.

Many 01 the inverters will also include monitorrng 1acilities.

7.4 How the d.c. is converted to a.c.

The original sland-alone inverters were square wave inverlers. The inverter comprised o f
semiconductors and a transformer and some contrOl . The control system switched the
rectifiers Irom the positive to the negative of the battery as seen in Figure 7.3 to create a
· square wave" output.

Chapter 7 . Inverters I Page 68

Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected P V Systems

Semi-Conductor T,ansformer
I Switch I
I Ballery

Square wave outpu

! ,c ?ntr.oi
CirCUit
l~
WJL
r )

I Semi-Conductor I
L Switch

Figure 7.3 Square Wave Inverter

No feedback from output control circuit, hence no voltage regu~ation
'--­
Later versions incorporated feedback loops and controlled the width of the pulse (Pulse
Width Modulated) to create the modified square wave invert er as seen in Figure 7.4a and
7.5b
Pulse width
,. ;
+
Pulse
height
n me

-
Dead space

Figure 7.4a Modified Square Wave

Chapter 7 _Inverters Page 69

 Design and Installatio n of Grid-Connected PV Systems

I Semi-Conductor I Transforme
Switch

~ttery Modified squ a"

wave output
-

I Control
C1rcuil
~
L~
,; Mbb L Isolate d a.c
feedb ack

r
Semi-Conductor
I Switch I \
Figure 7.4b Modified Square Wave Inverter
Feedback from output control circuil, allows voltage regulation by varyi ng output pu lse width.

As microprocessors improved the princ iples of th e modified square wave inverter were
applied to create many nstepsn, through controlling the width of the pulse, such that a sine
wave was simu lated. This is the modern sine wave inverter that is commonly used in grid
connected inverters today.

7.4_1 Line Commutated Inverters

The grid-connected line commutated inverters comprise of thyristors installed in bridge
rectifiers and the outputs of the bridge rectifiers feed power into the input of a transformer as
shown in Figure 7.5 .The control system is that the thyristors in the bridge circuit altern ately
receive a trigger pulse from the main s grid. The thyri stors fire in synch with the grid and
allow the power from the solar modules to be connected to the transformer and hence to the
grid. Hence these inverters are known as "grid-controlled ~ inverters.

When the grid fails the inverter will automatically stop.

The disadvantage of these inverters is that square wave currents are generated within the
inverter and these devi ations ca use high harmonic disto rt ion and so filtering is required.

These inverters are no t very common and have generally been replaced by the self
co mmutated inverter.

Chapter 7 - tnverte rs I Page 70

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

I~C
a

, , , ,
i., I, I., i._ i., III

I
I•. ic ' ., If I•• le

Figure 7. 5 Line commutated inverter and current and voltage curves

7.4.2 Self-commutated inverters

The self commutated Inverters used in grid-interactive systems use the same principle as the
stand alone inverters described ar the beginning of Secrion 7.4. The thyristors shown in
Figure 7.5 are replaced by semiconduclor switches which are used to control the width 01the
pulse to create a sine wave as shown in Figure 7.6.

The type of semiconductor switches used is dependent on the d.c. voltage and the overall
performance quality of the inverter but typically devices include:
• MOSFET - metal oxide semiconductor field eUect Iransistors
• IGaT - insulated gate bipolar transistors

The rapid switChing which occurs to create the sine wave causes interference and therefore
filtering is required for the inverters to meet the electromagnetic Interlerence guidelines that
have been developed in many countries.

Chapter 7 - Inverters Page 71

Design and Instalfation of Grid-C onnected PV Systems

v
v'c ....
I'­

Figure 7.6 Self-commutated inverter and characteristic curve

7.5 Transformers
As seen in section 7.4 both line com mutated and self commutated inverters can have
transformers . Une commu tated inverters will always have a trans former while the self
commutated inverter can be provided with :
• Low Frequency Transformer
• High Frequency Transformer
• No Transformer (Transformerless)

7.5.1 Low frequency transformers

Une commutated inveners and self commutated inverters use fow frequency inverters to
ensure that the a.c. output voltage is 24DV and the invener will provide power al 50Hz 10
malch Ihe grid.

These inverters allow the d.c. input from the PV array to be maintained at ELV (S120 V d.c.) .
The d.c. is electrically isolated from the grid by the transformer.

The main disadvantage is the losses in the transformer.

7.5.2 High freque ncy transformers

Due to the disadvantages of power loss in the low frequency transformers some
manufactures of self commutated inverters are now using high frequency transfo rme rs

Chapter 7 • Inverters I Page 72

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

because of their higher efficie ncies. Th ese inverters need more complex circuitry but will be
lighter because of the small er transformers .

Again these inverters electrica lly isolate the d.c. power from the a.c.

7_5.3 Transformerless
To remove the weight and th e in efficiencies of transformers som e manufactu rers are
producin g inverters with no transformers. These inverters can be small and lightweight. The
peak d.e. voltages (3 40V) requ ired for th e electron ics to provide a suitab le a.c. sin e wave are
either provided by the d.c. input voltage of the array or via step up d.c. -d .c. converters.

The mai n disadvantages are :

• There is no electrical isolation between the d.c. and a.c. sides of the inverter.
• W ithout a transformer the inverter can easier inject d.c. currents into the grid, so
sometimes a small isolating transformer is used.

7.6 Types of inverters - PV to inverter interface

7.6.1 Modular Inverters

Modular inverters are small transforme r/ess inverte rs (some will have isolating transformer to
minimise d.c. injection currents) that are designed to be mounted on the back of the solar
module. Figure 7.7 shows the NKF 100-4, which was originally released in the late 1990 's, it
was designed to be installed with a 24V nominal d.c. module in the 100 to 130W rang e.

Figure 7.7 NKF 100 Watt Inverter

(PhOIO; Cou rtesy of G. Staplelon)

Over the years there have been a number of modular inverters manufactured in the range of
100-300W. One main advantage was that they removed the requirement for d.e. cabling
from the array and the a.c. was abl e to parallel at each modu le and then con nect to the grid

Chapter 7 - Inverters Page 73

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

at th e appropriat e location. Another advantage is that they are modu lar like the actual solar
module, so yo u cou ld eas ily add more modules and inverters to the system in the future.

The disadvantages of the modular inverter are that they are typically more expensive in the
cost per power rating (AU$ per W) rate and that if they fail, repfacem ent Involved removing
the module fro m the array. They are not commonly used today.

7.6.2 String inverters

These are the most com monly used inverter in small grid connected PV system (10kW or
less). These PV arrays can be connected to these inverters as follows :
a) The PV array is connected as one string and then connected 10 one inverter (see
Figure 7.9)
b) The PV arr ay is co nnected in a number of parallel strings and then co nnected to one
inverte r (see Figure 7.1 0)
c) The PV array is connected as a number of individual strings each connected to a
string inverter (see Figure 7.1 1) .

These inverters range from approximately 700W up to around 8000W. When the PV array is
above 10kW p , then a central inverter (see Sec tion 7.6 .4) or a number of string inverters is
used.

Grid-connected inverters will all have Maximum Power Point Trackers (MP PT) and th e d.G.
input voltages vary from being ELV (so that the arrays are at safe voltages) up to 1ODDV d.c.

Table 7.1 contains data on some of the inverters th at are available on the market.

Figure 7.8 : Sunny Boy String Inverter by SMA

Chapter 7 - Inveners I Page 74

Oesign and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

stnng inverter

figure 7.9 String inverter with one string

,

string inverter

figure 7 .10 String inverter with parallel strings

siring inverter

Figure 7.11 Individual strings, each with individual string inverter

Page 75
Chapter 7 . Inverters
Design and Instaflation of Grid-Connected P V Systems

Table 7. 1 Examp les of Common St ring Inverters available

Max PVV
Max
d .e. Watts
Open Maximum
Brand Model Rating W Voltage (mu d.c,
Circuit Efficien cy
Window power into
Voltage

rc-e,
on--gy1~~j~;EE~:i~~i~~EE!l~;a=il~fL~~~~ul=~~:::~~:;'~

SMA
i 2500
D
-+--' 1600~--;i --+-~'----+-';i-_
O""'i
lOO
lOO
3000WL
360013200
94.1~
95%
96%

7.6.3 Multi-string inverters

A mult;-slring inverter comprises of only one inverter. but it has a number of MPP inputs.
Therefore the solar array can be divided inlo multiple strings each siring then connects
individually 10 the inverter as shown in Figure 7.12.

These inverters have th e advantage that il the modules are facing differen t directions th en
the array could be divided into strings such that the modules in the same string are all fac ing
the same direction. These individual strings then connect to a dedicated MPP such that the
energy yield from the system will be greater than il the strings con nected 10 an inverter wlth
only one MPP and it is generally cheaper than using a number of individual inverters.

mulll shing invelier

Figure. 7.12 Multi Siri ng inverter

Chapter 7 . Inverters Page 76

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

7.6.4 Central inverters

A central inverter is very similar to the sIring Inverter with multiple strings - th e difference is
that central inverters are generally used to refer to a large system (> 10kW F ) . In these
systems the array co uld be divided into a number of sub-arrays which each comprising a
number of strings.

In some systems there will be just one targe inverter suitable for the whole array. In others
the re will be a number of inverters, for example five 20kW inverters for a 100kW system. In
these large inverters there are some manufacturers who have developed the master-slave
arrang ement. These operate such that in low irrad iance, only the master inverter will
operate : that is, th e whole PV array is connected to the one inverter (master). As the
irradiance increases then the other inverters (slaves) commence 10 operate. This ensures
higher inverter (thus syst em) efficiency at lower irradiance Jevels .

Note: This philosophy of master-slave is starting to be applied to smaller inverters.

(Pt,O!,,, Courtesy of Fronius)

central inverter

Figure 7.14 Central inverter system

Page 77
Chapter 7 - Inverters
 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

7.7 Inverter efficiency

The grid interactive inverter performs two major lunctions:
• Converting the d.c. power to a.c. power
• Tracking the maximum power point of the PV array .

Both of th ese functions will incur losses and therefore aHect the elliciency o f the inverter.

Though the inverter attempts to track the maximum power it will not be perfect , there will be
a difference between the maximum instantaneous d.c. power available from the array ( P..nIY)
and the actual instantaneous elfective input d.c. power (Pad being delivered into the inverter
(which will be converted from d.c. to a.c) . This efliciency is called the tracking efficiency ( 171rl.

(7.7)

Where
Ptk; "" Instantaneous effective input d.c. power
P..nIt = Maxim um instantaneous PV array d.c. power

From th is point in the inverter there will be tosses due to transformers losses (if one exists),
the electronic control systems and other monitoring syslems that m ight exist within the
inverter. This eHiciency is called the conversion efficIency ('1CO#1).

p~
1},.... =p .. (7 .8)

Wh ere
P.:.. = Instantaneous eflective output a.c. power
Pdc. = Instantaneous effective input d.c. power

Therefore the overall effic iency of the inverter, known as inverter efficien.ey (,!my) will be the
product of the two individual efficiencies. /

1],... = 'If... X1}" (7.9)

Inverters will generally have a quick increase in efficiency from the turn-on point at about 5%
of their nom inal power rating with many reaching 90% efficiency once the inverters are about
10% of their rated power. The peak efficiency is generally when theinverter is operating in
the 50 to 80% 01 rated power. Table 7.1 shows the maximum efficiendes for a range of
commercially available inverters. Since irradiance vary throughout the day then it is important
to look at the changes in inverter efficiency with respect to their rated output because the
actual output will change throughout the day.

Figure 7.15 shows a typical inverter efficiency curves lor a commercially available inverter

Chapter 7 . Inverters I Page 78

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

'"
."
--I O,'r.
,
~
_ !lit s8ll0OU
! Pod. Effia.ncy- .5 .6~
CKW.,g,oI Boo""" .L ~
'K
.
, , III ....
'''' "'"
',,1Wl ""
Figure 7.15 Typical efficiency curve
(Courtesy 01 SMA Technologies AG)

7.8 Inverter protection systems

Grid Interactive inverters will typically incorporate two types of protection:
1. Sell protection if extreme operation condi tions occur
2. Protection to the grid, so that the inverter will disconnect providing power 10 the grid
when there is a blackout (grid failure)

7.S.1 Self protection

7.8.1.1 Reverse polarity

This leature will protect ag aihst incorrect connection to the PV array. However not all
inverters have this featu re.

It is important though Iha~olarity

is checked before connecting because though the inverter
might have th is protection, damage cou ld sWI be done to the inverter. The warranty lor most
inverters does not cover damage done by connecting the array to it incorrectly.

7.8.1.2 Temperature
Some inverters will at first reduce their power rating as the inverter gets hot. AI a
temperature specified by the manufactu rer the inverter will then turn oft and will not convert
any d.c. power to a.c. power.

Though the inverter might have this protection it is important that the inverter has sufficient
ventilation and cooling: over temperature can cause damage to the inverter.

7.B.1.3 d.c. vol!JIQe..to.Qhigh

All inverters will have a d.c. voltage window, with in wh ich they will operate correctly. All
inverters wilt have a maximum d.c. voltage that they can withstand ; in some brands this will
be the upper limit of the voltage window, in som e it will be a higher voltage level.

Some inverters will switch 011 to protect the electronics within the inverter if this upper voltage
is reached but the inverter could still be damaged. white other inverters will not have this
protection .

Chapter 7 • Inverters Page 79

Design and Installation o( Grid-Connected PV Systems

7.8.2 Grid protection

The main function of the grid interactive inverter is to provide power 10 the local distribution
grid so th ere must be a protection device (or devices) that will disconnect power to the grid
when:
• The supply Irom the grid is disrupted or
• The grid goes outside preset parameters (e.g. under/over voltage , under/over frequency)

If the inverte r doesn't switch 011 when the grid is down, islanding may occur. This
phenomenon Is explained in Section 7.8.2.1 .

It is co mmon that the electricity supply companies will request that there is both active a n~
passive protection. In general inverter manu factu rers wi ll provide active and passive
prolection with their invert ers. When the condition that caused the protection device to
activate is removed, then the inverter wilt re -connect 10 the grid . Some countries require a
time delay between establish ing that there is a stable grid and the inverter reco nnecting .
This time is generally prog rammable.

7.8.2. 1 Passive protect ion

The grid protection device shall incorporate passive anti· island protection in the lorm of:
• under voltage protection (VfI'Ifl )
• over voltage protection (VIMX')
• under frequency protection (/mm)
• over frequency protection (I,.....)

If the voltage goes outside the range V/IWI to VMD or its frequency goes outside the range 'tnNI
to 'mu, the disconnec tion device shall operate within sel lime period .
For Australia it has been agreed to accept standard settings on the commercially availabl,e
inverters . These are typically:
• Lower voltage: 200 10 230V /
• High voltage: 250 10 270V
• Low frequency : 48 Hz
• High frequency: 52Hz

Therefore in general when the grid faits or goes ou tside the parameters the inverter will
disconnect the a,c. output power output from the inverter 10 Ihe grid.

There has always been co ncern that if there was sufficient number of inverters connected to
the grid in an area and grid supply to Ihat area failed (e.g. car hitting pole and cables
breaking) that the inverters would interact with each other. That is the voltage and frequency
will become a reference 10 each other so th at the paSSive protection would nol operate
(voltage and Irequency remain in limits) therefore maintaining power onto a grid that should
be "dead' . This phenomenon is known as "";slanding". Therefore active protection is required
as well as the passive protection.

7.8.2.2 Active protection

The standard inverter will include grid protection device that shall incorporate at least one
method of active anti-islanding protection.

In Germany the inverters are required to monitor the impedance of the dist ribution system by
injecting a curre nt pu lse into the grid. As a result of th e cu rrent size of th e market in
Germany many inverter manufacturers have incorporated this facility into their standard

Chapter 7 . Inverters Page 80

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

inverters. Typically though it, can be disconnected because it has caused problems in
regions/countries where the grid is not ~ strong~ but in most countries it can only be
disconnected \I the inverter has one other active islanding method .

Examples of other methods at active islanding protection include:

• Frequency instabfJity · the frequency 01 the inverter is inherenlly unstable in the absence
of a reference frequency. This instability will lead to either the over or under frequency
protection to operate.
• Frequency drift - when there is no reference frequency, the inverter shifts th e frequency
of the inverter away from the nominal co ndition and again the frequency protection will
operate.
• Power variation - periodically varying the output power of th e inverter . 11 there is no stable
voltage fro m the grid. this will lead to a drift in voltage thereby activating the under or
over voltage protection.

7.9 Monitoring
Having information on the outputs of the grid connected PV system is often of interest to th e
system owner and can be invaluable to a technician if investigating an underperformin g
system or one that has a fault.

Not all inverters are suppli ed with a digital scree n for in stantaneous reading of system data;
though many will have in-built some monitoring that can either be connected to a data logger
or computer to provide system performance data.

When digital screens are provided on an inverter the instantaneous data that is generally
available includes:
• Array voltage IV d.c.)
• Array current (A d.c.)
• Grid voltage (V a.c.)
• Curre nt to grid lA a.c.)
• Power out (kW a.c.)
• Energy generated that day (kW h)

The monitoring/data logging systems that are available either as standard or an optiOri'with
the majority of inverters will provid e data that can produce graphs showing:
• Daily energy yie ld fo r month/year (F igure 7.1 6)
• Daily powe r generation (Figure 7. 17)

Chapter 7 - Inverters Page 81

Design and Insrallation of Grid·Connected PV sysrems

..­­ -'-~--

-.
--
----
-- \
-- ." " . ' , ... " a

Figure 7.16 Oaily energy yield for a month

(Courtesy 01 Fron lus )

.... .
-
.. t , ",

----..
..----
. ,.
.

.­.­
••
.

­ ,..
,,­
.-
- •• ... - . .
Figure 7.1 7 Daily power generation
(Courtesy of Fronius)

Chapter 7 . Inverters I Page 82

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Sysfems

Questions for Chapter 7

1) State what an inverter does and why it is needed in a grid-connected PV system.

2) State the two types of average voltages in an a.c. circuit.

3) Explain briefly the terms RMS voltage and peak voltage . State their relationship.

4) Explain briefly the terms :

al frequency
b) harmonics

5) Stale what the fo llowi ng terms mean:

a) power factor
b) apparent power
c) true power

6) Describe the relationship of the three terms in Question 5.

7) State the types of inverters.

8) Name the three types of outputs that can be obtained from inverters.

9) Name the two classes of Inverters.

10) Name the fou r types 01 inverter interface with the grid.

11) Describe how an inverter's efficiency can be fou nd.

12) State the two types of inverter protection systems.

/
13) Name the typical monitored inverter data.

Chapter 7 . Inveners Page 83

 Design and Installatfon of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 7 . Inverters I Page 84

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 8 Balance of Systems Equipment

8.1 Introduction
The two main components in a grid connected PV system are the modules and the inverter,
but jf the balance of system equipment (80S) is not selected and Installed correctly then the
system could have performance problems and possible premature faults or even failure.

The key bafance of system components are:

• The inter-array cabling and cabling to the array junction box
• The array Junction box (sometimes called d .c combiner box) if required
• The main cable from the array junction box (or array if no junction box) to the inverter
• Protection and disconnect switches - fuses, isolators and/or circuit breakers
• Lig htning protection
• d.c. and a.c. main switches
• The a,c. cabling from the inverter

8.2 Cabling
8.2.1 d .e. Cables
Within a grid~ canneeted PV system the following cables are requ ired :
• String cables connecting the modules In series and then to the array junction box (d. e.
cables)
• Array cables connecting the array junction box to the array d.c. main switch. (d .c. cables)
• d .c. inverter cables con necting the array d .c. main switch to the inverter (d .e. cables)
• a.c. supply cables from Ihe inverter to the kWh meter, onto the array a.c. main switch
and then 10 the grid connect ion (a.c. cables)
• Earthing cables for the array

In the past. the standard solar modules were typically supplied with a junction box on the
back, called module junction box. The boxes included "knock - ou t s ~ where either cable or
conduit glands could be installed. The installers connected cable directly into the terminals in
the junction box . Some installers would use insulated cable (either double insulated two core
or single insulated sil1gle core) and cable glands to interconnect the modules. Other
installers would use single core insulated cable within conduit to interconnect between the
modules.

This could be lime consuming but since many of the systems were Sland-alone systems , the
systems were often sma ll (less than 2kWp) with typical vollages 01 12, 24 or 48V
(occasionally 120V on larger systems). This meant many parallel strings and so using single
core cable and conduit was suitable for these installations.

Note: There are some sm aller modules (10 to 30 W p) that are supplied with ·'flying leads~­
that is cables al ready connected and no junction boxes.

During the 1990's with increasing interest in grid -connected PV systems, methods were
investigated on how the make the installat ion lime shorter and easier. A number of
manufacturers developed plug connections as shown in Figu re 8.1.

Chapter 8 - Balance of Systems Page 85

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected P V Systems

Figure 8_1: Examples of solar cable plug

(Photos: Courtesy 01: Mul tico ntact)

These have a positive and negative plu g wh ich minimise mistakes of incorrect ly
interconnecting modu les in series. They will typi cally have a locking mechanism so that they
are not eas ily disconnected by pulling on the cable.

There are many ancill ary produ cts which facilitate these connectors being used for:
• Paralleling strings
• Connection s in junction boxes
• Connectio ns to the inverte r.

Figure 8.2 shows some of the accessories available with these connectors.

---
----- --
_.... ---
- --
----

--­
_.- -.
Figure 8.2: Examples of accessories
(Courtesy of Multicont act)

Many of the module manufacturers can supply th eir modu les with th e cables and plugs
already con nected Into the junction box on the back of the module. The cable an d th e plugs
can also be individually purchased so that the cables can be made to length to suit the actual
installation.

Chapter 8 Balance of Systems I Page 86

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

So though the cables can be supplied with modules to interconnect them in series, longer
cables will be required tor the string cable connections to the junction box and the main array
cable. These cables can be made by the system supplier/installer to suit the installation.

NOTE: It is important that the correct toots are used fo r connecting Ihe plugs onto the
cables.

Typical cable sizes available include: 1.5 mm z, 2.5 mm 2 , 4 mm z and 6 mm 2 • These sizes will
be suitable for the majority of installations. 11 is important to select a cable that meets the
output current and output voltage of the PV array and minimises voltage drop.

So though th e plug connections can be applied 10 most of the d.c. cabling, there will be
situations when the cable will still be te rminated without using the plugs. Loose cable
connections will always cause arcs and this can be a major problem with d.c. cables.

Therefore cables have to be terminated elfectively, and the typical methods as shown in
Figure 8.3 are :
a) Screwed termin als
b) Post te rm inals
c) Screwed clamp termin als

(a)

• +--- - --- ----­

(b)
+--- ­

I1

t (c)

Figure 8.3 Three common forms of connecting cables

(Courtesy 01 Planning and Inslalling Photovollaic Systems-DGS 2005)

Chapter 8 - Balance of System s Page 87

Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected P V Systems

For the screwed terminal, metal sleeves shall be crimped onto the ends 01 the multi -stranded
conductors : these are not required for the screwed clamp term inals. For post terminals cable
lugs shall be crimped on to the end 01 the multi-stranded conductors. Correct crimping tools
must be used.

See Chapter 11 for setecting the correct size cable for an inslatlation. An important criterion
is selecting a cable that meels the output current and output voltage at the PV array.

6.2.2 a.c. cables

The voltage from th e inverter is typicatly 240V a.c. single phase and the cables required are
the same cables used in general householdlbullding cabling. In larger systems, the inverters
may be 415V a.c. th ree phase.

For single phase inverters , the cable will be 3 core (A, N & El while tor three phase inverters
il will be 5 core (A 1, A2, A3 , N. E) or 4 co re plus earth .

6.2.3 Earth ing cables

This is the standard earthing cable used in the wiring 01 buildings.

8.2.4 Ac c ess or ies

To ensure that the cabling is installed in a safe and tidy manner accessories such as
conduit, cable ties, cable clips and/or clamps and conduit clamps will be requ ired .

8.3 Array string protection and disconnect switches

AS5033:2005 defines array cables, sU b-array cables and Siring cables. The standard s t ate~
the circumstances where a PV array string cable shall have over current protection installed.

For example:
• In LV arrays, sub-a rray cables must have over current protection installed.
• 11 the array is LV, each array string shall be able to be disconnected (non load ­
breaking) in eac h active leg .
• If the array is LV, each sub-array shall be able to be dIsco nnected (load-breaking) in
each active leg.
• 11 the array is LV , the array shalt be able to be disconnected (load -breaking) in each
act ive leg and the device shalt be lockable in the oft position.

All disconnect Ions devices shall be readily available.

The isolator switch or circu it breakers that are used shall be rated for the d.c. voltages 01 the
array.

In Australia , d .c circuit breakers are generally available from most elect rical Wholesalers.

8.4 Lightning protection

Lightning is a common occurrence in some parts 01 Australia . Whether the PV array needs
to be connected to a lightning protection system is discussed in Section 11. 11 in the
installation chapter and is determ ined by applying AS1768 Lightning Protection.

Chapter 8 - Balance of Systems I Page 88

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

If lightning protection is requ ired, then the lightning protection devices could be required on
both the d.c. side of the inverter (protecting from strikes on the array) and on the a.c. side of
the inverter, protecting from strikes on the a.c power grid.

The exact position ing of these protections devices must be in accordance with
manufacturers 01 the lightning protection devices recommendations . The protection devices
could be connected as follows :
a) On the d.c. side:
• between negative and earth
It between positive and earth and
It between ne gative and positive
b) On the a.c. side:
It between live and earth
It between neutral and earth and
It between live and neutral

In addition, if remote monitoring of the inverter is possible through a modem then protection
devices should be connected to the phone line on the line side of the modem.

8.5 Array junction box

If the array comprises of a number of parallel strings, then the cables from the array strings
could be interconnected in an array junction box, sometimes called d.e. combiner box .

Note: Even if the array comprises of only 1 string, array junction boxes could be used to
interconnect the output cables from the array to the array cable to the inverter parlicularly if
the array cables are larger in diameter that that used for interconnecting the actual modules
within the array.

If there are multiple parallel strings then the array junction box will facilitate the com bining
(connection ) of th e positive and negative cables from the different strings on links (or similar)
and th en allowing only one positive and negative array cable inlerconnecfing with the inverter
(via the d.c. main switch).

8.6 PV Main disconnect switches

A double-pole, load-breaking, d.c. rated isolating switch (disconnect) (see Figure 8.4 ) shall
be installed on the d.c. side 01 the inverter while a load-breaking, a.c. rated isolating switch
(disconnect) shall be installed on the a.c. side 01 the inverter. The a.c. switch is instal/ed on
the ma in switchboard and shall operate in all active conductors. If the array is LV then it shall
also be lockable in the o ff position .

AS4777:200S also requires that the a.c. output of the inverter can be isolated at the inverter.
This can be an in tegral part of the inverter or a separate isolating switch beside the inverter.

Both the d .c. and a.c. array main switches shall be rated for the voltage and current of the
system.

Typically d .c . circuit breakers are used as d.e. switches, and manufacturers generally make
both. In Australia they are availab le fro m most large elect rical wholesa lers.

Chapter B - Balance of Systems Page 89

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

Figure : 8.4 Examples of d.e. main switch

Refer to Chapter 11 for how to correctly size switches and disconnection devices for an
installation.

\
\

Chapter 8 - Balance of Systems I Page 90

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Questions for Chapter 8

1) list the key 80S equipm ent in a grid-connected PV system.

2) list all the d.c. cables needed in a grid-connected PV system.

3) Name the typical methods of cable termination.

4) What are the typical cable sizes?

5) Name the types of a.c. cables needed in a grid-connected PV system.

6) How can the PV array be protected from lightning surges?

Chapter 8 - Balance 01 Systems Page 91

Design and InstaJiation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 9 What is a Grid-Connected PV System?

9.1 Introduction
The major components of a grid connect PV system as depicted in Figure 9.1 and include:
1. PV array
2. Array (or cable) junction box
3. Cables
4. Invener and
5. Meters
In addition to these major componen ts are the necessary protection devices, switches,
lightning protection and signage.

Inverter

Meter
Generation

Load
I
Meter
Consumption
Public Grid

Figure 9.1 Typical Small Grid Connected PV System

(Courtesy of PS E)

The PV array and the inverter have been described in Chapters 6 and 7 respectively wh ile
the array junction box and cables were described in Chapter 8. The meter can be classified
as part of the balance of system (80S), bu t the system would still operate even if the meter
was not installed. The type of meter and where it is located can vary and is typically
determ ined by the local electricity distributor, who has responsibility for the electrical
distribution system .

This chapter briefly describes how a grid-connected system works and the dilferent methods
of metering that have been deployed around the world.

Chapter 9 What is a Grid-Connected PV system? Page 93

Design and Installation of Grid·Connecred PV Systems

9.2 How does a grid-connected PV system work?

A grid·connected PV system uses sunlight that impinges the solar array to generate d.c.
power. This d.c. power is converted to a.c. power via the inverter and the a.c. power is
supplied (or led) into the electricity grid.

Typically there are two types 01 grid·connected PV systems, these are:

1. Central or
2. Distributed.

9.2.1 Central s ystem

The electricity system typically consists of cenlral power stations using a variety 01 fuel
sources such as coal, gas , water (hydro) or diesel that provide power to end users via
transm ission lines and a distribution system . The power stations directly connect to the
transmission/distribution system and the power produced by the power stations is consumed
by end· users at their actual location such as factories, business and houses.

Figure 9.2 Singleton, NSW 400kW central PV system

(Photo: Courtesy of Energy Australia)

A central grid -connected PV system operates similarly. A large PV array (see Figure 9.2) is
directly con nected to the transmission/distribution system and the power produced is
co nsumed by the end-users at their location. Grid -connected central PV systems can be as
small as SOkW p , while systems as large as 20MW p have been installed in recent years.
There are also compan ies planning grid-connected PV power plants are large as 500MW ,
with some plants expected to be completed by 2009.

9.2.2 Distributed system

As the name suggests, these grid-connected PV systems are distributed th roughout the
electricity grid. There are typically two types: commercia' and domestic.

Chapter 9 - W hat is a Grid-Connected PV system? I Page 94

Design and Instaflarion of Grid-Connected P V Systems

Commercial systems are typIcally greater than 10kWp and are located on buildings such as
factories, commercial businesses, office blocks or retail shops. The power generated by
these systems is typically consumed by the loads within the building such that no power is
exported to the electricity grid (Note: Export may occur on weekends).

Figure 9.3 Dis tributed grid-connected PV system at the University of New South Wales
(UNSW), Sydney

Residential systems are typically in the 1 to 5kW p range and are installed on th e roof of
houses as shown in Figures 9.4a. Community groups may also install small systems as
shown in Figure 9.4b. The power generated by these systems will be consum ed first by any
loads that are operating in th e house during the day and any excess power will be fed onto
the grid and will prov ide powe r to nearby buildin gs.

Figure 9.4a A 1 kWp grid-connecled PV system on th e south coast of NSW.

Chapler 9 - W hat is a Grid·Connected PV system? Page 95

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Figure 9.4b 1 kWp grid·connected PV system on the Tathra Surf Lifesaving Clubhouse

As shown in Figure 9.5. the grid·connected PV system peaks in power generation in the
aftemoon while the residential house·s power demand is greatest in evening and, to a lesser
extent. in the morning . Therelore the typical residential grid-connected PV system will be
expo rting energy onlo the grid each day. In this situation it is important thal the system
owner receives credit for the energy provided to the grid. The various methods that this
credit is obtained and determined by are described in Section 9.3 - Metering .

2 J • 5 • , • • m I, 12 Q ,. ~ 16 ,1 ~ " ~ 21 n ~ ~

Figure 9.5 Residential p rofile : PV output vs electrica l loads

Chapter 9 - W hat is a Grid-Connected PV system? Page 96

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

9.3 Metering
An electricity meter records the electrical energy in kWh consumed by the loads within the
building where the meter IS connected . The meter records the number 01 units of energy
consumed and a unit is typically one kWh. The electricity consumer is then charged (or
billed) for this electricity based on the tariff set for that consumer . Electricity distributors will
olten have different rates for residential houses compared with industrial and/or commercial
cons umers.

There are many types of meters available. Th e simplest meler is a mechanical device with a
calibrated rotating disk Ihat spins when electricity is being consumed. A more complicated
digital meler can record the time of day that the energy is consumed. Th is type of meter is
used when electricity tarill s vary at difieren ttimes of the day.

The type of meter that will be installed with a grid-connected PV system will depend on the
purchasing agreement with the electricity distributor.

To allow the consumer to effectively use all the electricity produced by Iheir PV system and
then be charged only lor any excess electricity they consume from the elec trici ty grid
requires the implementation of a net-metering agreement . In the typical residential system
with a load profile as shown in Figure 9.5, the solar electricity produced by the system wi ll be
exported to the grid In the afternoon and then the consumer will use electricity from the grid
in the evening . The net-metering arrangement allows the consumer only to be charged for
any excess electricity consumed that day from the grid. It effective ly means that the
electricity distributor is purchasing the electricity at the same unit tariff or rate (AUO per kWh)
as they are selling it to the consumer.

The simplest metering method to achieve the net metering effect is 10 allow the mechanical
meter to operate in both direclions as depicted in Figure 9.6.

In th is arrangement , the electricity produced by the PV system (S(;) either provides power
directly 10 the loads or is exported to the grid making the meter rotate backwards , reducing
the actual number of units consu med as counted by the meter.

.
gnd
nel imparl

tr~~
meter

."L..
SII
generator(s)

~ Ioad(s)

Figure 9.6 Schematic of net import meter

In the even ing the electricity for the loads is provided by the grid, the meter will rotate
forward , thereby increasing the number of units consumed as counted by the meler. In this
arrangement the meter is effectively a net import meter and the customer is only charged for
the units that are imported and thereby recorded on the meler.

If more information on the system is required then two melers could be installed as displayed
in Figure 9.7. In this arrangement two mechanical meters can be installed with i-dents that
only allow them to operate (or rotate) in one direction only. The export meter will record the
amount of electricity generated by the PV system that is exported to the grid during the day,
while the import meter will record the exact amount of electricity that is consumed from the
grid.

Chapter 9 - What;s a Grid -Connected PV system? Page 97

Design and Instaflation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

import export

grid 00meter meter Sa

~"-- generalor!s)
- L ' - IOad!S)

Figure 9.7 Schematic of separate import and export meters

In this arrangemen t, it net-metering is allowed. then the amount exported will be deducted
from import meter and the customer will be charged for the net imported. Th is can also be
achieved by the use of a dual electronic import and export meter as depict ed in Figure 9.8.
Using se parate import and export meters provides the oppo rtuni ty for the elect ricity
distributor to pay a differen t tariff for the electricity exported. This tariff cou ld be higher or
lower but typically if used with the metering shown is Figures 9.7 and 9.8, then it is typically a
similar tariff with application of net metering.

dual-element
_e~J!QDic Qleter-, s,
~"-- generalor!s)
grid
1001
--------' ~ load!s)

Figure 9.8 Dual element electronic Import and export meter

The disadvantages of the metering arrangements shown in Figures 9.6, 9.7 and 9.8 is that
they do not inform the user with the exact quantity (in kWh) that the PV system has
produced nor the exact quantity that they have consumed . There is no record of the amount
of elect ricity that is supplied directly from the PV system to the loads within the building .

It is recommended that if the local distributor requi res one of the metering arrangements as
depicted above then an installer shou ld install a separate meter (if not included with in verter)
that records the exact quantity of electricity produced by the PV system . This will allow for
analysing the perfo rmance 01 the system and could be compared with the figures on the
export meter (if used) to determine how much electrici ty has supplied loads directly within
Ihe building.

Some electricity diSlributors will allow for the metering arrangement as shown in Figure 9.9
(a) and (b) . In this arrangement the exact amount 01 electricity produced by the PV system is
measured by the generation meter while that consumed is measured by the consumption
meter. Figure 9.9 (a) shows two separate meters being used, while Figure 9.9(b) shows the
same arrangements being provided by a dual element meter.

Chapter 9 - What is a Grid-Connecled PV system? Page 98

Design and Installation 01 Grid -Connected PV Systems

ouaI-eIemeot r - - - -,
l'o electronic m8ler I I ~
,.....!o---lf-'="'- genenllor(s) : " ' - . generaIOf(s)

Qlid - - - - - i '00 -----1

(a) (b)
Figures 9.9a & 9.9b Metering for recording separate production and consumption

This meterin g arrangement allows for:

• Net metering (actually net billing)through deducting the amount of electricity produced
from that consumed ; or
• Separate tariffs being ch arged for the electricity produced compared to that consumed.

If the tari ff being charged is less than the tariff fo r consumpt ion, then thi s arrang eme nt is
unfair to the own er of the system. Even whe n the electricity is being direclly consumed by
the loads within the building, the system owner is selling their electricity produced al a lower
rate to the electricity distributor then immediately buying it back at the higher rate. In general
the electricity distributor will buy the electricity produced by the PV system at either the same
price they are selling at or higher.

These arrangements are used wh en feed-in tariffs have been introduced. Th is means that
the electricity produced by the PV system is bought back from the consumer at a higher rate .
Many count ries in Europe have feed-in tariffs. South Australia was the first state in Au strali a
to introduce feed-in tariff s.

Chapter 9 - What is a Grid-Connected PV system? Page 99

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Questions for Chapter 9

1) What are the live main components within a grid-connected PV system

2) What is the main dillerence between a central and distributed grid connected system?

3) Describe the three different metering arrangements that could be provided when using
separate meters to measure power output?

Chapler 9 - What is a Grid-Connected PV system? I Page 100

Design and Installation ot Grid·Connected PVSystems

Chapter 10 Applying Passive Solar Design Principles

and Energy Efficiency

10.1 Introduction

Grid connected PV systems are design ed to meet all or pa rt of the electrical ene rgy needs of
the clients. Therefore, if these electrical energy needs are reduced, then either a smaller
sys tem is requi red to meet the total needs of the cl ient or the PV system installed will meet a
greater portion of the client 's electncity bi ll.

In general the largest energy need for a typical cli ent is the cooli ng/healing of their dwelling.
If the house is new, the house should be designed and built incorporating solar design
features. These can either be passive or active. Methods for dOing this are covered in
Sections 10.2 and 10.3.

Following that. the electrical needs 01 the house should be assessed and energy-elfiden!
appliances used. In designing a grid connected PV system many desIgners will be (aaking at
retrof iUing a system to an existing house. Investigating the energy usage of the clients'
current appliances and encouraging the use of more efficient appliances (if possible) will
lead to reducing the ir electricity energy requirements. This is cove red in Section 10.4.

10.2 Overview of passive solar design principles

The overall principle for passive solar design in Au stralia is how 10 keep the sun from heating
the house in summer (and how to ensu re efficient cooling of Ihe house) and how to kee p the
heat in duri ng winter (L e. efficient heating) . The design tactors that influence th is principle
include:

10.2.1 Orientation
Except in the tropics, the sun, in Australia , Is located in the northern hemisphere. The
orientation 01 the house and the location of the rooms within the house shou ld therefore
incorporate the fact th at the heating from the sun will be predom inately from the north . It is
besl 10 orientate the house that the living areas used during the day are on the north side of
the house. The Southern side of the house will generally be cooler so steeping areas are
best located on this side of the house. The east lacing and especially the west facing walls
will generally be hot.

Figure 10.1 shows a house incorporating basic orientation principles.

Living Room Dining Room Kitchen

Bedroom 1 Bedroom 2
sat=l

Figure 10.1 House following basi'c orientation principles

Page 101
Chapler 10 - Applying Passive Solar Design and Energy Efficiency Techniques
 Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems 1

10.2.2 Thermal Mass (

Thermal mass is a term used to describe con struction material which can absorb the
daytime war mth generat ed by the sun and then release this as heat at night. Thermal mass
includes standard features of houses su ch as concrete floors and masonry walls but items
can be incorporated into houses (eg. sm all concrete structures in front of windows) th at can
absorb this heat.

10.2.3 Insulation
He at can be gained throug h walls and roofs from the outside. Insulation located in the roof
and walls will reduce this heat gain. Insu lation is given an R value which refe rs to its
effect iveness. Th e higher th e value of R, the gre ater th e insu lation's resistance to heat loss
or gain.

10.2.4 Windows
Glass windows are where a great amoun t of heat is transferred between outside and inside.
The size of the wi ndows with respect to the size of the house effects whether the house
might be over or under heated.

In winter yo u want the glass to allow the heat in during th e day but either double glazi ng or
heavy curtains with pelm ets are needed to prevent the heat loss at night.

Unfortunately double glazing does not reduce the heat gain in su mmer so agai n heavy
curtain s with pel mets can reduce this gain in su mmer.

10.2.5 Sun Control

The sun is high in summer and low in winter. The ideal design will therefore allow the sun to
hit the windows in winter but not in summer. This can be achieved by th e use of eaves or
shadi ng devices as shown in Figure 10.2.

N
•
Summer Sun
Winter Sun

Figure 10.2 Shading of North Facing Windows in summer

Chapter 10 - Applying Passive Solar Design and Energy Efl iciency Techniques Page 102
 Design and Installation of Grid-Connccted PV Systems

10.2.6 Ventilation
On hot. days, and particularly at night when the air is cooler, cross ventilation is required 10
aUo~ air to flow through the house. This should be incorporated Into the house; however, it is
a/so Important Ihat this cross flow can be prevented in the winter months.

10.2.7 Placement ollrees

If possible trees and plants should be grown that:
Shade the building on the northern side in the summer months but do nol
prevent the access 01 the sun in the winter months.
Act as windbreaks from the cooler southerly winds in winter
Will not grow large enough to shade the solar modules in the lulure

10.3 Overview of active solar systems

An active solar system uses:
solar co llect ing panels and storage tanks
energy transfer mechanism, and
energy distribution system
10 heat a house in winter and cool a hous e in summer.

The units could either use air or water as the medium, and these are transferred through the
house either by use of fans or pumps.

AS an example a system cou ld incorporate solar panels heating water that is then stored in a
tank and circulated in pipes (distribulion system) in the concrete floor, thereby healing the
floor and the space above.

Active solar cooling either uses air·conditioner units or absorption cycle ch illers 10 cool the
house. The air conditioners could be connected 10 PV but this is quiet expensive. The most
effective method is to use the hot water provided by solar collectors to connect to the air
conditioners or cyclic ch illers. (Furthe r information can be obtained fro m Bri sban e Institute of
TAFE- Energy Efficient Building Design Resou rce Book· Uni112) .

10.4 Applying energy efficiency

Energy efficiency (EE) means using less electricity to accomplish the same activity. There
are many environmental, economic and social reasons for reducing the electrical energy
needs 01 houses. The reasons why a potential client has chosen to install a grid connected
PV system can also be many.

For the client the effect of installing a PV system leads to a reduction in electricity
consumption . I1 a client can save energy throug h changing 10 more energy ellicient
appliances then this must be discussed with the client. The cost per kWh saved with
chang ing to energy ellident appliances will typically be much less than the cost per kWh
saved by using PV. Not discussing energy efficiency with a potential client can leave the PV
industry open to criticism .

When a potential cl ient enquires about installing a PV system , a site visit must be
undertaken (refer to Chapter 11 ). The first activity that should be undertaken during the site
visit is an energy audit. List what electrical appliances the potential client has in their
dwelling , and pay parlicular attention to the power consumption of each appliance and if
possible the energy consumption, if a ratings label exists.

Chapter 10 - Applying Passive Solar Design and Energy Efjiciency Techniques Page 103
Design and Instalfation of Grid-Connected PV Systems De

The designer of a grid connected PV system does need to have an understanding of energy la
consumption of typical household appliances and what energy saving models are available A
in Australia. The following section provides a brief description of some typical appliances
where energy savings can be achieved by buying a more modern appliance. 11 the client has
a'
old appliances or very ineflicient appliances, comparisons in energy usage with modern 1(
eff icien t appliances should be presented to the client.
SI
gr
10.4.1 Lighting
If the client is currently using incandescent lights than the customer could reduce their
ar
or
electricity usage by:
• Changing the lights to compact fluorescents (CFL's) TI
• Installing dimmers on the incandescent lights A
in
A good quality 15W CFL typically has the same light output as a 75W incandescent light but el
uses less than 25% of the power. (Note: they do draw more electriCity than the 15W rat ing).
o
If th e house has many lights, this change alone cou ld save a lot of energy (kWh) per year. VI

Though the CFl's do have a higher capital cost they typically have 6000 hour life compared ~
to about 1000 hour lor Incandescent lights and therefore over their lifetime combined with C
th e savings of electricity costs, save money. u

Leaving lights on th at are not required is also a waste of electrical energy. The client needs
to be encouraged to turn lights off when not required.

10.4.2 Refrigeration
The refrigerators typically use the most energy in the kitchen . It turns on and off all through
th e day and night and operates every day of the year . The newer fridges are more energy
efficient than the typical household refrigerator that is over 5 years old. Some 01 the older
ref rigerators ca n consume as much as 3-4kWh per day, some of the newer refrigerators are
as low as 1kWh per day. If the client's refrigerator is old , changing to a more etl icient
refrigerafor will greatly red uce their energy consu mption and electriCity bill.

Chest freezers are more ellicient that stand up freezers and again the modern freezers are
more efficie nt than the older units.

Refrigerators and freezers also emit heat while they are operating. 11 there is insulficient
ventilation around the refrigerator or freezer then they typically wilt be consuming more
energy. The operation of refrigerators and freezers also affects the amount of energy they
consume . Every time the doors are opened , cool air is lost that must be replaced. so the
clients should be encouraged not to open doors more than necessary

10.4.3 Water Heating

Using electriCity to heat water for household water is a very inefficient and costly way to heat
water. Water heaters typically have 2kW elements and will therefore use on average about
1.5 to 3kWh per day. Replacing the water heater with a solar hot water unit can be a cost
eUect ive method of reducing electricity usage.

10.4.4 Washing machines

Some wash ing machines include a heater element. It will be more energy efficient if the
heater element is not used and either the clothes are washed in cold water or the water fram
the water heater is used.

Chapter'O - Applying Passive Solar Design and Energy Efficiency Techniques Page , 04
 Design and InSlallation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

10.4.5 Iron
A steam iron uses more energy th an a dry iron. So if the steam funclion is not required then
a dry iron will be suitable and use less.

10.4.6 Using appliances efficiently

Sections 10.4. 1 to 10.4.5 mention some of the key appliances that could be changed to
greatly reduce the electricity demand on the house. Alter choosing the most efficient
appliances further reductions in energy can be achieved by using the appliances wisely, e.g.
only using the washing machine for fu llfoads not pa rt loads.

There are a number of free guides that are available to learn about energy efficiency in
Australia. The Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEW HA) has
information on the web about energy efficiency. It also has information about energy
efficient appliances, energy ratings and tips for saving electricity.

DEWHA also had another website dedicated to energy ratings (www.energyrating.qov.au).

which helps consu mers in selecting energy efficient appliances.

More information on household energy efficiency can be obtained from th e Queensland

Government website (www.epa.gld.gov.au/environmentl management!) and most electricity
utilities.

Chapler 10 - Applying Passive Solar Design and Energy Efliciency Techniques Page 105
Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Questions for Chapter 10

Ch
1) List th e basic good design princ iples of passive solar design for bu ildIngs In Australia.

2) What is the most suitable orientation of a rectangular-shaped house in Austral ia?

11 .
Chc
3) How can sunlight be minimised from entering a house in Australia? sysl
•
4) How can ventilation help in lowering energy bills? Discuss issues faced by using •
ventilation in the urban areas . •
•
5) How can vegetation help in a rational building design in Australia?
On
6) An elongated two-storey building is being designed for the Australian climate. Describe be
briefly the good design featu res to be incorporated.
Th
7) Name the equipment required for a typical active solar system sy'
8) List and briefly describe good practice in energy efficient choices for a dwe ll ing in 11
Australia.
A
to
9) Why is the compact fluorescent lamp more suitable than the incandescent lamp?
1
10) Make a survey of energy effic ien cy guidelines publications that are available in Australia
2.
and get their contacts.
3.
4.
5
6
7
8
9
1
1
1

Chapter 10 - Applying Passive Solar Design and Energy Efficiency Techniques Page 106
Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 11. Designing a Grid Connected PV System

11 .1 Introduction
Chapter 9 provided an overview of ~what is a grid-connected PV system?". To design a
system that operates to it's lull potential requires:
• Undertaking a thorough site audit
• Determining how large the s'lstem w\\\ be
• SelectIng and matching the indivIdual components
• Determining the best location lor the instal\ation 01 the components

Once the system has been designed, an estimate of the system's annual energy yield should
be calc ulated.

This chapter provides (in detail) all the required steps when designing a grid-connected PV
system.

11.2 Undertaking a site survey

A site survey is requ ired before the system is designed. The objectives 01 the site survey are
to:
1. Discuss energy efficient initiatives that could be implemen ted by the site owner
(discussed in early chapters)
2. Assess occupational health and safety (OHS) risks when working on that particular site.
3. Determi ne the solar access for the site
4 . Determ ine whether any shad in g will occur and estimate its' effect on the system.
5. Estimate the solar resource for the site
6. Determine the ava ilable area for the so lar array
7. Determine whether the roof is suitable for mounting the array
B. Determine how the modules will be mounted on the roof
9 . Determine where the inverter will be connected to the grid
10. Determine where the array junction box and inverter will be located
11. Determine the cabling route and therefore estimate the lengths 01 the cable runs
12. Determine whether monitoring panels or screens are required and determine a suitable
location with the site owner

11 .2 .1 Energy efficiency requ irements

During the initial site visit , the designer of a grid connected PV system should determine the
energy efficiency initiatives as described in Chapter 10 that could be applied to the particu lar
site. The designer should consult with the site owner and provide them with a list of
recommendations that they could undertake to reduce their energy usage and therefore
have a beller opportun ity th at the proposed grid-connected PV system could meet all or a
larger portion of their daily el ectrical energy requ irements .

11.2.2 Occupational health & safety risks

Chapter 1 described typical occupational health an d safety (O HS) risks associated with the
installation of grid -connected PV systems. The major risk wittl grid-connected PV system s is
the potential for !alllng when the installers are working on the roof. In addition to the risks
listed in Chapter 1, the exact Site-specific risks should be determined for the proposed
install ation.

Site specific risks cou ld include th e slope of the terrain over which the equipment must be
carried and/or the slope and/or height of the roof.

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 107

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected P V Systems Des

It is recommen ded that a risk assessment form be developed for each site. This form can 11 Y
then be used to inform the installation crew on the particular risks for thal site . lha'
mu
11.2.3 Solar access for the site pro
During the sll e visit the designer.'inslaUer mu st assess the solar access al the site. Th,
•
Any object that causes a shadow on the site during a clear sunny day is effecting the solar •
access to that particular site. •
The solar access could be reduced due 10: En
a) Natural landscapes, egomountains or hills er
b) Tree s or other vegetarion
c) Olher bUildings s
d) Parts of the actual building where the system is 10 be loca led, eg o other sections of p
roof , TV aerials, chimneys

The ideal site is where the solar array can be located such that there is no shading at all. If
this is not pOSSible, th en a site should be found where th e so lar array can be located in fuU
sunlight between the hours 9am to 3pm if possib le.

Remember though. the position of the sun moves thro ughout the day and also the year. So
you need to be able to locate a site where the solar access is available all year round, not
just on the day of the site visit.

A Solar Pathfinder can be used to do this. The Solar Pathfinder has curves showing the
movement of the sun for each month of the year , it can be used 10 locate a site where the
solar access is the greatest.

If you do not have access to a Solar Pathfinder Ihen you might be able 10 make use of the
sunpath diagrams in Chapte r 2. Use these to estimate the path that the sun takes throug h
the sky at that particularly location. If you determine the two extrem ities , that is at the
solstices in June and December than you will have an appreciat ion of the area 01 the sky
where the sun travels . Using this inform ation you ca n identify what objects might affect the
solar access and possibly find the area where the solar access will be the greatest.

11.2.4 Shading
If you cannot select a site that is available 10 the sun all day then you must iden tify all the
objects that cause a shadow and determin e how long that object will cause a shadow on the
proposed array and how much of the array it wi ll affect.

Ag ain the Solar Pathlinder can be used for this purpose. When usin g the pathfinder you will
be able to determ ine at what tim es of the day and in what month s particular objects will cast
a shadow on the site where the proposed array will be located.

Though the Solar Pathfind er is an excellent 1001 it cannot always be used effectively. For
example, if the building upon which the solar array will be located has not yet been
con structed , then during the site as sessment th e Pathfinder cannot physically be located at
the same height as the proposed array. There may be objects that will shadow the site, and
the effect of these shadows will be different on the ground when compared with the height of
a roof (or array mounting structu re). A full assessment of the effect of shadows on the
proposed array cannot be undertaken, though the Pathfinder can still be used to obtain an
apprecIation of the effect. It can also be used after the building has been constructed and
be fore the array is installed to determin e the exact the effect at the shadows.

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 108

Design and fnstalfarion of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Jf you do not have access to a Solar Pathfinder there are a number of software packag es
that will analyse the effect of shadowing on the proposed array. To use these effectively you
must determine the physical dimensions of the object in relation to the location of the
proposed array.
That is:
• How far is the object from the proposed array?
• What is the direction (azimuth) with respect to th e array?
• What is the height and width of the object?

Entering this information into the software package will determine the effect on the expected
energy yield of the array due to the shadows.

Some of the software packages allow photos to be laken to be entered into the program to
perform the analysis.

If you do not have a Solar Pathfinder and you are trying to locate a solar array such that it is
not effected by the shadow, of a particularly object. then Tables l1a and l I b show the
distance of a shadow cast by a 1 metre high object for vario us sites around Au stralia.

Detailed analyses 01 shadows can help to determine how many strings should be installed
and how they will be interconnected to ensure the shadows on ly effect the minimum amount
of strings at anyone time . This is critical if there is an object th at will cast a shadow which
will move over the array for a long period of the day (i.e. a chimney in the middle of the rool).

11.2.5 Solar Resource at the site

The annual energy yield from the so lar array will be dependent on the actual solar irradiation
at the site. Th is irradiation varies as a result of:
• Tilt angle of the array
• Direction the array is facing
• Shading effect of objects

Table 2.4 provid es horizontal irradiation data for various locations in Australia .

The solar array should never be installed in a horizontal position because the build up of dirt
will not be cleaned by rain. Th e ideal tilt ang le for Australia va ries greatly. as it is dependent
on the latitude of the site. The modules however should always be facing north , as Aust ralia
is in the southern hemisphere. As a general rule, the optimal tilt angle will be within 5 Do l the
latitude of the site.

The modules should also be tilted at least 10 0 from the horizo ntal. The 10 0 is to allow th e
module to be cleaned when it rains , without any human input.

In grid connect PV systems th e solar modules are generally located in the same direction as
the available rool and at the same tilt or pitch of the rool. Only occasionally will there be a
site where this will be in the ideal direction, that is true North. When the array is not facing
the ideal direction or tilt, then the available irradiation and hence the annuat energy yield will
be decreased. The Clean Energy Council, through the SCSE website. provides tables for
major Cities which show, as a percentage, the los s of irradIation (and hence power) at
various tilt angles and directions. The percentage is based on the amount of available
irradiation at the best tilt angle facing true north .

Chapler 11 - Designing a Grid -Connected PV System Page 109

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems o
Table 11.1a: Shadow Tables: Distance Cast by shadow of 1metre high object for
Ad e I·d
al e, ArIce S·
::;pnngs, B ns
. b e·
ane, alrns an C an b erra

Time
;n
hours
Distance in metres that a 1 metre hillh object will cast a shadow 1
Adelaide Alice 5 rinas Brisbane Cairns Canberra
from
E -ye N +ve E -ye N +ve E -ye N +ve E -ve N +ye E -ve N +ve
solar
noon W +ve S -ve W +ve S -ve W+ve S -ye W+ve S -ye W +ve S -ve
4.00 5.4 -4.0 3. 1 -2 .1 3 .6 -2 .5 2.5 ·1.6 5 .5 -4.1
3-75 4.0 -3.3 2.5 ·1.9 2.8 -2.2 2.1 -1.4 4.1 -3 .3
3_50 3.2 -2.8 2.1 ·1 .7 2.3 -2.0 1.7 -1.3 3.2 -2.9
3_25 2.6 -2.5 1.8 -1.5 2 .0 -1.8 1.5 -1.2 2.6 -2 .6
3_00 2.1 -2.3 1.5 -1 .4 1.7 -1.7 1.3 -1.1 2.2 -2 .3
2.75 1.8 -2.1 1.3 -1.4 1.4 -1.6 1.1 -1.1 1.8 -2.2
2.50 1.5 -2.0 1.1 .1.3 1. 2 · 1.5 1.0 -loO 1.5 -2.1
2.25 1.3 -1.9 0 .9 -1.3 1.0 - 1.4 0.8 -1.0 1.3 -2.0
2.00 1.1 -1.8 0.8 -1.2 0.9 · 104 0.7 -0.9 1.1 - 1.9
1.75 0.9 -1.8 0.7 -1 .2 0.7 -1.3 0.6 -0.9 0. 9 -1.8
1.50 0.8 -1.7 0.6 -1 .1 0. 6 - 1.3 0.5 -0.9 0.8 -1.8
1.25 0.6 -1.7 0. 5 -1 . 1 0.5 -1.3 0.4 -0.9 0.6 -1.7
1.00 0.5 -1.7 0.4 -1 .1 004 -1.3 0.3 -0.9 0.5 -1.7
0.75 0.4 -1.7 0.3 -1.1 0.3 -1.2 0.2 -0.9 0 .4 -1.7
0.50 0.2 -1.6 0.2 -1.1 0 .2 -1. 2 0.2 -0.9 0.2 -1.7
0.25 0.1 -1.6 0.1 -1.1 0.1 -1.2 0. 1 -0.9 0.1 - 1.7
0.00 0 .0 -1.6 0.0 -1.1 0.0 - 1.2 0.0 -0.8 0 .0 -1.6
-0.25 -0.1 -1.6 -0.1 -1. t -0.1 -1.2 -0.1 -0.9 -0 .1 -1.7
-0.50 -0.2 -1 .6 -0.2 -1 .1 -0.2 -1.2 -0.2 -0.9 -0.2 -1.7
-0.75 -0.4 -1.7 -0.3 -1 . t -0.3 -1.2 -0.2 -0.9 -0.4 -1. 7
-1.00 -0.5 -1.7 -0 .4 -1 .1 -0.4 - 1.3 -0 .3 -0.9 -0.5 -1.7
-1.25 -0.6 ·1 .7 -0. 5 -1.1 -0. 5 - 1.3 -0.4 -0.9 -0 .6 - 1.7
-1.50 -0.8 -1.7 -0.6 -1 .1 -0.6 -1.3 -0 .5 -0.9 -0.8 -1.8
-1.75 -0.9 -1.8 -0.7 -1.2 -0.7 -1. 3 -0.6 -0.9 -0 .9 -1.8
-2.00 -1.1 -1.8 -0.8 -1. 2 -0.9 - 1.4 -0 .7 -0.9 - 1.1 -1.9
-2.25 - 1.3 -1.9 -0.9 -1.3 -1.0 -1.4 -0 .8 -1.0 -1 .3 -2.0
-2.50 -1.5 -2.0 -1.1 -1.3 -1.2 -1.5 -1.0 -1.0 -1.5 -2.1
-2.75 -1.8 -2. 1 -1.3 -1. 4 -1.4 -1.6 - 1.1 -1 .1 -1.8 -2.2
-3.00 ·2 .1 -2.3 -1 .5 · 1.4 - 1.7 - 1.7 -1.3 -1. 1 -2 .2 -2 .3
-3 .25 -2.6 -2.5 -1.8 -1. 5 -2.0 -1.8 -1.5 - 1. 2 -2 .6 -2.6
-3.50 -3.2 -2.8 -2.1 -1.7 -2.3 -2 .0 -1.7 -1.3 -3.2 -2.9
-3 .75 -4.0 -3.3 -2.5 -1.9 -2 .8 -2.2 -2.1 - 1. 4 -4 .1 -3.3
-4.00 -5.4 -4.0 -3.1 -2 .1 -3.6 -2 .5 -2 .5 -1.6 -5 .5 -4.1

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System I Pagel 10

Design and Installation of Grid- Connected PV Systems

Table 11.1b: Shadow Tables : Distance Cast by shadow of 1metre high object for
Darwin Hobart, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney
Time
in Distance in metres that a 1 metre hiq h object will cast a shadow
hours
Darwin Hobart Melbou rne Perth Sydney
from
E-ve N +ve E -ye N +ve E -ye N +ve E -ye N +ve E -ye N +ye
solar
noon W +ve S -ye W +ve S -ye W +ve S -ve W +ve S -ve W+ve S -ve
4.00 2 .2 ·1 .3 11.9 ·9.0 6.7 ·5 .0 4 .4 ·3 .2 5.0 ·3.7
3.75 1.9 -1.2 7.3 ·6.1 4.8 ·3.9 3.4 ·2.7 3.8 ·3.1
3.50 1.6 ·1.1 5.2 ·4.8 3.7 ·3 .3 2.8 ·2.4 3.0 ·2.7
3.25 1.4 -1.0 4.0 -4.0 2.9 ·2 .9 2.3 · 2.2 2.5 -2.4
3.00 1.2 -1.0 3.1 -3. 6 2.4 · 2.6 1.9 -2. 0 2.1 · 2.2
2.75 1.0 -0. 9 2.6 -3.2 2.0 -2 .4 1.6 +1.9 1.7 ·2.0
2.50 0.9 -0. 9 2.1 -3.0 1.7 ·2.3 1.4 -1 .8 1.5 -1.9
2.25 0.8 -0.8 1.8 -2.8 1.4 -2.2 1.2 · 1.7 1.2 -1.8
2.00 0.7 -0.8 1.5 -2.7 1.2 -2. 1 1.0 · 1.6 1 .1 ·1.8
1.75 0.6 -0.8 1.2 -2.5 1.0 · 2.0 0.8 ·1.6 0 .9 -1.7
1.50 0.5 ·0.8 1.0 -2 .5 0.8 -2.0 0.7 -1.5 0 .7 -1.7
1.25 0.4 -0.8 0.8 -2.4 0.7 -1.9 0.6 -1.5 0.6 +1.6
1.00 0.3 -0.7 0.6 -2.3 0.5 -1.9 0.4 -1. 5 0.5 -1.6
0.75 0.2 ·0.7 0.5 · 2.3 0 .4 · 1.9 0.3 -1.5 0 .3 ·1.6
0.50 0.1 -0.7 0. 3 ·2.3 0.3 -1 .8 0.2 -1.5 0 .2 -1.6
0.25 0.1 -0.7 0.1 -2.3 0.1 -1. 8 0.1 -1.5 0. 1 ·1.6
0.00 0 .0 -0.7 0.0 -2.3 0.0 -1.8 0 .0 -1.4 0.0 -1.6
-0.25 -0.1 ·0 .7 ·0 .1 -2.3 -0 .1 -1.8 -0.1 -1.5 ·0 .1 -1.6
-0.50 -0. 1 -0.7 -0.3 -2.3 -0.3 -1.8 -0.2 · 1.5 -0 .2 ·1 .6
-0.75 -0.2 -0.7 ·0.5 ·2.3 -0 .4 -1.9 -0.3 -1.5 -0.3 -1.6
-LOO -0.3 -0.7 ·0. 6 -2.3 -0 .5 ·1.9 -0.4 ·1.5 -0.5 -1.6
·1 .25 -0.4 -0.8 -0.8 -2.4 ·0 .7 ·1.9 -0.6 -1.5 -0.6 - 1.6
-1.50 -0.5 ·0.8 -1.0 -2.5 -0.8 -2 .0 -0 .7 -1.5 -0 .7 -1.7
·1 .75 -0.6 ·0.8 +1.2 · 2.5 -1.0 -2.0 -0.8 -1.6 -0.9 -1.7
-2.00 -0.7 ·0.8 -1.5 ·2.7 -1.2 ·2 .1 -1.0 -1.6 · 1.1 -1.8
-2.25 -0.8 -0.8 -1.8 ·2.8 -1.4 ·2.2 -1.2 -1. 7 -1.2 · 1.8
-2.50 -0.9 -0.9 -2.1 -3.0 -1. 7 -2.3 -1.4 -1.8 -1.5 +1.9
-2.75 -1.0 ·0.9 ·2.6 -3 .2 ·2.0 -2 .4 -1.6 - 1.9 -1.7 -2.0
-3.00 -1.2 -1.0 -3 .1 ·3.6 -2.4 ·2 .6 -1.9 -2.0 -2.1 · 2.2
-3.25 -1.4 · 1.0 ·4.0 -4.0 -2 .9 ·2.9 ·2.3 -2.2 ·2.5 -2.4
-3.50 · 1.6 ·1.1 -5.2 -4 .8 -3.7 ·3.3 -2.8 -2.4 ·3.0 -2 .7
-3.75 -1.9 -1.2 -7.3 -6.1 -4.8 -3.9 -3.4 -2.7 -3 .8 -3.1
·4.00 -2.2 - 1.3 ·11.9 ·9.0 ·6.7 -5 .0 -4.4 -3.2 -5.0 -3.7

11.2.6 Available area

The location 01 th e solar array must be determined during the site vis it. The location m ust be
where the so lar access is the greatest as described in Sections 11.2.2 to 11 .2.5. The size of
the array that will be installed, thou gh dependent on available capi tal , will also be dependent
on the actual area 01 the available roof.

This could be determined from architectural or building drawings, if available . If these are not
available than accurate measurements 01 the area must be taken during the site visit.

Chapter" - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Pagel"

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Note:
1. If the building is still to be constructed then the architectural drawings must be used.
2. In some instances there will no suitable roof and the solar array might need to be ground
mounted on a free standing array frame.

The drawings or measurements will be used to determine th e maximum available area but
remember though there might be an available area, due to the shape of the available area
and the shape 01 the solar modules, not all the rool space might able to be used. Section
11 .3 provides a step by step guide to calcu lating how many modules can be mounted on a
particular roof.

11 .2.7 Suitability of Roof

During the site visit, the roof is to be assessed for its· suitability for installing a PV array.
Some of the things to be considered are:
1. That the roof is strong enough to hold the weight at the array (see below)
2. That the roof receives sufficient solar access (Sections 11 .2.3- 11 .2.6)
3. ThaI there is sufficient area (with good solar access) to mount the array (Sections 11.2.6
and 11.3)
4. The age of the tiles and what the ri sk of damage is during installation
5. The tilt angle of the roof and the direction it faces

In Australia, the tile rool typically consists of trusses and rool battens spaced to suit the
particular tile. These battens are generally spaced between 320mm to 345mm In th ese
types of roofs th e tlles are able to be walked upon by a person and withstand conti nuous
2 2
load s ol40kg/m , A typical 160 W p solar module has an area of approximately 1.25 m and a
weight (with frame) of approxim ately 15.5kg, so even allowing for an array frame of 5 to
10kg (maximum) per square metre, Ihen the actual weight of a solar array will not be a
problem on a tile roof in Australia.

Note: There are standards and codes in Australia that relate to roofs and wind loadings on
bu ildings, these are:
• Building Code of Australia
• AS/NZS1170 .2-2002 : Structural design actions - Wind actions
• AS20S0-2002: Installation 01 roof tiles
• AS1562.1 -1 992 : Design and Installation of sheet and roof wall cladding - Metal
• AS/ NZS1562.2-1999: Design and Installation of sheet roof and wall cladding ­
Corrugated libre -reinforced cement
• AS1562 .3-2006 : Design and installation of sheet rool and wall cladding - Plastic
• AS4055 : Wind Loads for Housing

11.2.8 To determ ine how the modules are mounted on the roof
11 the building is new then the solar array could be installed such that it is flush-mounted and
actually replaces the rool material , typically tiles. If the building exists then the solar array will
generally be retrofitted to the existing roof.

11 .2.9 Interconnection of PV system to grid

AS4777:2005 states that the electrical connection of the PV system 10 the grid shall occur al
either the main switChboard or the nearest distribution board. The exact location of the
connection point must be determ ined during the site visit.

NOTE: If you are connecting to a distribution board, appropriate signage, as per

AS5033 :2005 and AS4 777 :2005 needs to be installed.

Chapter 11 - Oesigning a Grid-Connected PV System I Page 112

Design and Installation of Grid -Connected PV Systems

11.2.10 Selecting the location of the system equipment

The location of the solar array has been discussed in previous sections. While on site the
location of all the other equipment must be determined. This includes the location of:

• Array junction box (i l one exists)

• Inverter.

The location 01 all the equipm ent should be marked on an architecturallbuilding drawing if
available and il these are not available the person undertaking the site visit should prepare a
sile sketch, similar to that shown in Figure 11_ 1. Tak ing digital photos of the site and the
proposed location 01 each piece of equipment is a good method 10r keeping records.

Inverter in garage
SWI;tch;bo,~rd on outside wall
4.0 mm 2 cable, , Om in length

2kW p array

XYZ Solar Instal1 ation Com an

r Site Plan: ABC Customer

Drawn B :
C hecked B
Date:

f-
"c",a"le
s "':~_ _ __ _ _- j Draw;ng
Number:

Figure 11.1 Example of site plan

11 .2. 11 Determining the cable route and leng1hs

Once the location of all equipment has been located then Ihe route that the cable shall take
must be selected.

The cable ru ns include:

• Either solar array to array junction box (if one exists) and junction box to inver1 er, or
• Solar array direct to inverter
And
• Inverter to switchboa rd or distribution board.

The distances at these cable ru ns need to be measured because they will be used 10 se lect
the cable sizes and for undertaking system loss calculations.

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page '13

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems [

11.2.12 Monitoring equipment F

A descriptIon of monitoring functions thal are com monly available within the inverter were
described in Chapter 7 (Section 7. 9). A simple kWh met er, can be used to monitor the daily
,,
energy produced by the system il one is not installed within the inverter.

A number 01 system suppliers and/or inverter manulaclUrers are providing separate

monitoring units that can be installed remotely from the system and include meters or
screens that provide inlormation on the operation of the system. The information can
include:
• kW output of inverter
• d.c kW input to inverter
• solar cu rrent
• d.c. voltage
• a.c voltage
• Daily or monthly kWh produced by the solar array

If a monitoring system is bei ng supplied with the system , it should be installed in a location
that is convenient for th e system owner.

11.3 Determining the maximum number of modules that can fit on

roof
The following three steps can be used to determ ine the number 01 PV modules that will lit
onto a specific seclion of roof. Some roofs will have a number of different segments upon
which solar modules could be mounted. These Simple sleps should be applied 10 each
available and suitable rool space 10 determine the lotal number of modules that can be
mounted on the roof. The calculations in the example are based on just one section 01 rool

STEP ONE: Measure the available rool space

During th e site visit the actual available roof space must be determined either by direct
measurements or from a set 01 plans provided by the building owner.(See Section 11.2.6)

In this manual we will deline the distance between the gulter (or bottom edge) of the roo f
and the ridge as the width and the length across the rool as the length, as shown in Fig ure
11.2;

Front View of Roof

Length •

Side View of Aool

Figure 11.2 Defining length and width on section of roof .

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System • Page 114

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Record the actual dimensions of this area in length and width.

STEP TWO : Determ ine the ideal maximum number of modules that can fit on the available
roof space

Select the solar module or laminate that will be used in the system design.

Usin g the manufacturers specifications, note the length and width of the module and
calculate it's total area.

If the installation method allows for a gap between the modules add this to the module
dimensions and calculate th e effective area of each module installed.

The theoretical maximum number of modules, N"'1f.,. that can be installed is calculated as:
A_I
N",n = - ­
A.... (11 .1 )
Where
A,ooI = Available roof area
Amoo = effective module area

For this worked example we will use an 160 Watt module which has the dimensions of 790
mm wide and 1593 mm in length. This has an effective Amcd of;
2
Amod = O.790Il1 x1.5 93m= 1.26m

If your typical fra ming system has a gap between modules, this must be allowed for in the
area calculations .

In this exa mple, assume the available roof space is 8 m long and 5 m wide. Th is has an
effective area of ;
2
An;><>{ =8m x5 m =40m

The theoretical maximum number of modu les N,ru~ that can be installed in this roof area is
40m '
N"'':H = l = 3 J.7 modul es
1.26 m per modul e

STEP THREE: Determine the actual maximum number of modules that can fit on the
available roof space

The actual number of modules that can fit on a roof is li mited by the actual length and width
of the module compared with the length and width of the available roof space.

A module has two fi xed dimensions, length and width, and in general modules are
rectangu lar in shape. Modules can be installed in an area either mounted landscape (length
wise across ), or portrait (length wise up) that is:

length wise across length wise up

In any available roof space these two installation methods must be compared to determine
the actual maximum number of modules that can fit in the available area.

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 115

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems o
Note: In this manual we have nominated that the longest side of the rectangle is known as b
the leng th , /, and the shorter side as the width _w. 1
a) Installation length wise across

The number of modules that can be installed length wise across, Nacross_up ~ up" the roof is

( 11.2)
where
'"r<>O{ = roof width
IV
mod = module width

In our worked example, the number of modules that can be installed kU p- the roof is

4 01
N ",,,,,,to _ Up = = 5. 06 == 5 modul es (al wav~ round down)
0.79 m •

The number of modules that can be installed "across~ the roof is

N I>C' QU = -,-­ '"""

.., (11.3)

,
where
,-"of = roof length

ImOO "" module length

In our worked example, the number of modules that can be installed "across~ the roof is

801
N TO ;:: = 5.02 == 5 modu les (a lway" round down)
~" 1.593 m

Theretore, the maximum number 01 modules that can be installed with the modules mounted
lengthwise across the roof Nacrog_/N)( is

(1 1.4)

In our worked example, the maximum number of modules that can be installed with the
modules mounted lengthwise across the roof N/IOf}S$_mD is

N ....I'(>U _ _ _ = 5 x 5=25

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System I Page 116

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

b) Installation length wise up

The number of modules that can be installed "uP" (N,~) the roo f is

'""",
N ~--
• I
(11.5)
where
""'"
IVtO<! = roof width

IIWId ::: module length

In ou r worked example, the number of modules that can be installed "UP" the roof is

4m
N.. = = 2.51 ::: 2 ll1odules(al ways round Jown)
L593m

The number of modules that can be installed -across the roof is M

(11.6)
where
I
~ = rool length

Ill. = module width

In our worked example, the number of modules that can be installed "across" the roof is

8m .
N - =JO.IEIOmodu]es (a]waysrounddown)
.,,-~, '..., 0.79 III

Therefore, the maximum number of modules that can be installed with the modules mounted
length wise up the roof is

(11.7)

In ou r wo rked exam pl e, the maximum number of modules that can be installed with the
modules mounted length wise up the roof is

/¥ "1'_...... =?x
- I O='lO
­
The actual maximum number of modules that can be installed will be the larger of the
number of modules that can be installed lengthwise acroSs the roof co mpared with length
wise up the roof. In our worked example, it is best to mount the modules length wise across.
This allows 25 modules compared to 20 modules.

Note:
In this section we have determined the tolal number of modules that can be mounted on an
available roof space, the final number will be dependent on the selection of the inverter and
Ihe speCific number of modules that can connected in series and parallel to that inverter.

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 11 7

Design and Instal/ation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

11.4 Calculating the wind loading of the array

Due to the effect of temperature the solar array should have an air gap behind the modules
to allow for ventilation of the modules. This gap will result in an uplilt force on the modules
when any wind is blowing.

The array structu re must be designed to meet this wind loading such that the array will never
be blown-off 01 the roof. The relevant standard in Au stralia is AS/NZS 1170.2-2002:
Structural design actions - Wind actions.

In general the array frame is designed by the manufacturer"s/supplier's structural engineer to

meet the specific wind loadings. The design will ensure that th e metal used in th e frame is
sufficiently strong enough to withstand the wind loading forces and this Is usually not a
problem. The critical factor though is the point 01 attachment of the mounting structure to the
roof.

Typically the array structure will be designed to suil a maximum number of modules lor a
specified number of paints of attachments.

If you are designing your own mounting structure. you will generally need 10 have it certified
and get a Structu ral Certificate. This is to ensure that it meets the relevant requirements.

11 .5 Selecting the type of inverter

As described in Chapter 7, there are fou r types of inverters :
1. Central
2. Multi-string
3. Siring
4 . Modular

Things to consider when selecting an inverter are:

a) The peak rating of the PV array
b) Whether the solar modules are all in th e sam e plane, th at is the same lilt angle and
direction
c) The type of shading that occurs on the array
d) The capital co sts of the different inverters
e) The average annual energy yield

Notes :
1. Inverter efficiency could be a consideration. but many of the modern inverters have
similar efficiencies.
2. It is assumed that all the inverters investigated by the syste m designer are approved to
be connected to the Australian grid. A list of approved inverters can be found on the
SCSE (Clean Energy Council ) webs ile.

If the system is a large system. (> 20kW), then it is typical that a central inverter will be
selected but again this will be dependent on the particu lar site with respect to points band c.
above. The solar array cou ld be broken down into segments eg 5kW p each and then
connected to the smaller inverters . (Note: AS4777 only covers up to 1OkVA sing le phase and
30kVA three phase; for larger systems the electricity distributor could request other
requirements before allowing interconn ection).

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System I Page 118

Design and Installation of Grid -Connected PV Systems

If the modules will be in different planes or there will be shading of the array then. to achieve
the maximum energy yield over the year, it is generally better to break the system into a
number of different strings and use a multi -string inverter or a string inverter on each string.
Therefore when onc string is shaded and the MPP voltage is reduced for that string, it
should not disadvantage the other strings. Similarly if the modu les are in different planes and
are all connected to one inverter, either as one string or in multiple strings, then the inverter
will follow the worst MPP.

The disadvantage of this is that it cou ld increase the cost, a number of string inverters
(smaller kW rating) will typically be more expensive than one larger kW rated inverter. The
advantage of the higher energy yield and the redundancy introduced by multiple inverters
could be more bene ficial than the difference in capital costs.

The designer will need 10 determine the advantages and disadvantages of each solution with
respect to capital costs and system performance. These should be discussed with the client
and th e final decision made in consultation with the m.

11.6 Where are the power losses in a grid-connected PV system?

Unfortunately, the solar ene rg y that falls on a solar array each day cannot be completely
converted to electrical power in the grid.

All of the following effect the conversion of solar power to electrical power in a PV grid
connect system:
1. Efficien cy of PV cells/module
2. Temperature of the PV module
3. Dirt
4. Manufacturer's tolerances and module mismatch
5. Voltage drop in d.c. cables to inverter
6. Inverter efficiency
7. Voltage drop in a.c. cables to point of connection to grid.
8. Shadows

The effect of these are explained in detail ;n the following sections.

11.6.1 Efficiency 01 PV module

The efficiency of the various types of solar cells and modules was discu ssed in Chapt er 2.
Typically commercial modules are in the range of 10% to 16% depending on the type of
solar cell.

From the design ers and installers perspect ive, you select a certain brand of modules for
various reasons and the module manufacturer provides a power rating fo r that particular
module based on the standard test conditions.

The cost per W p is one of the main factors eff ecting th e selection but if a module is le ss
efficient ifs size will be larger than a more efficient module. This could be a problem if roof
space is limited or it might increase the cost due 10 more inslallalion hardware (eg larger
array fra me) required. A careful ana lysis is requ ired, to compare different types of module.
For example , thin film modules could be less effident and therefore the array could cost
more to install compared to an equivalent sized (W p ) crystalline array- but it is less affected
by temperat ure and therefore could yield more energy over a 12 month period than the
equivalent rated crystalline array.

The eff iciency of the solar module is required when determining the system performance
ratio.

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 119

Design and InstaJ/ation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

If the elliciency of the module is not provided in the manulacturers data sheet then it can be
calculated using Ihe following formula .

Efliciency, " . of a solar module is calculated by the following equation :

P +A
ry = '"I' - x lOO%
1.000 (W/m' ) (11 .8)

where
P"" = module rali ng al r,eak power (W p).
A""" = module area (m )

In the previous worked example, a 160Wr.J so lar module had Ihe following dimensions and
area:

A-.d = 0.790 III x 1.593 III = ) .26 Ill :

Therelore the eff iciency is

ry = 160(Wp)+ 1.26.(m') x 100% = 12.7%

1.000 (W /m - )

11 .6.2 Temperature of the PV module

The output power of a module is effected by th e temperature of the solar cells. The actual
eftect is dependent on the type of solar cell. Typical figures are:
a) Monocrysta"ine modules
Monocrystalllne modules typically have a power temperature coefficient of -0.45%/ "C . That is
for every degree above 25"C the output power is de-rated by 0 .45%.

b) Polycrysfalline modules
Polycrystalline Modules typically have a power temperature coefficient of -0.5%/ "C.

c) Thin film modules

This can vary dependent on the type. Also initially amorphous modules act similarly to the
crystalline cells until the modules have annealed and the output power has reduced to Ihe
manufacturers rating. Allhis paint the de-rating could be around -0. 1o/oIOC.

It is important to confirm the actual temperature co·efficient lor the modules that are being
installed. It is generally shown on the specification sheet.

The de-rating is based on the average ellective cell temperature NOT THE AMBIENT
TE MPERATU RE.

The average cell tempe rature will be higher than the ambient because of the glass on the
front of the module. The output power and/or current of the module must be based on the
ellective temperature of the cell. The average eflective cell temperature can be calculated as

(1 I .9)

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System I Page 120

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Where
Tcell ~fI = the average daily effective cell temperature in degrees Celsius
T8 "'c amb = the daytime average ambient temperature for the month that the cell temperature
is being determined.

The temperature de-rating factor is determined as follows by the following equation:

(Iemp = 1 - [y x ( Teel/.eft - Tsd ] (11.10)

Where :
11, " " = temperature de-rating factor. dimensionless
r = power temperature co -e fficient per degree Celsius (absolute value)
TC6II.ef/ = average daily cell te mperatu re, in degrees Celsiu s
T$lc = cell temperature at standard test conditions, in degrees Celsius

Note: Power temperature co-efficient is the absolute value, tha t is the negative provided in
data sheets is ignored when applying this formula. Whether the cell effective temperature is
above or below the STC temperature will then determine whether the factor is greater or less
Ihan 1.

As a worked example , assume the solar module is polycrystalline and IS being In stalled in
outback Aust ralia wit h an average daily ma ximu m temperature of 35 CC

Therefore the average daily effective temperature wou ld be

T(#/I _ <ifttfi," = 35°C + 25°C = 60°C

The temperature de-rating factor would then be

f,... = 1- (0.005 x (60 -25)) =0.825

This represents a 175% (i.e. = 1 - 0.825) power loss when the ambient temperature is
35'C.

Monitoring of test syslems in Australia has recorded cell temperatures over 65CC, and th is
would represent a 20% power loss. It is important to appreciate that the actual temperature
on a roof would be greater than the actual ambient temperatures provided by meteorological
bUreaus. T hese higher cell temperatures that have been recorded would be as a result of the
higher temperature on the roof.

11.6_3 Dirt
If dirt builds up on the surface of the solar module then the power output will decrease. The
amount of decrease will depend on the site and factors that influence the effect of dirt are:
• Is the site dusty?
• Is there pollution th at will form a screen on the glass?
• Is it in a sa lty environment?
• How often does it rai n?

The symbol fdlrt is used as de -rating lactor lor dirt and it is dimension less

If the site is extremely dirty with little rain it is not unreasonable to expect a de-rating factor of
0.90 or even less. II there is regular rain then a factor of 0.95 or above would be expected.

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 121

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected P V Systems DE

11.6.4 Manufacturer's tolerances and module mismatch It

sir
Modules are man ufactured with a specified power rating and a manuf acturer's tolerance.
SL
Though some of the modules will provide the rated output. not all of them will. When the
wi
modules are installed in a string it is very unlikely that all the modules in the string will have
the same output, and th at they will all produce their rated power. The module with Ihe least
power rating will effect the whole string, and so when determining the predicted output power 1
(hence energy yield) of the solar array Ihis tolerance faclor should be taken into account.
VI
The symbol f mm is used for the de-rating factor for manufacturing tolerance and mismatch io
and is dimensionless. Sr
IT
If a manufacturer has a
tolerance of ±5%, then you should assume that your modules will It
only produce 95% (100%-5%) of the rated power.
Ir
11.6.5 Voltage drop in d.c. cables to inverter. 1
ir
AS5033-2005: Installation of Photovoltaic (PV) Arrays mandates a maximum voltage drop of
,
5% between the solar array and the inverter. , Since P=V x I. if there is a 5% voltage drop,
there will be a 5% power drop between the array and the inverter. ,
Since cable costs less than so lar modules it is important that the voltage drop is minimised
as much as possible .

For exam ple a 5% power drop in a 3000 W p array is equivalent to loosing the output at a
150W p solar module; val ued at AU$1500 in 2006 monetary terms!

The formulae for calculating voltage drop are detailed in Section 11.9.

11.6.6 Inverter efficiency

There are power losses within an inverter due to the electronics and transformer (if there is
one). The losses are in the form of heat and are reflective in the efficiency 01 the invener.

As discussed in Chapter 7 the efficiency is dependent on the actual input power so it is

important that the inverter and PV array are suitably matched to avoid excessive losses due
to the inverter operating less efficiently.

11 .6.7 Voltage drop in a.c. cables to point 01 connection to grid.

U the meter record ing the output energy 01 the system is located a distance from the inverter
there will also be a voltage drop and therefore power loss between the inverter and the
meter. This voltage drop should be almost zero and this could be obtained by having the
meters a very short distance fro m the inverter or cable of sufficient size to ensure that the
voltage drop is almost zero.

11.6.8 Shadows
If there will be shadows on th e array during the day these obviously will effect the output
power of the array. Detailed analyses of the shadows on the system will hopefully lead to
reasonable estimates on the effect of the ava ilable solar irradiation for that site and therefore
th e reduction in expected energy from the PV system accordingly. So though the shadows
lead to a reduction in solar irradiation and respective energy yie ld from the system they can
also have another effect which is more difficult to predict: that is, when a shadow is only
part ly shading an array there will be a red uction in the maximum power point voltage of the
array due to the shadow and hence a reduction in the maximum power available from the
array .

Chapler 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System I Page 122

Design and Installation 01 Grid·Connected P V Systems

If the system is using a multi-string inverter then a shadow on one string could result in that
siring having a lower maximum power point voltage compared to other strings that are in full
sunlight. The inverter will see diiferent maximum power point voltages across the strings and
will probably track the smaller voltage thereby reducing the power from the whole array.

11 .7 Matching the PV array to the voltage specifications of an

inverter
With the odd exception (e.g . inverters that also connect to batteries) grid interactive inverters
include MPP trackers. Therefore the inverters will have a voltage operating window. If the
solar voltage is ou tside th is window the inverter will not operate and in the case where a
maximum input voltage is specified and the array voltage is above the maximum specified,
the inverter could be damaged.

Inverters have a voltage operating window with specified minimum and maximum VD/rages.
The maximum voltag e is the voltage where above this the inverter could be damaged. Some
inverters will nominate a voltage window where they will operate and then a maximum
voltage , higher than the maxi mum operating voltage of the window, which is the voltage
where the inverter could be damaged_

It is therefore critical that the output voltage of the string is matched to the operating voltages
01 the inverter and that the maximum voltage of the inverter is never reached.

The output voltage of a module is eHected by cell temperature changes in a similar way as
the output power. The manufacturers will provide a voltage temperature coe/licient. It is
generally specilied in V/ CC (or mV/<:>C) but it can also be expressed as a % .

To ensure that the output voltages of the array do not fall outside the range of the inverter's
d.c. input ope rating voltages, the minimum and maximum day time temperatures for that
specific site are requ ired

When the temperature is at a maximum then the maximum power point voltage (V,yp) of the
array must never fall below the minimum operating voltage of the inverter. The actual voltage
at the input of the inverter is not just the VMP of the array; the voltage drop in the d.c. cabling
must also be included when determining the actual input voltage to the inverter.

For an ambient temperature the average effective cell temperature is calcu lated using
Equation 11 .9. In Australia the average daily temperature is dependent on the exact location,
but in summer, cities like Melbourne and Sydney reach temperatures of 30 to 35"C and
therefore the cell eflective temperature is 55 to 60«; but the actual ambient temperature on
the rool could be higher than that provided by the meteorological bureau. Since it is critical
that the inverter's minimum operating voltage is never reached, it is recommended that the
VMP at 75"C is used .

If this is not available fro m th e manufacturers then the MPP voltage 01 the module at a
specified temperature is determined by the following equation:

= Vmp-src - [ ']V x (TeelLeff - Ts1c ) 1 (11 .11 )

Where:
Vnp_c.•.ttff = Maximum Power Point Voltage at effective cell temperature , Volts
V~src = Maximum Power Point Voltage at STC, Volts
1, = voltage temperature co -efficient, V per degree Celsius
r eel_eff = cell temperature at specified temperature, in degrees Celsius
T", = cell temperature at standard test conditions, in degrees Celsius
Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 123
Design and Installaflon of Grid·Connected PV Systems (

When determining the number of modules in a string and therefore the maximum power \
voltage at eliective maximum cell lemperature a safety margin 01 10% (above the specified ;
minimum voltage) should be allowed because the inverters are not always operating at the
ideal MPP and 10 allow for manufact uring tolerances. This safety margin could be very
important if there are shadows on the array.

As an example, assume that the minimum voltage window for an inverter is 140V. The
module selected has a rated MPP voltage of 3S.4V and a voltage coefficient of 0.14V/"C .

Using Equation 11 .11 the minimum MPP voltage at maximum effective cell temperature 01
75"C using the temperature de-rating is:

v"'" """ : 35.4 - [0.14 x (75- 25)): 28.4V

JI we assume a voltage drop in the cables of 5% then the voltage at the inverter for each
module would be 0.95 x 28.4 = 26.98V. This is the ellective minimum MP? voltage from the
module at the inverter, this VIIWI_IIl'P_"".

Allowing lor the safety margin of 10% then the lowest MP ? voltage at the inverter should be
154V (Le. 1.1 x 140), this is the Vm ".., ,and the minimum number of modules in the string
N mIn...JleC$tnfW> would be determined by the following equation:

N = V•• __ (V)
--~'--$ V (V)
-"MIIP_Uno (11 .12)

... the minimum inpu t voltage al lowed at the inverter

= th e effective minimum MPP voltage of a module at the inverter at maximum
ef fective cell temperature

In the example above this would be:

154V
N "'" _ " =
'·_.·.' _F N, 26.9 8V = 5.70 == round up to 6 modules

At the coldest temperature the open circuit voltage of the array should never be greater than
the maximum allowed input voltage for the Inverter. Open circuit voltage , Voc. is used
because it is greater than the MPP voltage and it is the applied voltage when the system is
first connected, prior to the inverter starting up and connecting 10 the grid.

Note:
Some inverters provide a maximum voltage tor operation and a higher voltage as the
maximum allowed voltage. In this situation it is possible to use the MPP Voltage for the
opera lion window and the open circuit voltage lor the maximum allowed voltage .

In early mornin g at first light the ceU temperature will be very sim ilar to the ambient
temperatu re because the sun has not had time 10 heat up the module. In Austra lia Ihe
average minimum temperature can be as low as · 10ac (in some regions) and it is
recommended that this temperature is used to delermine the maximum Voc. Many people
also use O"C, if appropriate for the area. Vm.,,_oc is determined by the following equation
(simiiar1o 11.11 );

: V"" STC - [ IV x ( Tmin- TSTC )] (1113)

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System I Page 124

 Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

Where:
V"",-« = Open Circuit Voltage at minimum cell temperature, Volts
Voc_STC = Open Circuit Voltage at STC, Volts
1, = voltage temperature co-efficient, V per degree Celsius
T~ expected minimum daily cell tem perature, in degrees Celsius
TSTC = cell temperature at standard test conditlons, in degrees Celsius

When determining the number of modules in a string and therefore the maximum open
circuit voltage at effective minimum cell temperature , a safety margin of 5% (below the
allowed minimum voltage) shou ld be included to allow for manufactUl"ing tolerances. Since
we are calculating maximum open circu it voltage, then there will be no current and hence no
voltage drop between the array and the inverter.

In our worked example, lets assume the el/ective cell temperature is O"C and the Vac-.le is
43.2V. The maximum open Circuit voltage at minimum effective temperature is then;

= 43.2 - [0.14 x (0 - 25)]= 43.2 - (0.14 x -25) = 43.2 + 3.5 = 46.7V

For ou r example, assuming the maximum voltage allowed by the inverter is 400V and
allowi ng lor the safety margin of 5% then the maximum allowed Vac of the array is 0.95 x
400V = 380V. this is also the maximum allowed inverter voltage V"""_m.tx

The maxim um number of modules in the string , Nmax..J'f1I s lrinQ' would be is determ in ed by the
following eq uation:
N = ~"'_~ (V )
mt.O.._P'T _ .Il' ..., V (V)
oc_~ (11.14)

in our example the Nrrwt,..f*_s~ = 380/46.7 = 8 .14

This would be rounded down to 8.

Hence in our example the string must consist of 6 -8 modules only.

Now the above calculation has been based at MPP voltages at STC. The MPP voltage point
will reduce with lower irrad iance levels. For a standard nomina! 24V module the MPP voltage
could vary , depending on the quality of the ceJl , as much as 4 to 6V between irradiance
2 2
levels of 100 W /m through to the 1000W/m .

How to determine the MPP voltage at different irradiance levels.

If th e modu le consists 01 good comme rcial crystalline cells and the temperature remains
constant then V"", (per cell) at a different irradiance level will be:

V".,,= V...... + [26mV x In (G ,IG,") J (11 .15)

Where
VfI¥l2 = Maximum Power Point voltage of the cell at irradiation G2
V",,_wc= Maximum Power Po int voltage of the cell at STC
In is the natural log
2
G2 = Irradiation level in W/m
G STC = Irradiation level at STC , that is 1000 W/m 2

, Page 1?5
Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid·Connected PV System
Design and Installation 01 Grid·Connected PV Systems

The above formula is provided per cell because the number 01 cells with in modules does
vary. Modules that are used for battery charg ing have 36 cells or 72 cells, while there are
now modules on the market just for grid connect systems that have 100 cells or other
quantities.

It is important to determine what is the minimum number of modules requ ired at lower
irradiance levels as well as the higher temperatures ..

If the temperature is not at STC than the reduction in VI;\P is by the temperature co-efficient
(reduced to a per cell value) as per Equation 11 .11 .

Therefore to determine the eHect of both temperature and lower irradiance. Equation 11.11
is applied to determine the VMP at that specific temperature and then Equation 11 .15 is used
to reduce the VMP as a result of the lower irradiance.

In Australia it is not unrealistic to expect that the ellective temperature could st ill be as high
as 75'C when the irradiance is only 800 W /m 2 .

In the worked example above the module consists 01 72 cells . Therefore applying Equation
11 .15 to the VMP previously calcu lated at 75 OC the revised Vrnp2 becomes:

V.02= 28.4 +72 x 26mV x In (800 /1000)= 28.4 + ·.42= 28V

Allowing for voltage drop the voltage at the inverter becomes= 28 x 0.95 =26.6

The minimum number of modules req uired is 154/26.6 = 5.78 Hence the minimu m of 6
module is still suitable.

The above could be repeated for lower irradiance levels but the effective cell temperatures
wou ld also be decreased so it makes it difficult to do an accurate analyses.

Note: Equation 11 .15 is a general formula and the mV variation ( 26mV) could vary between
different module manufacturers. It is recommended that the equation be used to check
whether the minimum number of modules, determined by the temperature effect, will be
above the minimum voltage window of the inverter. If it is close then ensure that the exact
minimum number is not used by using the next number of modutes (eg if the minimum
number is 6, then use 7). Th is should avoid any problems with the equation not being
calibrated for alt different module manufact urers .

In practice it is recommended that the actual number of modules in the string provide an
operating voltag es that is close 10 75% of the allowable voltage window. This should ensure
that the arrays maximum power point voltage is always operating within the window in times
of high temperatu res and al so if shadows are a problem.

In the worked exam ple the voltage window was 140V to 400V. The voltage at the 75% point
in this window is = 140 + [0. 75 x (400-140)) =335V. Thus B modules wilt have a VMP at STC
of 283.2 and a VD(' at STC of 329.6, hence 8 modules would be recommended.

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System I Page 126

Design and InslafJation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

11.8 Matching the PV arrays power output to the inverters power

rating
In Section 11.6 above it was shown that the power rating of the array would be de-rated from
that specified by the manufacturer due to:
• Tempe ratu re
• Dirt
• Manufacturers tolerances and mismatch

In addition the power from the array will be decreased due to voltage drop between the array
and the inverter.

In Australia with temperatures regularly in the 30 to 35"C range, then the output power of the
po lycrystalline module will be de· rated by about 15% to 20%. Dirt, manufacturers' tolerances
(ands mismatch) and power loss in the cables (voltage drop) will typically be anything from
5% to 15% loss.

Theretore the peak output rating 01 the inverter can be 20% to 35% less than the peak rating
of the array.

For Australia, it is recommended that the inverter peak power be 75% to 80% 01 that of the
peak power rating (PMP)ol the crystalline array.

So il the peak power of the array is 1kWp , the inverter could be rated 750W to SOOW.

li the array is thin film than the de-rati ng would be between 5% and 15% , it is recomme nded
that inverter peak power be 85% of that of the peak power rat ing of the thin film array.

So if the peak power of the array is 1kW p , the inverter could be rated at 850W.

11.9 Determining the size of the d.c. and a.c. cables.

A well designed system may have aU th e componen ts sized correctly and all in stalled in safe
environments, but the system will still only operate correct ly if the cables are correctly
selected. The wiri ng of the component.s must follow some basic rules:
• The system must be safe
• The wi ring must not degrade the perform ance of th e components of the system

A so lar array produces direct curre nt (d.c. ) and the cu rrent flows only in one direction.
The direction of th e current flow is called the polarity and is important that the correct polarity
is connected to the inverter to ensure the proper operation of the inverter.

The cables in an installation must be sized correctly 50 that:

1. there are not excessive voltage drop (hence equivalent power loss) in the cables and
2. there is not excessive current through the cables compared with the safe cu rrent
handling capability of the cables.

Most cables available commercially co uld be used in the d.c. wiring, but It is recommended
that multi-stranded cables are used. As discussed in Chapter 8, the majority of solar
modules used in grid connect systems come with cables which have plugs on the ends to
interconnect the modules in a string. These cables are known as the string cables.

Th e string cables are terminated in a junction box generally called th e array junction box (or
array co mbination box). From the junction box to the in verter the PV array cable can be from

Chapter ' 1 - Designing a Grid ·Connected PV System Page 127

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems Des

the same manufacturer as the module cables and therefore be similar to cables used or the
installer could install other cables that are available. Ad<>

Always ensu re that the maximum voltage rating of any cable is never exceeded. This is
import ant beca use some solar arrays can be in the order of ±1000V d.c. which can be Wh
greater than the allowable voltage for some cables. Lo~
V".
AS/NZS5033 :2005 states that the vo ltage rating of the cables used for wiring PV arrays must
have a rating at least 1.2 ti mes the open circuit voltage of the array. They also need 10 be Sin
rated for th e temperature that they will experience and also the environment that they are vol·
installed in (Le. UV resistant or in UV resistant condu it if exposed). the
drc
The manu factu rers of cables will have spec ified the current carrying capacity and maximum
voltage of their cables. Follow their guidelines at all times. As
an·
2. ~
11.9.1 Voltage drop and power losses
11.9.1.1 d.e. cables
Voltage Drop in a wire are a function of three parameters:
1. conductor cross sectional area (mm2);
2. length of wire ; and Tt
3. current flow in the wire. co
le'
Voltage drop in a cable, which is the loss of volt age due to the wire's resistance , results in
power loss es in the cable. The greater the wire's length. the greater its resistance to current In
flow . Excessively long cable runs can result in loss of power to the inverter and lower system Cl
efficiency. TI
AS/NlS5033:2005 specifies that the cables from the solar array 10 the inverter should be A.
selected so that the voltage drop is less than 5%. Therefore the sum of the voltage drop in
the string plus the voltage drop in the PV array cable must be less than 5%.
A
To determine the d.c. voltage drop,( Vd de) the following formula is used:

Vd-dt; = (2 x Lx.-cable x 13 x p ) (11.161

c
A".,__ P
b
b
Where
L.x__ ~

route length of dc cable in metres (2 x adjusts for total circuil wire length) f
lde; = dc current in amperes
2
P = resistivity of the wire in illm/mm
2
Adc_c:.bM = cross section area (CSA) of d.c. cable in mm

The resistivity, P. is dependent of the type of material. For copper, the resistivity is about
1/56 (0. 017857) while for aluminium it is 1/34 (0.029412). The resistivity also depends on
whether the cable is a single strand or multi-stranded.

The above equation is derived from the formula, Ohm's l aw I.e. V=I R. The resistance is a
factor of the resistivity of the cable the length and the cross sectional area of the cable.

When designing a system the string current is known once the module is selected while the
d.c. main current is known once the size of the array is specified. What must be determined
is the minimum cable size required to meet the required vottag e drop. This can be
determined from transposing Equation 11.16 so that it is the CSA of the cable (in mm 2) that
we are able to calcu late and the minimum size is calculated as:

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 128

Design and Installation 01 Grid·Connected PV Systems

~-eabIr =(2 X ht.saIM X 1/& x P ) (11.17)

Loss X V!rJ'",tflllQ

Where
Loss = max voltage loss in th e co ndu ctor as a % expressed as a decimal e.g . 5% = 0.05
V",,_WIrl(F maximum power point voltag e of the string/array.

Since the total vol1age drop between the array and the inverter is 5%,which is the su m 01 the
voltag e drop in the string cable plus the PV array cable , than in practice it would best to size
the individual cables (string and PV ar ray) such that there is no more than a 2.5% voltage
drop in each cable.

As a worked example: Given the MPP of the string is 216V; the current in the string is SA;
and the copper cable is 10m in length. Therefore the minimum sized string cable to meet the
2.5% voltage drop as specif ied above is:

A..,~ -( 2 x 5 x 10 x 0.1 7857) = 0 .33 mm'

0.025 x 216

The typical modules cables are 1.5m m2 , 2.5mm 2 , 4mm 2 and 6mm 2 . In this example you
could select the 1.5mm2, but the 2. 5mm 2 cable would ensure less voltage drop and therefore
less power loss.

In th is example lets assume that the array consists of 2 strings. therefore the PV array
current would be 10A. The distance from the junction box to the inverter is 4 metres.
Therefore the minimum sized string cable to meet the 2.5% speci fied above is:

A..""", = ( 2 x 10 x 4 x 0.17857 I = 0.26mm'

0.025 x 216

Again a 1.5 mm:? cable could be selected, but it would better to use 2.5 mm:?

Once the cable has been selected the actual voltage drop can be calculated and then the
power loss can be expressed either as a % (ref lective of % voltage drop) or as a real value
by using Ohm 's Law (P = V x I) which when applied la the two formulas for voltag e drop
beco me:

P.. ~ (2 x L.."", x f " x p l (11 .18)

A..,,,,,,,,

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Co nnected PV System Page 129

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

- +
15 Module
-<

Junction
Box

Cl Cl Cl

Module
Figure 11.3 PV String with minimised loop area

AS/NlS5033 :2005 states that the cables should be installed such that the area of conductive
loops is minimised, so therefore in practice the cables in a string would be wired as shown in
Figure 11 .3.

In this the positive string cable and the negative string cable would be different lengths.
Therefore in Equation 11.18 the expression "2 x Lr:k:-';~~ would be replaced by the actual
total length of the positive stri ng cable plus the neg ative string cable.

11.9.1 .2 a.c. cables

The a.c. cable fro m th e inverter to the kWh meter should be as short as possible. If there is
a large voltage drop then this will efleet the amount of power being supplied inlo the grid.

AS/NlS5033 :2005 states that the maximum voltage drop is S%. Therefore the a.c. cable
voltage drop would be included in this figure. So in reality you should ensure that the d.c.
cable is less than 4% to allow for a maximum of 1% in the a.c. cable. In reality as seen in the
exam ples in the previous section on d.c. cables it was relatively easy to achieve less than
5% on each cable .

Th e formula for determining Ihe voltage drop on single phase a.c. cables is :

Vd .ac = (2 x L,c-cal>l' x 'or; x p x cos cp ) (11.19)

A~ __

Where
LItC ClIbItI = route length 01 a.c. cable in metres (2 x adjusls for total circuit wire length)
lac = current in amperes
p = resistivity of the wire in .QJm/mm 2
cos cP = power factor
Aaccable = cross section area (CSA) of cable in mm2

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System I Page 130

Design and Insta llation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

This can be transposed to :

A~ = (2 x L!51"eNr x IM, x P x cos <P) ( 11.20)

Loss x Vac

Where
Loss = max voltage loss in the conductor as a % expressed as a fraction ego 1% = 0.01
Vac = a.c. vol tage of the grid
For a.c. cables many cable manufacturers provide tables specifying the mV drop per metre
of cable for various cu rrents. These tables are also included in Australi an Standard
AS4509.2·2002.

Once the cable has been selected the actual voltage drop can be calculated and then the
power loss can be expressed either as a % (refl ective of % voltage drop) or as a real va lue
by using Ohm' s Law (P = V x I) wh ich when applied to the two formulas for voltage drop
become:

For Single Phase:

PtIC =- (2 x Las;=eablc! x f If, x p x cos <P ) (11 .2 1)

A..-.
11 .9.2 Current carrying capacity
Current Carrying Capacity (GCC) is the term wh ich refers to the maximum current carrying
capability of a conductor. Th e larg er a conductor is, the greater fts capacity is to carry
cu rrent.

A cable with an insufficient eec rating for the current it carries will overheat. Overheating is
hazardous and results in wasted energy and inefficiency but most importantly can resu lt in
melted insulation, short circuit or fire.

The eee 01Ihe cables is eif ecled by:

• cross sect ional area (mm 2 ) of the co nductor
• the type of insulation around the wire
• the environment in which the cable is installed

The environment includes the temperature , the location (e.g. open air, in conduit, under
thermal insu lation in roofs) and the number of other cables alongside that cable. The CCC
also depends on the type of circuit protection provided (re-wirable fuses or HRC High
Rupture Capacity. HRC, fuses and circuit breakers).

Australian Standard AS4509.2-2002 includes tables showing the current carrying ca pabil ities
of all different types of cables in different environments.

Current -carrying capacity for standard PV cables are shown in Table 11 .2.

Chapter t t - Designing a Grid·Connected PV System Page 131

Design and Installation 01 Grid·Connected PV Systems I

Table 11 .2 current-carrying capacity of standard PV cables according to

manufacturers specifications
(c ourtesy Plan ni ng and Installing Photoyoltalc systems· German Energy Society,200S) I
c
Maximum Current in A for variou s tern eratures o
Cable cross
Type Accumulation : six 5
section in Individually Laid
mm' cores in a bunch
30 'C 55'C 70'C 55'C 70'C f
2.5 42 32 24 17 13 1
4 56 42 32 22 17
f
2.5 49 38 34 20 18
4 66 51 45 27 24
2.5 33 24 17 13 9
4 45 33 23 17 12

AS/NZSS033:200S states that the minimum cable sizes for PV array wiring based on eee,
shall be based upon the following cu rrent rating :
• PV String Cables
o rated trip current of the PV string fault current protection device if fault current
protection provided
o rated trip current of the nearest downstream fault current protection device +
1.25 x lse MOO x (no. of strings - 1) if no fault current protection device provided
• PV array (or sub·array)
o Rated trip current of the PV array fault Current protection device if PV array fault
protection provided
o 1.25 times the short circuit current of the array (or sub·array) if no fault protection
provided

11.10 Determining the protection equipment and switching

Figure 11 .4 shows a schematic diagram of a grid·connected PV system showing the locat ion
of protection and switchi ng equipment in th e system .

MAl" SWITCHBOARD
Mam Solar Supply
Swttch Isolating SWItch
a c mains
Inverter with built-in Solar (PV)
(10 gnd)
L._........ god·protectlon dEMce Array
isolation L--=-::":_J
IsolatIon dEMce deo.1ce
may be buIlt-in
to lflY8rter unit

Protected
CirCUits

Figure 11 .4 Schemat ic Dia gram of a Grid Connected PV System

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System I Page 132

Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

11.1 0.1 Protection

All circu it protecti on is designed to protect the cable that is connected to it from overh eating
caused by overloads or short circu its. The size of the circuit protection selected is depend ent
on the current carrying capacity (CCG) of the cable and though the protection can be rated
smaller than that of the cable it is never larger.

PV modules are current limited devices and therefore will not produce currents greater than
the short circuit rating. Therefore strin g cables do not need to be protected from over current
from th e modules in that string because it is not possible.

If a fault occurs within a string, the current from the other strings could feed into the faulty
string and therefore protection should be installed in each st ring . The protection is to be
installed in both active conductors, Le. in both the positive and negative connections to the
array. These fuses shall be located as close as possible to the poi nt of parallel co nnectio n of
the strings because the cable must be protected tram that poin t. This is typically in th e array
Junction box.

ASINZS5033:2005 does not require all strings to have the protection installed. However, it is
important to rate the cables and other protection devices appropriately. If the system does
include a number of sub-arrays il would be good practise to install a sub-array protection
because the current that flows in a fault might be greater than the ece
of the sub-array
cable . AS/NZSS033:2005 has some examples 01 dillerent arrays with appropriately rated
cables and protection devices.

Unless specified by the module manufacturer the rated trip current ( /TRIP) at over current
protection for the PV string is determined by the following formu la:

(11.22)

1f the array is broken into many sub-arrays and sub-array protection is installed then the
rated trip current of the over current protection for the sub~ array is determined by the
following formula:

(11.23)

As the array cable has been sized to carry 1.25 times the array current therefore no array
protection is required.

The protection devices can eithe r be fuses or ci rc uit breakers. 11 circuit breakers are used
th ey must be rated for d.c. ; that is they must be able to break a d.c. arc.

11.10.2 Disconnection means

In extra-Iow voltage (EL V) arrays a readily available. load-breaking disconnection device
must be installed on the array cable, according to AS/NZS5033:2005.

ASINZS5033:2005 states that if the system is low voltage (LV) then each string must have a
readily available disconnection device and the array cable must have a readily available,
load-breaking disconnection device that can be locked in the 'ofi' pos ition.
AS/NZS5033:2005 furth er details the requirements of disconnection means.

Each string in an ELV array mu st be capable of being disconnected. If the protection device
used is a suitably rated d.c. circuit breaker and can provide lo ad breaking disconnection then

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 133

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected P V Systems

a separate load breaking device is not required. If the luse is in a fuse switch then th is item
can suffice lor th e disconnection device. If a cartridge fuse is used then a separate load
breaking d.c. switch will be required.

A switch mu st be installed that can disconnect the full array under load in bolh active
conductors . This typically will be located near the inverter and it must be lockable so that
when maintenance is being undertaken the PV array can be switched off and locked to
ensure it is not switched on. This device must be rated 10 break at 1.25 limes the short circu it
current of the array. This switch is known as the PV d.c. main switch.

A PV a.c. main switch shall be located on the grid side of the PV kWh meter. It must
interrupt both the active and neutral conductors.

11 .10.3 Bypass diodes

Shading on solar modules can cause overheating of solar cells (hot spot) if bypass diodes
are not installed. If the PV modules do not have bypass diodes already installed in the
module junction box then these should be included in the system design. As a minimum the
diodes should be installed across each module but if possible across each sub·string within
the module.

The diodes must be rated . according to AS5033:2005:

• With a voltage that is 2 x Vac of the module
• With a cu rrent that is 1.25 x tse of the module.

11.11 Determining the lightning protection requirements

Lightning is a common occurrence in some areas of Australia and the PV grid -connected
system should be protected in these areas. The need for lightning protection shall be
assessed in accordance with AS 1768.

11 .12 Interconnecting the system to the grid

All systems must be interconnected to the grid in accordance to AS4777. This requIres the
system to be hardwired and connected at th e switchboard or nearest distribution board.

11 .13 Preparation of drawings

After completing the design and prior to the installation of the system drawing s shou ld be
prepared to facilitate the installation of the system . The type 01 drawings required are
described in Chapter 12 Section 12.3.

11.1 4 Calculating the energy yield for a PV grid-connected system

It is very important when designing a PV grid -connected system for a client that you are abte
to provide the client with an estimate of the energy yield of the system. Th is can be provided
as an annual yield or since the available solar irradiation does vary throughout the year it can
be provided as a monthly yield.

Section 11.6 detailed the power losses within the PV grid connect system. Th ese simply can
be broken into two areas :
1. The de-rating of the PV array due to temperature . dirt, manufacturers tolerances and
mismatching
2. System losses which include inverter efficiency and cable losses (voltage drop) which
com bined is known as the su b-system etliciency .

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV Syste m I Page 134

Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

The de-rating of the PV array can be calculated by the following formula:

(11.24)

Where:
= de-rated output power 01 the array,
P­ in Watts
P.-ray_STC = rated output power of the array under standard lest conditions, in Watts
f_ = temperature de -rating lactor, dimensionless
f~ = de-rating factor lor manufacturing tolerance and mi5-match, dimensionless
f,., = de-rating factor for dirt, dimension less

{temP is calculated using equ ation 11. 10, while 'mm and {din were discussed in sections 11 .6.

The sUb-system efficiency can be calculated from the following formula:

(11.25)

Where:
T}P"'_" = efficiency of the sub-system from PV array to the a.c. grid
T}p"j IV = cable efficiency of the cabling between the PV and the inverter
T}nv = energy eff iciency of the inverter

The cable efficiency generally only accounts for the power loss (which is a reflectio n of
voltage drop) in the d.c. cables (string and array) but if the meter is installed a long distance
from the inverter the a.c. power losses will need to be included. If the voltage drop (and
therefore power loss) in the cables is 5% then the efficiency of the cables is 95%. Though
the standard allows 5%, it is important to redu ce the loss and increase the efficiency as
much as possible.

The average yearly energy output of the PV array, Epv , is calculated as follows:

E".. = Pg."...~ X H Jo!I (11.26)

Where:
E,. = average yearly energy output of the PV array, in kWh
Pm" = de-rated output power of the array, in kW @ irradiance of lkW/m2
2
H,. = yearly average daily irradiation. in kWh/m for the specified tilt angle

Note: If during the site vis it you have determined that some shadows will redu ce the
irradiation but only for a few months of the year, then a month by month calculation of
energy yield wil1 be required . These will then be added together to provide the yearly energy
yield.

The average yearly energy yield (real energy) of the PV system is calculated as follows :

( 11.27)

Where:
E sY' = average yearly yield of the PV system , in kWh
EpY = average yearly energy output of the PV array, in kWh
'lP"'_" = efliciency of the sub-system from PV array to the a.c. grid

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 135

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Combining an these formulas then the average yearly energy yield can be determined as
follows :

(1 1. 28)

The speci fi c ene rgy yield is expressed in kW h per kW p and it calculated as follows :

£
SY = -::---""-'' ­
p..""", _src
(11.29)

This can be used to compare the performance of systems in different areas. If the
perform ance of system s in different installations is to be compared , any shading loss must
be estimated and eliminated from the calculation of energy yield.

11.15 Performance ratio

The performance ratio (PR ) is used to assess the installation quality. The PR provides a
normalised basis so co mparison of different types and si zes of PV systems can be
undertaken. The performance ratio is calculated as follows:

E
PR = ~
£ ..., (11.30)

W here
Esys = actua l yearly energy yield from the system
E iOIIal = the id eal energy output of the array

The PV arrays ideal energy yield E fdfJaI can determ ined two ways:

Method 1:
(11 .31)

Where
z
= yearly average daily irradiation, in kWh/m for the specil ied tilt angle
1-1,;.
P array.. sTc = rated output power of the array under standard test conditions. in kW

Method 2:
E>tk..J = H P" X 1] P"
(11.32 )

Where
Hpy = actual irradiation that falls on the array surface area
'lpv = efliciency of th e PV modules

H/w = H "II X A"" (11:33)

Where
z
Hr. = yearly average daily irradiation , in kWhlm for the specified tilt angle
A"" = Total area of the PV array

If the performance of systems in different regions is to be compared the shading loss must
be estimated and eliminated from the calculat ion when determining the real energy yield .

Chapter' 1 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 136

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

11.16 Determining the array based on yearly energy requirement

A PV grid -connected system wi ll. in general, be designed in accordance with one (or more)
of the following limiting design criteria:
a) Designed to meet yearly energy usage
b) Designed to meel a budget alien based on specifying standard systems (e9 2kW p etc) or
cl Designed 10 fit on available roof area

In systems designed for b) and cl. the average annual energy yield cou ld be calculated and
the designer could use this information to inform the client on what percentage of thei r
annual energy requirements will be met by the system. For system a) you would start with a
required energy yield and then have to determine the size of the array (number of modules)
required. This is just doing the calculations described in Section 11.14 in reverse order. This
section wiJl go throu gh the process step by step.

STEP ONE: Determine the current yearly energy usage

Obtain from the customer copies of their most recent electricity accounts. As a minimum,
obtain records of their last 12 months and if possible obtain records for the last few years .

If the customer does not have 12 months records they should request this information from
their electricity distributor. If the house is new, then initially obtain records on their previous
house (il applicab le).

Use these records to estimate the average yearly energy usage in kWh .

STEP TWO : Allowing for changes

If your energy aud it recommend changes and these will be implemented, estimate the
reduction these changes will have on yearly energy usage.

Discuss with customer whal additional loads might be added to the house/building/site in the
near future.

STEP THRE E: Estim ated Average Yearly Energy Usage

From the informat ion obtai ned in steps one and two determine the average yearly energy
usage whic h will be used to design the system. Th is energy usage is therefore the yield
required from PV syste m, Esys .

STEP FOUR: Determining the size of the array

As discussed in previous sections of this chapter, the size of the PV array must be
determined to take account of:
• Inverter efficiency
• cable losses (transmission efficiency)
• Averag e yearly irradiation for selected ti lt angle and orientation
• man ufactUfing tolerance of modules and mismatch
• Tem perature effects
• Effects 01 dirt on the modules

Note : In designing the system based on the average solar irradiation then there will be some
months of the year wh en the output would be greater then the energy usage and other
months when the output wou ld be less then the energy usage. So though the system should
meet the typical average yearly energy usage , whether this will completely zero the
custo mers electricity account will be dependent on the payment agreement with the
electricity suppl ier.

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System Page 137

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Starting with the yearly energy usage as determined in Step 3 and by taking into account the
sub-system elficiencies , '7P1'_"-(Equation 11 .25) you can detefmine the yearly energy
required from the PV array Epv. by tran sposing Equalion 11 .27:
I

(11.34)

To determine the required de-rated peak power 01 the array, Equation 11 .30 is transposed to
become:

E
P~"") =--..l:!­
H
ro/, (11 .35)

TO determine the actual rating of the array at standard test conditions in peak kW , Equation
11.24 is transposed to:

P"rnJ'· .src
(11.36)

Once the peak rating of the required array has been calculated, the array configuration is
determin ed by the power (W atts) rating of the module that will be used and the operating
voltage window of the inverter (or inverters) selected.

The number of modules required for the array is based on the power rating of the module
selected and is determined by using the following formula:

N = P~Ttm' _~TC
~1IOIl_srC (11.37 )
Where
N = Number of modu les in the array
PlfIT.Y_STC := The peak powe r of the array at STC
P mocCSTC := The peak powe r of the module at STC

Once the number of modules has been calculated, the actual array con figuration is then
determined based on the operating voltage window of the in verter (or inverters) selected.

All the above formulas can be co mbin ed so that number of modules required in an array lor
specified yearly energy usage can be determined by the following formula:

(1 1.38)

Chapter 11 - Designing a Grid-Connected PV System I Page 138

 Design and Instaf/ation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Questions for Chapter 11

1) List the major components needed for a grid-connected PV system.

2) In undertaking a site survey for a prospective grid-connected PV system, whal are the
specific objectives to be looked at?

3) What are the techniques of assembling PV modules on a roof? Describe the advantages
and disadvantages of each technique for the Australian application .

4) List the issues 10 be considered when selecting a grid inverter.

5) Slale the typical power losses of a grid-connected PV system .

6) What are the key po ints to be considered when trying to match the PV array voltage
outpul10 the inverter specifications?

7) What are th e key points 10 be considered when trying 10 match the PV array power
output to the inverter specifications ?

8) Why is proper sizing of the d.c. and a.c. cables in PV systems of great importance?

9) What are the techniques of protection system requ ired?

10) Explain the following terms: yearly energy yield: monthly energy yield; system yield:
performance ratio.

Chapter 1 1 - Designi ng a Grid-Connected PV System Page 139

Design and Installalion of Grid·Connected PV Systems

Chapter 12 System Installation

12.1 Standards
In Australia the following standards are relevant to the installation of equipment used in grid
connected PV systems :
• AS4777 ,1 2005 Grid connection of energy systems via inverters
Part 1: Installation requirements
• ASINZSS033: 2005 Installation of Photovoltaic (PV) Arrays
• AS 1768 Lightning Protection
• ASI NSA3000:2007 Wiring Rules
• ASINZS3008:2000 Electrical installations-Selection of cables
• AS/NZS3008. 1.1 :2000 Part 1.1: Cables for alternating voltages up to and including
0.6/1 kV- Typica l Austra lian installation conditions
• AS 1170.2 Minimu m design loads on structures - Part 2: Wind Loads

All designers and installers should have access 10 a copy of these standa rds and be fam iliar
with their conlents. All installations should comply with these standards. AS4509 (Parts 1, 2
& 3) deal with stand-alone power systems. however. there is useful information that can be
used for designing and installing grid-connected systems. AS30QQ:200 7 now calls upon
AS/NZS5033:2005 . AS4777 and AS4509 and hence you need to comply with these
standards as well.

12.2 Equipment selection - warranties

The things to consider when designing a system were deta iled in Chapter 11, while Chapters
6, 7. 8 and 9 provided information on the equipment that is required to install a grid·
connected PV system. During the design stage it is importa nt to select the equipment based
on the information discussed in all the previous chapters. When selecting equipment it is
important to consider warranties provided on the equipment by the manufacturer but the
system supplierhnstaller must also provide warranties to the system owner at the time of
quotation.

A grid-connecled PV syste m involves a system desig ners/installer selecting and insta ll ing
individual products connecled together to create the system. There are four types of
wa rranties applicable 10 the system . These are:
1. Product warranties covering defects in manufacture
2. Product warranties related to output perfonnance over time
3. System warranties relating to proper operation of the insta lled system over time
4 . Energy performance warranties relating 10 the gua ranteed energy output of the grid­
connected PV system over a period of time. typically a year.

The first two warranties are the responsibility of the equipment manufacturer but a system
owner could contact the installer for help if a warranty claim is requ ired. The last two
warranties are provided by the installation company.

12.2.1 Product w arranties cover ing defects in manufacture

All manufactured equipment is provided with a warranty that covers manufacturing faults and
defects in material for a specified period of lime.

Solar modules may have warranties up to 5 years covering man ufacturing defects.

Inverters may have 10 yea r, 5 year, 3 year, 2 year or even 1 year warranties.

Chapter 12 . System Inslallation Page 141

Design and Installation of Grid*Connected PV Systems

All these should be considered when selecting the eq uipment that is being installed.

12.2.2 Product warranties related to output performance over time

The solar module manufacturers provid e a li mited warranty based on the power out of the
module when tested at STC. These warranties are now up to 25 years and usually provide a
guaranteed output (e. g, 75% of the specified maximum power) that the module will still be
providing after the specified time, If the module fails to provide that power, the manufacture r
will not necessarily replace the modu le, but will provide a module that will make up the
deficit.

12.2.3 System warranties

Some companies supplying and installing grid-connected PV system provide a system
warranty. Th is refers to the rated output (in kW) of the system based on NOel. The
company will slate that after a specified period (e .g. 5 years) the system will provide a
minim um output specified in kW.

12.2.4 Energy performance warranties

The energy performance warranty guarantees that the system wilt provide a specified energy
yield over a specified period, typically a year. This wa rranty has ma ny risks because it is
dependent on the amou nt of solar energy available each year and should only be provided if
the installer has sufficient information based on many years of data in that area.

12.3 Installation preparation

It is important that the Installer familiarises themselves with the local electricity distributors
approval procedures required to be followed when installing a grid*connecled PV system in
that distributors area. Fa ilure to do this could cause delay in Ihe final connection of the
system to the electricity grid.

12.3.2 Equipment location

Prior to installing the system, the system designer/installer, in consultation with the system
owner, should have chosen the location for all the relevant equipment (see Section 11.2.10).
The installer should have a plan (architectural diagram ) showing the location of all
equipment If no architectural drawing exists then a site plan as shown in Chapter 11 (Figure
11.2) should be used.

12.3.2 Drawings
All drawings should include:
• Drawing number;
• Issue number;
• Date of issue;
• ApprovaVauthorisation; and
• Com pany name.

Any system alterations must be shown by updated system drawings with all cu rrent drawings
held by the prime contractor. Any drawing copies held by the system installer, maintenance
contractor or system owner must also be updated. The following are examples of the
drawings tha t should be undertaken for each system.

Chapter 12 * System Installation I Page 142

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

a) Architectural diagram and schedule of material

An architectural diagram is a plan view of the insta llation, drawn to scale. It shows the
loca tion of all equipment including luminaries and lighting control switches. Refer to Chapter
11 (Figure 11.1) for an e.xample.

A schedule of material (material list) is also prepa red . It includes all material required and will
be used to form the installation checklist as shown in Table 12.1.

These drawings and lists should have been prepared when quoting on a job. The schedule of
material forms the basis of the material cost Quale . A copy of the architectural diagram
should have been provided with the quotation. This ensures that all parties are in agreement
on the e.xtent of the work and the equipment 10 be supplied. In addition, any agreement or
limitations on work performance or equipment supply e .g. work and parts supplied by other
contractors or the system owner, should have been specifically covered as part of the
quotation.

b) Schematic (circuit) diagram

A schematic diagram, often simply called a circuit diagram, provides information on the
electrical operation of the power system. It does not provide mechanica l or positional
information. It is drawn 10 give an understanding of electrical function only .

As an e.xample . Figure 12.1 is an electrical schematic of a 1kW system.

'. ' ... .

Figure 12.1 Electrical schematic 1kW system

(Courtesy of Pyramid Power)

•Chapter 12 • Syslem Installation Page 143

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

c) Wiring diagram
A wiring diagram can sometimes be too complex to detail more than a small part of an
installation . Unit wiring diagra ms are usually provided for discrete assemblies that form part
of the power system, e.g. the array jun ctio n box and the a.c. wi ring connections.
These are a sketch of the actual wiring with info rmation
• on the function o f each compone nt,
• the wire types, sizes and colours,
• the ci rcuits leading to and from the unit

d) Block and Single Line Diagrams

These diagrams are norma lly used to explain equipment or system function. They are often
used 10 give a basic understanding of the power system operation for the system owner but
can be used 10 delail work done by o ther contractors. Sometimes there is no need to have
block and single line diagra m s if all the information ca n be included in the circuit diagram. An
example of a block diagram is shown in Figure 12.2.

PV Array Array
Junction d.c. main Inverter a.c. main kWh
Box switch switch Meter

XYZ Sola r Installatio n Company

Grid<onnected system
Drawn By: Date:
Checked By:
Scale: Drawing Number:

Figure 12.2 Block and single line diagram for a grid-connected system

12.3.3 Installation checklist

It is time consuming if an installer needs to go and buy equipment or tools after the
installation has commenced . It is cri tical that the installer plans the installation knowing
exactly what tools and material are required to complete the installation.

Prior to going to site, it is recommended that the installer develops a checklist which they use
to:
a) Obtain all the relevant equipment
b) Ensure alllools and eq uipment are loaded ready for transport to site

The Schedu le of Material produced for the quotation is normally used as the basis for Ihis
checklist. Table 12.1 provides an exam ple of a checklist fo r m aterial.

Chapter 12 - Syslem Installation I Page 144

Design and Installation of Gnd-Connecfed PV Systems

Table 12.1 - Sample of installation checklist

Item No :
No Type of Item
Reo'd
Details OK
1 PV Module· Model XVZ-90
2 Solar Mounling struclure
3 Hardware lor connecting module to frame
•5 Hardware for connecling frame to roof
Hardware for ensuring roof is watert1ght
6 Cable between module & Junction Box (if one exists)
7 Conduit if required
B Fasten ing hardware for cableJconduit
9 Junction Box (if one exists)
10 Hardware for fastening Junction box to wall
11 Main DC array disconnect switch between solar array
and Inverter
12 Cable from disconnect 10 inverter

,.
13 Conduit if required
Fastening hardware for cablelconduit
15 Inverter Model
16 FastenIng hardware for inverter
17 Cable between inverter and switchboard
18 Conduit if required
19 Fastening hardware for cable/conduit
20 PV a.c. main switch
21 Required signage
22 Ini~;allatJon Tools (recommend technIcian prepares a
Ilsl

12.4 Equipment installation

Thi s section summarises the main criteria with respect 10 the installation of the individual
components within the system. The installer must follow the relevant Australian Standards
(listed in Sect ion 12. 1). any local rules specified by the electricity distributor (for example in
NSW there is the Service and Installation Rules of New South Wales) and all
recommendations of the particular eq uipment manufacturers when undertaking the
insta llation.

All material selected should be suitable to be used in outdoor cond itions. Cables and
conduits should be UV stabili zed. Any outdoor enclosures should have a minimum IP56
rating .

When planning the installation, ensure that there will be no dissim ilar metals in conta ct. If
there is, isolators. such as washers or other methods, should be installed. This is particularly
relevant w ith the array mounting structure.

Note:
1. During installation the string (or strings) should be maintained in ELV segments.
2. During the installation the PV d .c . and a.c main switches must remain in the off position
and neither are turned on until the correct time in the commissioning. If there is a concern
that they might be switched on then they should be locked in the off position.

Chapter 12 - System Installation Page 145

Design and Installation of Grid-ConnecJ.ed PV Systems

Figure 12.3: Installation of PV systems at GSET centre

12.4.1 Solar array

Crystalline solar modules shall comply with IEC61215 and thin firm modules sha ll comply
with tEC61646.

In genera l the solar array should be:

• Idea lly mounted facing true north t1 0· with a tilt angle of within lO e of the latitude of the
site. Typically the array will be located on an existing (or new) roof with the till of that roof
being anywhere from 17.5" to 35" pitch. It is appreciated that many roofs will not be
facing North, therefore it is important that the determination of systems energy output is
based on the actual direction that the modules are facing .
e Sited to allow 4 hours solar access either side of solar noon.
e Sited 10 minimise shading from future tree growth. Lopping or trimm ing to be
recommended and carried out where necessary.
• Constructed and installed such that it meets wind loadi ng standard.
e Install ed such that any dissimilar metals are not connected. hence causing electrolysis.
e Installed such that the roof does not leak .
e Have ai rllow behind the modules to reduce the effect of temperature.

Figure 12.3 1kWp Installation

(Photo: Courtesy of Pyramid Power)

Chapter 12 - System Installation I Page 146

Design and Installa/ion of Grid-Connected PV Systems

The sola r modu les can be mounted on an array lengthwise up or lengthwise across (see
10.3). Internally the modules are wired in strings which are then connected in series. When
the modules were Just for battery chargi ng applications the typical module comprised of 36
cells and there were two strings , each compri sing 18 cells. In the larger modules that are
now available the modules can consists of 4 10 8 rows of cells . Some of Ihe modules will
have a bypass diode mounted across every two rows . The modules are generally
constructed that along the length (longest sides) the cells along this side will be in one string.
Along the width (shortest side) Ihe cells along that side will be from a number of strings. Dust
can build up on the glass along the bottom edge of the module and therefore cause shading.
For grid-con nected systems where there are a number of modules in a string . if possible , it is
best to mount the module such that the bottom line of solar cells are all in the one string. not
different strings. This will typically be the longest length of the module .

Figure 12. 4 Example of soiling of PV module

(Photo: courtesy of Geoft Stapleton)

The physical layout of the solar array will be dependent on a number of factors, these factors
should have been assessed at the time of the design but in summary the things to consider
are:
• The roo f area and whether the modules are on different roofs facing different directions.
• What type of inverter and how many inverters there are,
• Whether the modu les will be wired in one string connected to one inverter or a number of
strings with each string connected to a string inverter (or separate MPP in a multi-string
inverter) or whether the strings are paralleled connected to one string inverter.
• Whether the modules will be are facing different directions, and if so, Is it possible to
have the modules in strings and have the modules in a string where they only facing one
direction.

If the installation will include multiple strings then the modules should be graded such that
modules with sim ilar outputs are installed in the same string . If test sheets are provided with
each module then these can be used for doing the grading . If not then the output of the
modules must be tested ind ividually. The difficulty with this technique is that without a proper
tester the measurements can only be made by using the sun as the source of energy and it
varies throughout the day. One method is to test around solar noon on a very clear sunny
day. Each modules open circuit voltage and short circuit current should be measured and
recorded. If the system is about 3kW p then there would only be about 20 modules (150 W p )
so these could be measured within a Y2 hr and the solar irradiance at that time should not
vary too much.

Chapter 12 - System Installation Page 147

Design and InSlallation of Grid-Conne cted PV Syslems

Modules can be supplied either as laminates with no frame or with an aluminum frame
Those with an aluminum frame are stronger because the frame provides some strength.
Installers should be careful when installing laminates. Laminates are more vulnerable to
shattering if they are knocked on their edges because they ha ve no mechanical protection
like the framed modules. Laminates are not widely used in Australia .

The array frame shall be designed so that it meets the Australian Wind Loading Standard
AS t1 70.

Whether the array replaces roofing material and acts as the roof or is retrofitted to an existing
lile roof. it must be installed such that there are no water leaks.

For building integra ted PV roo fs that do not form the w hole roof, the critical area is where the
sola r array is '" flashed·· to the other part of the roof.

For retro fitted srrays the critical point is where the mounting structure is connected to the
battens and trusses below the ti les . If a section of the array is physically connected under a
tile then that tile must still be water tight.

12.4.2 Array junction box

An array junction might be req uired jf there are a number of parallel strings or there is a
requirement to increase diameter of the array cable from th at being used 10 interconnect the
modules in the array to a larger size (for voltage drop or current carrying capacity
requirements) for the cabl e from the array 10 th e inverter.

If protection devices. as per ASA5033 . Cl re requ ired th en th ese cou ld be housed within the
array junction box.

If an array junction box is installed it must be located in acco rd ance to ASS033 in a readily
available location.

The junction box must have an IP rating suitable to its actual location.

Figure 12.5 Installation showing the array junction box

(Photo: Courtesy of Pyramid Power)

12.4.3 PV d.c_main switc h

AS4777 requires an isolation device between the inverter and the solar array.

Chapter 12 - System Installation Page 148

Design and Installa/lOn of Grid-Connected PV Systems

AS5033 states the device sha ll be readily available and load breaking. If the array is LV it
must also be lockable.

This is typically positioned near the inverter but could be located on the roof. In some states
(e .g. Victoria ) a disconnection device is required beside the array.

12.4.4 Inverter
In accordance with AS4 777.1. the inverter sha ll comply with the requirements of AS4777.2 .
The inverter energy system shall incorporate a grid protection device which shall comply w ith
the requirements of AS4777 .3. The grid protection device may be integral with an inverter.
The settings of the grid protection device shall not exceed the capability of the inverter.

Important factors to consider when installing an inverter are:

1. The IP rating of the inverter housing with respect to its actual location. If is located in an
outdoor location than the housing must be at least IP6S rated .
2. Ventilation: Remember that the inverter have losses of 3% to 10%. these losses are in
the form of heat so a 10% loss for a 3kWp inverter represents a heater of 300 W. The
inverter needs very good ventilation to remove this heat or it will be affected by the heat
and in the worst case it could overheat and fail. If the inverter is housed in a cubicle there
must be sufficient space around the inverter to allow for natural cooling Of fan forced
ventilation should be in stalled. These fans would be sella operate when a certain
temperature is reached.
3. Cleanli ness of the environment. Inverters are very complex electronic devices they
should be installed in dust free locations and in a location where insects are not
prominent.
4 . Inverters can be heavy so they must be mounted on surfaces eg walls that can support
their weight and with sufficient mounting hardware to ensure Ihey do not fall.

Figure 12.6 Installation on the south coast of NSW, showing the inverter,
switchboard. PV d.c. main switch and PV a,c, main switch
(Photo: Courtesy of Pyramid Power)

Chapter 12 - System Installation Page 149

Design and Installa/ion of Grid-Connected PV Systems

12.4.5 PV a.c main switch

AS4777 req ui res that lockable solaJ (PV) main switch to be installed, which allows the PV
system to be disconnected from the mains power supply.

12.4.6 Cabling
All cabling shall be undertaken in a neat and tidy manner. The cables sha ll be electrically
protected in accordance with AS3000 and AS3008.

All cables used in the installation should be securely fixed in place to minimise any
movement of the cable in accordance with A53000.

Mechanical proteclion of the cables shall be in accordance with AS3000.

Further guidance on the installation of cables is provided in AS5033.

WARNINGs­
1. Voltage above 50V d.c. can produce large arcs and above 120V d.c can be deadly.
W hen determining the system voltage the open circuit voltage of each module is used.
Therefore the string voltages are above 120V d.c. if five or more 12V nominal modules
are connected in series or if three or more 24V nom inal modules are connected in series.
2. AS5033 requires that the string is able to be broken down inlo segments with an open
circuit voltage less than 120V d.c. This could be via the module interconnects jf they have
been used. If the cables between the solar modules are hardwired. it is required that
some form of disconnect is installed to break the array into ELV strings.
3. The strings should only be connected from EL V to LV after all the wiring to the array
junction box has been completed. This is to ensure that no-one is working on live
dangerous cables. REME MBER THE ARRAY CAN PRODUCE DEADLY VOL TAGES
EVEN WHEN IT IS NOT CONNECTED TO ANYTHING.
4. The PV a.c. cable from the PV a.c main switch must only be connected to the grid when
the power from the grid has been disconnected.

Arcing can occur more easily in d.c. systems than in a.c. systems. Arcing can result in hot
connections which can fa il or in the worst case scenario, cause a fire. All terminations shall
be in suitable connectors for d.c and must be checked for lightness after installation. It is
preferable that all connections are screwed if cable lugs need to be used then these should
be installed on Ihe cable using an appropriate crimping tool.

The cross sectional area of the PV siri ng, PV array and sub-array cables and a.c. cables are
determined by the formulas and recommendations contained in Section 11.9 and also in
AS5033:2005.

Cables shaU be installed in accordance to AS/NZS3000:2007 and AS/NZS5033:200S. with

particular attention to protecting Ihe cables from extemal influences.
When installed. the cables shalt be protected from mechanical damage and if not enclosed in
conduit, Ihe cables shall be clamped 10 relieve lension and 10 prevent conductors coming
free. When entering junction boxes, the cables shaH also be clamped (if nol enclosed in
conduit) and the IP raling of the box shall be ma intained . Gland connectors can be used to
avoid cables disconnect ions al the junction box.

Chapter 12 - System Installation I Page 150

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Figure 12.7 Example of cabli ng using cable plugs

(Photo: Courtesy of Ahmad Hadrl Ha ris)

lightning is com mon occurrence in some parts of Australia. Refer to AS4 509 and AS1768 for
the specifications on lightning protection.

A dangerous situation occurs when the person Installing the system is able to come in
contact with the positive and negative outputs of the sola r array string when the output
voltage is 120V d. c. or above ,
Many grid connected systems have solar modules which are supplied with plugs. When
these are used then it is easy to wire the array to the inverter so that the cables are not live
and the final connection is when the ELV segments of the array are connected together
using the plugs to complete hen LV array.
The followed method outlined in this procedure Is to be followed if the interconnection
between the sola r modules will be hard wired. The method has been written to prevent a
person being able to touch the two live array LV output cables either within :
• a module junction box OR
• the isolating switch located near the array.

Using this method. the junction boxes on the modules will only have a live (nominal)
ELV supply of 12V o r 24V maximu m. AS5033 states that if one electrical end of the
array is looped back through the module junction boxes then the cable shall be double
Insulated and not broken at any point. This also ensure

Please read this procedure white studying Figure 12.8.

a) The positive cable from the isolating switch or breaker is connected to the solar module
junction box which is designated as the positive connection. This cable shall be double­
insulated (either single insulated in conduit or double insulated cable) and there are no
other electrical connections between the isolating switch and the array positive junction
box.

b) The negative cable from the isolating switch or brea ker is connected 10 the solar module
junction box whIch is designated as the negative connection. This cable is double­
insulated and there are no other electrical connections between the isolating switch and
the array positive junction box.

c) To ensure that the installer does not work on live positive and negative cables in close
proximity within the isolation switch:

Chapter 12 - System Installation Page 151

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

either the positive and negative cables are electrically connected to the double pole
isolating switch or breaker prior to electrically terminating the cables within the
array ju nction boxes

andior there is a 'Multi-Contact' style insulated plug and socket connection in the
middle of the array which is connected after the array is wired and the cables
are connected in the isolation switch,

Double Insulated p osltl ..... e nnd n .gatl.....e ca b l es

DOU BLE PO L E
ISOLATOR

' Mu l t lCo nta ct ' s tyl e

in su l ated p l u g and
socket connecto r

Figure 12,8 PV string connection

Chapter 12 - System Installation I Page 152

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

12.5 Monitoring equipment

If other meters or information panels/screens are being supplied with the system these
should be installed in a location that is suitable to the system owner.

12.6 Signage
The system installation shall include the signs as specified in AS4 777.1 :2005 and
AS/NZS5033:2005. Examples of the signs are provided in Appendix A of AS4777 and
Appendix G of AS/NZS 5033.

The signs required include:

• A warn ing side in the switchboard indicating that dual supplies exist and both normal and
solar supplies should be disconnected when working on the switchboard (See Figure
12 .9a).
• If the grid solar system is connected on a distribution board then a warning sign should
be installed in that di stribution board and also in every distribution board back to and
including the main switchboard. (See Figure 12.9b)
• The PV System main switch in switchboard should be labelled .. SOLAR SUPPL y~ (see
Figure 12.9c) (Note AS4777 states Sol ar Supply- AS5033 states PV Array Main Switch­
this will be altered in future to ensure consistency)
• A ··SOLAR DC " sign shall be located on all array junctions boxes (see Figure 12.9d)
• If the array is greater than SOOW or open circuit vo ltage above 50V then a sign shall be
located beside the main switchboard informing people in an emergency eg fire brigade
that there is a solar system (see Figure 12.ge)
• A sign informing people of the shutdown procedure shall be located in a prominent
position. This shall state the open circuit voltage and short circuit current of the array.
(see Figure 12.9f)

WARNING WARNING
Dual Supply DUAL SUPPLY
Isolate Both Normal and ISOLATE SOLAR SUPPLY
Solar Supplies before AT DISTRIBUTION BOARD
working on this DB???
switchboard

(a) (b)

Solar Supply SOLAR D.e.

MAIN SWITCH

(c) (d)

rChapter 12 - System Installation Page 153

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

SOLAR ARRAY
ON ROOF

Open clrcu it voltage: 220 V

Short circuit current: 20 A

c - _.....

(e)

PV SYSTEM SHUTDOWN PROCEDURE

STEP 1: Turn off the 'PV A.C. MAIN SWITCH' located

next to the a.c. terminals of the inverter.

STEP 2: Turn off the 'PV D.C . MAIN SWITCH' located

next to the d.c. terminals of the inverter.

Warning : Do not open plug and socket

connectors or PV string isolators under load

PV Array Open Circuit Voltage : __ V dc

PV Array Short Circuit Current: __ Adc

(I)
Figure 12.9 Example of signs that might be required to be installed. Consult
AS/NZS5033 :2005 and AS4777 .1 :2005 to determine appropriate signs

Chapter 12 · System Installation I Page 154

 Dsslgn snd Ins/slls/ion of Grid·Connec/ed PV SyS/9mS

qUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 12

1) Name the two Australian Standards that are di rectly applicable 10 grid.connechd ·1'"
systems.

2) Develop your own checklist for installation equipment (includ ing any tools etc.) that you
would need to take with you when installing a grid-connected PV system .

3) Ust some of the good installation practices for installing the PVarray.

4) Draw a basic wiring diagram for a 1kW (6 module) grid-connecled PV system.

5) What does the junction box contain ?

6) Why is signage very important?

Chapter 12 • System Installation Page 155

Design and fnstalfalion of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 13 System Commissioning

13.1 Commissioning

8 efore starting any tests or checks it is important to do the fo llowi ng five po ints :

,. If the array is LV (> 120V d.c.) ensure that the string (or strings) are in segments
(possibly leave as ELV segments) so that there is no voltage at the output at each string
or array. This is obtained by leaving one of the module interconnects disconnected ·
generally near centre at string.
Only reconnect th e segments to create LV array after point 8 below, or when indicated
on the commissioning test sheets.

2. Remove the PV string protection devices (fuses) if they are installed. With isolators and
circuit breakers, make sure they are in off po sition.
Only install PV string protection devices, turn on isolators or turn on string ci rcu it
break ers LV array after point 13 below, or when indicated on t he comm issioning test
sheets.

3. Ensure that the PV d.c. and a.c main switches are in the off position and tagged or
locked .

4. Ensure that the inverter is turned off.

Only install/turn on the PV d .c and a.c main switches and turn on the inverter as part
01 the system start up in Sect ion 13.1.5,

After you have confirm ed the above 4 items then:

5. Complete the installation and pre·comm issioning checklist provided in Section 13.3.

Note : The above five items are included in the pre-commissioning checklist but for safety
reasons it important that they are checked at the very beginning .

Section 13.4 contains the commissioning test sheets th at should be completed during
comm iss ioning. The following sections provide more detail on each of these and are divided
into the different sections;

13.1.1 PVarray. string cabling to iunction box and array cable to d.c main
switch
No te : The following is written as if there is a junction box· if there is not a j unction
box, then interprellhe ins tructions as rele vant to your system la yout
6. If the array voltage is LV measure the voltage across the positive and negative inputs for
each string and confirm that no voltage is present.
7. Measure the voltage on the output side of junction box and conf irm that no voltage is
present
8. If the final array vo ltage is LV then before doing the fi nal inter-module connections in the
array of the segments (to create LV output) check the continuity between the last
module and the corresponding po int in the array junction box for the positive string cabl e
and the negative string cable. If the array is ELV , then the continuity can be performed
alter the modules stri ng s are wired .

Chapter 13 - System Comm issioning Page 157

Design and fnslaf/ation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

9. 11 the final , array vol.tage is LV then alter the continuity check described in point 8, the
s~gmenls In the strings ca n be connected to co mplete the arr ay cabling. Typically \n'ts
will be undertaken by connecti ng some inter-module plugs with in the string .

Warning: The following tests will be measuring potentially deadly d.e. voltages and
currents.
Before turning on any array string circuit breaker or iso/ators or inserting any array
string fuses :
10 . Co nlirm tnat the polarity of each of the string con nections is correct within the
terminations ;n the junction box.
Warning: If polarity of one string is reversed , it can cause a fire in the array junction
box.

11. Measure and record the open circuit voltage 01 each string

11 there is a big variation berl,..,een strings (that is greater than 5% in Vod . or the valu es are
not what you would expect for the number of modules and time at day, then investigate the
problem before proceeding any further.

12. Check lor continuity between the array junction box and the PV d.c. main switch input

13.1.2 Measuring short circuit currents of strings and array

WARNING:
The followmg procedures are how to melJsure short circuit currents- the voltages can be very
high and lithe procedures are nol followed then arcing and damage ID components could
occur.
Note ; In some projects it is required to record the short circuit currents as part of the
contractual commissioning. Jf it is not necessary to know the short current for your actual
system, then recording the actual operating current of each string would suffice. This could be
done by using the meter on the inverter or by using a clamp meter when the system is
operation.

13. PART A: If Short circuit currents are required:

To do following test safety:

1.1 Ensure each string fuse (if required) is not connected or that LV arrays are still
broken into ELV segments.
1.2 Leave the solar array cable con nected to main solar d.c. switch.
1.3 Remove the cable from the d.c. main switch to the inverter.
13.4 With the d.c. switch oU - put a link or small cable between the positive and negative
outputs of the d.c. main switch .
1.4 Install the stri ng fuse or reconnect the ELV segments fo r String 1. Turn on d.c.
main switch. Using a d.c. clamp meter measu re th e d. c. short ci rcuit current for String
1. Tu rn off d. c main switch. Di scon nect string fuse for String 1,
1.5 Repeat point 13.410r each individual string.
1.6 After each string has been individu ally meas ured - ensure d.c. main switch is Oil! and
then install all string fuses or co nnect the ELV segments in each string . Turn on the
d.e. switch and measure d.c. array current using clamp meter. Turn off switch and
rem ove link in output of d.c. main switch .

PART 8 : If sh ort circuit cu rrents are not required then:

13.7 W ait to system is connected and inverter is operating . If only one string in the array
record the operating current of th at strin g.

Chapter 13 • System Commissioning I Page 158

 Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

13.8 If there is more than one string ; tu rn off the inverter, the a.c. main switch and d.G
main switch. Isolate all the strings by either removing fuse , turning off the circuit
breaker or using disconnection device.
13.9 With one string connected at a ti me turn system back on and record the operating
current of that string .
NOTE : These tests should be performed on a bright sunny day with no cloud. Thi s is to
avoid varied readings due to cloud cover.

13.1.3 d.e. main switch to inverter

\4 . \nseft the array s\r"lng 'uses andl or \urn on \ne c',rcui\ breaKers and string disconnect
switches one at a time.

15. Check the polarity at the input to th e PV d.c. main switch.

Warning : If polarity is reversed at the inverter it can cause damage, which is generally
not co vered under warranty

16. Measure and record the open circu it voltage at the input 10 the PV d.c. main switch
17. Check the polarity and conlinuily between the PV d.c. main switch and the inverter.

13.1 .4 Inverter to a.c . main switch and grid connection

18. Check the continuity between the inverter and the PV a.c. main switch.
t 9. Check the polarity belween the inverter and the PV a.c. main switch.

Assuming the kWh meter has been installed:

20. Check the con tin uity between the kWh meter and the PV a.c. main switch
21. Check the polarity between the kWh meter and the PV a.G, main switCh.

Warning: The following test will be measuring deadly a.c. voltages and currents.
The connection from the a.c. main switch to the grid Is undertaken during the installation
phase with a.c. power 10 the dwelling disconnected by removing that main fuse.

22. Measure the voltage of the grid on the output (grid side) of the PV a.c. main switch .
23. Check the polarity of the grid on the ou tp ut (grid side) of the PV a.c. main switch.
24. Record the initi al valu e of the PV kWh meter (If a separate meter exists).

13.1.5 Earthing system

25. Measure the resistance of the earth system.

13.1.6 Start·Up of system

26. If inverter has an on/off switch ensure th at it is in the off position .
27. After you have completed all of the above and are confident that all is connected
correctly then refer to the system manual for the inverter and follow start up procedu re.
Typicall y this will involve turni ng on the PV d.c. main switch followed by PV a.c. main
switch and any relevant switches on the inverter.
28. Check that the inverter is operating by one of the following methods:
28.1 If the inverter does contain meters, then these can be read to conf irm that the
solar array is feeding power on to the grid.
28.2 If the inverter does not have meters, but either an a.c. amp meter or d.c. amp
meter was installed on the system, then these meters can be read.
28.3 If no su itable meters have been installed then a clamp meter could be used to
measure either the a.c. or d.c current.
Warning: The following test will be measuring deadly d.c. volt ages.

Chapter 13 . System Commissioning Page 159

 Design and Installation 01 Grid·Connected PV Systems I

If for some reason no meters were installed and you do not have access to a clamp
meter· then you might see movement in the kWh but this might take time. Prior to
turning the PV a.c. main switch measure the solar array open circu it voltage at the PV
d.e. main switch . After the PV a.c. main switch has been turned on then measure the d.e
voltage at the PV d.c. main switch. If th e system is working, the voltage wiU have
•
reaucearrom (ne array open ClrCUIC vo(cage to me array maximum power POint vOfrage.
29. Measure the d.c. input voltage and confirm that it is within operating limits of the inverter
30. Measure the a. c output voltage.
31 . 11 a kWh meter exists in the system, confirm that the inverter is producing the expected
power output with respect to available d.c. power.
32, The final test is to co nfirm that the system will turn 011 when the grid is not available.
After the system has been operating correctly for a few minutes turn the PV a.c. main
switch 011 and confirm that the inverter turns off , in relation to producing an a.c. output
that Is connected to the grid. If there are no meters, this might require measuring the
voltage at the inverter side of the PV a.c. main switch.
33. Upon completion , sign the sheets and Include a copy in the system manual. It is
recommended that you shou ld also keep a copy for your records.

Installation and pre -commissioning checklists and Iypical commissioning sheets have been
provided as SeClions 13.3 and 13.4 .

13.2 System documentation

AI the completion of the installation the designer/installer shall supply the owner a system
manual that should include the following items as a minimum:
• List of equipment su pplied;
• System wiring diagram s;
• System performance estimate;
• Operating instructions - system and components ;
• Shutdown and isolation procedu re for emergency and maintenance;
• Maintenance procedure and timetable (refer Chapter 14 );
• Commissioning records and inslallation checklist :
• Monitoring of system;
• Warranty information ; and
• Equipment manufacturers ' documentation and handbooks.

The following sections provide in more detail what should be included in the system manual.

13.2.1 Li st of equ ipm ent supp lied

The manual should include a full itemised list of all the components that ha .... e been installed
including:
• Solar modules;
• Inverters ;
• Array frames;
• Array junction boxes (if com mercial item);
• String isolators and string fuses or circuit breakers
• d.c. main switch
• a.c main switch

Chapter 13 • System Com missioning I Page 160

Design and Instal/ation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Information that should be provided in the materia) lists should include:

• Brand
• ModellType
• Quantity
• Serial Number (if avai lable) , but important for the main items such as inve rters and solar
modules

This information is uselul lor trouble shooting and replacing laulty components in the future.

13.2.2 System diagrams

As a minimum two diagrams shou ld be inctuded in the manual. These are:
• A basic circuil diagram Ihat includes the electrical ratings of the PV array and inverter:
and
• A wiring schematic (as shown in Chapter 12, Figure 12.1 ) of the actual installed system

It is also recom mended to include an architectural drawing or site plan (as shown in Chapter
11 . Figure 11 .2) showing the location of all the major components .

11 any detailed wi ring diagrams have been produced they should also be included.

13.2.3 System performance estimate

Based on the kW p rating of the array and the solar resource for the particular site the manual
should include the expected yield for the system as detailed in Chapter 11, Section 11 .14.
This is helpful tor the cfient to know wh at savings they will expect on their el ectricity bills. It is
important emphasise in the manual that this estimate is based on average solar jrradiation
data and that years can vary.

If the actual yield is difficult to predict because of the shading of the array at certain time of
the day andlor year, then this should be explained to the customer and explained in the
manual.

This information should be provided even if a system performance guarantee (see Section
13.2.9) is not being provided.

13.2.4 Operating instructions for system and components

The manual should include a brief overview of the system, the function of each of the main
components and how the system operates. Any information that is important with respect to
that particular system should be included in the manual.

If the system does not include any battery storage it is important to explain to the owner of
the system that the system does turn oft when the grid fails, i.e. when there is no power
available from the grid.

13.2.5 Shutdown and isolation procedure for emergency and maintenance

Th e manual should include two sh utdown and isolation proced ures:
1. How to isolate pa rts or all of the system when maintenance is being performed, and
2. How to isolate and shutdown th e system in an emergency.

Depending on th e size of the system, maintenance procedures might nol involve the
complete sh utdown of the system, e. g. where there are multiple parallel str ings, individual
strings could be isolated for maintenance wh ile the inverter still operates from the other

Chapter 13 - System Commissioning Page 161

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

strings. In all cases the procedures shall be written to ensure the safety of the maintenance
staif.

In an emergency situali on , as a minimum, both the a.c and d.c main switches shou ld be
turned off.

13.2.6 Maintenance procedure and timetable

Chapte r 14 details the maintenan ce require ments for a grid -connected PV system including
tables that should be included in maintenance logbooks.

This in formation should be incorporated into the system man ua l.

13.2.7 Installation checklist and commissioning records

System In stallation and Pre-commissioning Checklist (Section 13.3) and Commissioning
Test Sh eet s (Section 13 .4) should all be sign ed and included in th e system manual.

13.2.8 Monitoring of system

A section of the mallual should advise the system owner on how to mo ni tor the system to
ensu re that it operating correctly. Many inverters do have monitoring capabilities and these
were described in Chapter 7 (Section 7 .9). If the in verter does include these features, how to
use these should be provided to the system owner. I1 a separate monitoring unit has been
supplied with the system, the man ual must include information on its operation.

The manual should also explain how to use/read the kWh meter with the system to confirm
that the system IS operating.

13.2.9 Warranty information

A grid-connected PV system involves a system installer usin g individual products connected
together to create the system There are four types of warranties app licable to the system.
These are:
1. Product warranties covering de fects in manu facture
2. Product warranties related to output performance over time
3. System warranties relating to proper operatIon of the installed system over time
4. Energy performance warranties re latin g to the guaranteed energy output of the grid­
connected PV system over a period of time . typically a year.

The f1 rst two warranties are the responsibility of the equipment manufacturer but a system
owner could contact the in sta ller fo r help if a warranty claim is required. The last two
warran ties are provided by the installati on company.

A description of the four different warranties are provided in Chapte r 12 (Section 12.2)

Details of th e all the warranties being offered should be included in the system manual.

13.2.10 Equipment manufacturer's documentation and handbooks

Any product manu als th at have been provided by the various manufacturers should be
included in the system man ual. Examples include: Inverter manu als. module data sheets and
technical inform ation on any balance of system (80S) equipment.

Chapter' 3 . System Commissioning I Page 162

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Sys/ems

13.3 System Installation & Pre­

SIGNAGE (While on Red)
Commissioning Checklist Warning signs - refer AS 4777 .1 Appendix A

WA RNING
DoalSupplv
PVARRAY Isolate Both Normal and Solar Is permanently fixed
Supplies befOf. woJ1<lng on
Mounted Flat on Roof o this switchboard on the switchboard.

Building Integ rated o Normal Supply is permanently fixed o

Mounted on tilted array frame o MAIN SWrrCH to main switch

PV Array tilt ............ . .. . o Solar Supply

MAIN SWITCH
is fixed on main solar
switch in switchboard
o
PV Array orientation ...... . o
If the solar system is connected to a distribution
Solar array is securely fixed
Details ................... ... .......... .
o board then the following sign is located on main
switchboard and all Intermediate distribution boards
Timber used is suitable for
external use or is properly sealed
o WARNING
o
DUAL SUPPLY
No dissimilar metals are in conlact
with the array frames or supports
o ISOlATE SOLAR SUPPLY AT
DISTRIBUTION BOARD DB17?

Roof penetrations are suitably

sealed and weatherproofed
o Warning and Advisory Signs; reler AS5033 and
AS4 777 Appendices
PV wiring losses are less than 5%
allhe maximum cu rrent output 01 the array
o SOLAR DC is permanently fixed 0
Weatherproof isolator is mounted
immediately adjacent 10 the array
o on array junction boxes

(Black on White)
Wiring is protected from UV and
mechanical damage
o
INVERTER
Double pole DC Isolator (or DC circuil breaker)
mounted close to input of the inverter
o SOLAR ARRAY
(Rating....... A) ON ROOF
Isolator mounted on output
of the Inverter (can be part of inverter)
o
AC Circuit breaker mounted within the
Switchboard to act as main switch for the
o Open circuit voltage: 220 V
Short circui t current: 20 A
PV/inverter system. (Rating .. ...... A)

Inverter is housed in weatherproof enclosure

or inside building
o c_ .._ . ...
Fire Emergency Information is permanently fixed on
Adequate space and ventilation for inverter o main switchboard 0
LV DC CABLING Shutdown procedure is permanently fixed on main
Is clearly identified
in accordance with these guidelines
o switchboard o

Chapter 13 - Sysfem Commissioning Page 163

,

Design and Instalfation of Grid-Connecfed PV Systems

230-240 VOLT (LV) INSTALLATION

All Low Voltage wiring has been installed 0
by a licensed electrical tradesperso n

All wiring has been lested (or otherwise D

approved) by a qualified electrical tradesperson

This checklist is based on the Business Coundl for

SUSl:unabJc Energy. Design and Installation Guidelines.
The Guidelines demonstrate the latest industry "besl
practice" and are fa be read in conjunction with the
relevant Australian Standards.
AUTHORISATION : I,

seSE Accreditation number ... ..... .. ............... .

verify that the following system has been Installed to the
standard indicated by these guidelines and complies with
the relevant Australian Standards

Name of the person lor whom the system was installed

Location 01 system

Signed

Date:

Anach 8 separate sheet detailing any departures

Chapter 13 • System Com missioning I Page 164

Design and Insta llation of Grid·Connecled PV Systems

13.4 Commissioning Test Sheets Array +ve D

PV ARRAY-d.c.
Array -ve 0
Correct Polarity between Array Junction 0
Note if there is only 1 string and no array Box and PV d.c. Main Switch
WARNING:
junction box then following tests will be
The fol/owlng procedures describe how to
between that string and the d.c main ml!Bsure short circuit currents- the voJlBges can
switch at inverter. be very high and It the procedures are not
If array is LV (> 120 V) there is no voltage D followed then arcing and damage to components
could occur.
on input side of array junction box (if one is installed)
Note; In some projects it is required to record the
There is no voltage on output side D short circuit currents as part of the contractual
01 array junction box (if one is installed) commissioning. IF it is not necessary to know the
short current for your actual system then
Continuity between strings and recording the actual operating current of each
Array junction box string would suffice. This could be done by using
String 1 +ve o the meler on the inverter or by using a clamp
meter when the system is operation
String 1 -ve o
String 2 +ve o IF shOr1 circuit currents are required then to do the
following tests safely:
String 2 -ve o 1. Ensure each string fuse (If required) is not
connected or that LV array is still broken into
String 3 +ve o ELV segments

String 3 -ve o 2. Leave Solar Array Cable connected to main

solar DC switch.
String 4 +ve o 3. Remove the cable lrom the DC main switch
to the inverter.
String 4 -ve o 4. With the DC switch off- put a link or small
cable between the positive and negative
Correct polarity between st rings and outputs 01 the DC Main SwitCh.
array junction box 5. Install the String fuse for String 1 or connect
the ELV segments to com plete the wi ring of
SIring 1 0 the string .. Turn on DC main switch- using a
Slcing 2 0 DC clam p meter measure the DC short
circuit current for String 1. Turn off DC main
SIring 3 0 switch. Disconnect String Fuse for String 1 or
SIring 4 0 remove links to break siring into ELV
segments..
6. Repeat point 6 lor each strings (2,3 and 4)
WARNING : 7. After each Siring has been individually
IF POLARITY OF ONE STRING IS REVERSED. measu red - ensure DC mai n switch is off­
THIS CAN CAUSE A FIRE tN THE ARRAY
then install all string fuses or connect the
JUNCTION BOX.
ELV segments of each string. Turn on DC
switch and measure DC Array current using
Open Circuit Voltages:
clam p meter. Turn off switch and remove link
String 1 ............ V in output 01 DC main switch.
String 2 .. . ........... ... V
SIring 3 ....... ... V
String 4 .. .. .. v

Continuity between Array Junction

Box and PV d.c. Main Switch

Chapter 13 . System Com missioning Page 165

Design and Inslallation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

If short circuit cu rrents are not required then:

1. Wail to system is connected and inverter is
Une 0
operating . If o nly one string in the array Neutral 0
record the operating current of that string.
2. If more than one string - turn off Ihe inverter,
the a.c. main switch and d.c main switch. Correct Polarity between kWh meter 0
Isolate alllhe strings by either removing and PV a.c. Main Switch
fuse, turning off circuit breaker of using
disconnection device.
3. W ith one string connected at a lime tu rn
system back o n and record the operating
Correct Polarity at output 0
of PV a.c. Main Switch from grid
current 01 that string.
NOTE: These tests should be performed on a bright
Voltage at outpul of PV a.c. Main Switch
sunny day with no cloud. This is to avoid varied
from grid .. ...................................... V
readings due 10 cloud cover.
Initial reading of kWh meter
Short Circuil Currents:
String' ..................... A Start-Up of System
String 2 ......................A
String 3 ...................... A
String 4 ........... ........... A Refer 10 system manual for the inverter and
Short Circuit Current Array ... .......... A follow start up procedure .

This generally involves turning on the PV d.c.

Insert the array string fuses (If connected) and/or
main switch followed by PV a.c. main switch but
turn on the circuit breakers or string disconnect
the procedures as recommended by the inverter
isolators one at a time until all strings are
manufacturer must be followed .
connected.

Open Circuit Voltage at input side 01 Array d.c

Main Switch ... V
System connects to grid o
When main switches turned on and inverter start-up
procedu re followed
Continuity between PV d.c. Main
Switch and Inverter VOltage at d.c. input of inverter .. .... ............. V

Array +ve o 0
Array -ve o VOltage within operating limits of inverter

Correcl Polarity between PV d.c. Main o Voltage at a.c. output of inverter ................... V

switch and Inverter Input power of the inverter .............. ........... W

(11 availab le)
Warning: If polarity Is reversed, at the inverter
this can cause damage which is generally not Output power of the inverter ...................... W
covered under warranty (If available)

INVERTER -a.c. Output power as expected o

Continuity between Inverter
and kWh meter System disconnects from grid o
Une o When PV a.c. mai n switches turned oH

Neutral o
Correct Polarity between Inverter o
and kWh meter

Continuity between kWh meter o

and PV a.c. Main Switch

Chapte r 13 . System Commissioning I Page 166

Oesign and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Questi ons For Chapter 13

1) What are the typical tesls and measurements to be done prior 10 commissiomng a grid ­
connected system?

2) What types of documentation are needed?

Chapter 13 - System Commissioning Page 167

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected P V Sysrems

Chapter 14 System Maintenance & Trouble Shooting

14.1 System maintenance

This section briefly out l1n es the maintenance required for a grid-connected PV system. The
information in this chapter is of a general nature, and it is important that the manufacturer's
recommendations lor maintenance ollheir equipment are always followed.

This chapter outlines procedures to stream line the process of maintenance.

14.1.1 Maintenance schedule and log books

A maintenance schedule and eq uipment logbooks should be provided as part of the
documentation supplied 10 th e customer at the completion of system installation and
com missioning.

Suggested maintenance intervals and records are provided in this chapter for major
equipment.

A loose leal folder can be used as the system log book with individual sheets added for each
item . All maintenance contractors must keep a record 01 service and repair work. Copies
must be also retained by the customer and in the case of subcontracting by the primary
maintenance contractor.

Log books can be particularly useful because the historical information they co ntain can
show changes over time , as well as abnormal vari ations from the usual. indicating a problem
or a prob lem in the making .

14.1.2 Solar array

The solar array shou ld undergo the maintenance as described in Table 14 .1.

Table 14.1 Recommended maintenance for solar array

Activitv Freauencv
dependent on site - if dirty site, as
Clean modules
regular as required
Check mechanical security of the array structure Ann ually

Check all cabling for mechanical damage Annually

Check output voltage and current of each string of the

array and compare to the expected output under the Annually
existing conditions

Check electrical wiring fo r loose connections Annually

Check the operation of the PV d.c. main switch
Annually
(on ly after a.c main switch has been switched off)

The array maintenance sheet should be included in a log book. A sample is shown in Table
14.2

Chapter 14 - System Maintenance and Trouble Shooting Page 169

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Table 14.2 - Example solar array log sheet

Date Cleaned Array Array Array Output Output PVd .c. Comments
Modules Structure Cabling Cabling Voltage Current Main
OK Mechanical Electrical switch
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

14.1.3 Inverters
Inverters generally require very little maintenance. This generally relates to the lollowing:
• Keeping Ihe unit clean and minimise the possibility 01 dust. Clean when required
• Ensuring the unit is not ~ invaded " by insects and spiders.
• Ensuring all electrical connections are kept clean and tight.

I1 any maintenance is undertaken on the in verter, it should be recorded in the system

logbook.

14.1.4 System integrity

The above maintenance ch ecks relate to the individual components that are co ntained wit h a
system. For the individual components to work as a system they need to be interconnected
by cables.

It is therefore essential than when you are undertaking any equipment mainten ance, a visual
check should be undertaken on the whole system to ensure that there is no potential threat
to the performance and/or safe operation of the system.

14.2 Trouble shooting

A well de sig ned and installed PV grid -connected system should have fault free operation for
many years , so what can go wrong?

It is difficult writing a comprehens ive fault finding document when there can be great
variations in the number of inverters and array layouts in a syste m. The following provides
some basic fault finding procedures . A techn ician requires com mon sense and a thorough
understanding of how the system and individual components works 10 help them locate
faults.

The client will typically contact the system suppl lerlinstaller when the system is not working
or it is underperform ing ; that is not providing the energy (kWh) that was expected.

The syste m may not be working due to :

1. An equ ipment faul t or
2. The system not operatin g at that exact poin t of time due to the inverter not being
connected to the grid .

T hese two problems are covered in greater det ail in Sections 14.2.2 and 14.2.3.

Chapter 14 - System Maintenance and Trouble Shooting Page 170

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Under-performance could result from :

1. The client expecting more fro m their system than the system can actually deliver. This
generally resu lts from a poor esti mation of losses in the system from the system
designer who hence over-estimated the energy yield.
2. Poor system design such that the PV array operates at voltages outside the voltage
window (see Section 11.7) of the inverter and the inverter disconnects from the grid for
long periods
3. Unstable grids such that the grid operates for long periods outside the a.c. voltage
window of the Inverter and the inverter dIsconnects from the grid for long periods
4. Partial failure of some of the array (see Section 14.2.2)
5. Poor matching between the array and inverter so that the inverter is operating very
inefficiently.

T here is no easy solution to pro blem 1 and the solution will depend on what was conveyed to
the client at the time of syste m design. Th is could become a contractual/legal problem
between the system owner and designer/installer. It is recommended that al l system
performance estimation s are undertaken conservatively with explanations on why they might
nol always be achieved. It is highly recommended that everything IS provided in writing to the
client to avoid the situation of people claim ing "Ihis~ or "thar was said.

If the system has been designed incorrectly, then again this could become a legal problem
between the desIgner and the client. How thIS !S solved will be dependent on the integrity of
the system designer and whether they will fix the problem (if it can be fixed) and/or whether
the client will pursue this leg ally. The problem can only be solved by correcting the fault in
the initial design.

lithe lault is due to the voltage falling below the minimum voltage, then there is either a
problem with:
• High array temperatu res and vent ilation for the array is required; and/or
• Voltage reductio n due to temperature being greater than estimated or allowed for and
more modules will be requ ired to be added on the string (or on multiple strings).

If the fault is due to over-voltage then the number of modules in the string will need to be
redu ced.

If the problem is due to an unstable grid, then the local electriclty supplier (in Australia there
are multiple suppliers, depending on where you live) will need to be contacted and an
investigation might be required before the grid is stabi li sed. This type of fault might be
difficult to solve.

Partial failu re of the array is discussed in Section 14.2.2.

Poor matching of the array with the inverter can be difficult to determine unless there is full
monito ring of the system by the inverter, which provides the array power profile for the day.
Since man y inverters are above 90% eff icient when the array power is above 10% of the
power rating of th e inverte r, this problem will only occur when the array peak wattage is
much smaller than the inve rte r's nominal rating.

14.2.1 What to do when a customer complains that system is not working?

When a system is not working, the troubleshooting visit should occur during daylight hours,
preferably with enough sunshine to be able to test the output of modules and with sufficient
day light hours to allow a full invest ig at ion.

Chapter 14 - System Maintenance and Trouble Shooting Page 171

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

When you arrive at site check that neither the array d.c. main switch nor the array a.c main
switch has been switched off.

If alllhe breakers and switches are on, then undertake a visual check of the inverter. If it has
failed , then generally it is due to a failure in the electronics. This can be accompanied by a
burning smell. If ~ he inverter has failed then a decision will need to be made on whether it
c an be repaired at the site, or returned to the manufacturer.

If there are fault lights, error lights or messages on the inverter read them and act
accordi ngly. Section 14.2.3 details typical error messages that can occur on inverters.

If the inverter is just not on but there is no smell or error light, determine whether there is a.c.
power at the inverter and then whether there is d.c power at the inverter. WARNJNG THESE
MEASUREMENTS WILL TYPICALLY BE AT LV (DEADLY) VOLTAGES SO EXTREME
CARE. MUST BE TAKEN.

If there is no a.c power from the grid then systematically check all the way back to the point
of supply to find the fault. This will involve measuring whether a.c voltage is present:
• at th e meters; then
• on the inverter side followed by the supply side of the array a.c main switch; then
• at the point of attachment to the grid supply.

If there appears to be no fau lt at the inverter and the a.c. power is connected to the in verter
then the array should then be investigated.

14.2.2 Trouble shooting PV arrays

Note: The following is written as if here is a junction box between the array and the d.c. main
switch at inverter. Please Interpret the deSCriptions based on your actual system.

If the fault appears to be in the d.c. side of the inverter (that is on the solar array side) then
either:
• The inverter is not operating due to no or insufficient power from the array, or
• Th e system is underpertorming due to the array not producing the expected energy.

When undertaking fault fi nding on the solar array, it is important to remember some basic
un derstanding of how the module performs , this includes:
• The open circuit vo ltage and short circuit current can be measured even when there is
no load on the modules
• The modules produce close to open circuit vo ltage even when the solar irradiance is low
and the sh ort circuit cu rrent is proportional to the avail able solar irradiance.
• A shaded module will produce either no or reduced current depending on the stlad tn g.
• If one mod ule in a long string is covered the short circui t of the string might not change
due to the bypass diodes operating, but the open circuit voltage will be reduced.

If it appears that there is a fault on the d.c. side of the inverter. first measu re the open circuit
voltage at the output and input terminal of the inverter and confirm that d.c. power is
reaching the inverter. If th ere is no power at the inverter then systematically check all the
way back to the array strings to find the fau lt. This will involve measuring whether there is d.c
voltage present:

1. On the inverter side, followed by the array side of the array d c main sw itch; then
2. At the terminals (main switch side) in the junction box (if one exists); then
3. At th e string circuit breakers or fuses/disconnect switches (if they exist).

Chapler 14 · System Maintenance and Trouble Shooting I Page 172

Design and fnstallation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

In practice if there is no d.c. voltage at the inverter then you will typically first check that the
d.c. main switch is operating and that the string breakers or fuses (if they exist) have not
tripped or blown.

If there is no d.c. voltage at the junction box (if one exists). then the fault is within the array.
Having no voltage on the string side of the array would typically only occur when there is only
one string. not for multiple strings. If there are multiple string s and one has failed . the overall
array current would be low and the system would be underperforming .

Therefore if there is no d.c. voltage at the junction box (for single string) or there is no
voltage at the junction box for one of the strings in a multiple-string array, then the fault is in
the string. The fault will be either:
• Cable disconnected or plug failure (if plugs are used in connecting the string)
• Loose connection with in the junct ion box
• Failed bypass diode or
• Failed modu le (not common)

The actual fault can only be found by physically checking the cables and the modu les. If it is
a large string then the string can be broken into two halves and then measure the open
circuit voltage and short circuit current of each half (remember follow safety advice provided
in commissioning chapter when measuring short circuil curren ts- these can cause large
dangerous arcs if a safe procedure is not followed) .. The faulty side will not have a current.
This can th en be continued until the fault is located. Following this method will save tim e
when trying to find the actual fault.

If the system is under-performi ng but is working when you first arrive:

• Visually inspect the syslem - check that there are no trees that have grown or other object
installed to shade the modules. Also check whether the modules are covered in dirt or
bird droppings
• Measure the current com ing from the array either using the meter on the inverter or with a
clamp meter

If there is no shading problem, but the current is lower then expected then:
• If it is a single string array then th e string will need to be tested as described above· but
this time looking lor why the siring is provid ing less current; it could be one faulty module.
• 11 there are multiple strings then systematically turn 011 each string and see whether the
current changes. If one of the strings is not providing power then there will be no change
in the current when that stri ngs has been turned off.

Once you have identified the faulty string, check that th e ci rcuit breaker or fuses have not
failed and then follow the directions above for locating the fault in the string.

14.2.3 Trouble shooting inverters

If there is d. c. voltage and a.c. voltage at the inverter term inal (and the PV array output is
sufficient) but the inverter is not operating , then the inverter has possibly tailed . Refer to the
manual on the inverter as supptied by the manufacturer. Most will have a troubleshooting
section which should be fo llowed.

Often though, the inverter wi ll not be on and there will be fault lights on or tault messages on
the screen.

Chapler 14 - System Maintenance and Trouble Shooting Page 173

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Some of the faults that cou ld be indicated on the screen s are listed below. Suggestions are
also provided, but always refer to the manual provid ed by the manufacturer:
• Grid vo ltag e is too high or too low: check the grid and contact electricity distributor if fault
i 8 COI"I-si-s\el"l\.
• Grid frequency out of range: check the grid and contact electricity distributor if fault is
consistent.
• d.c. voltage from array too low: follow advice provided earlier in the section with respect
to insufficient modules or temperatu re prob lem.
• d.c. voltage too high: NO TE: This could damage the inverter. Immediately disconnect the
array (turn off d.c. array main switch) and investigate why.
• Une impedance too high: check that none of the connections on a.c. side are loose then
possibly contact electricity distributor il fault persists.
• Leakage current is too high (for translormerless inverters only): need to investigate why
there is happening. Refer to the manuallor that inverter.

Chapter 14· System Maintenance and Trouble Shoo1ing I Page 174

 Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Questions for Chapter 14

1) What should a maintenance schedule and logbook consist of?

2) What are the probable causes when a grid-connected PV system does not work?

3) What are the possible causes of underperformance?

4) What needs to be done when the customer complains about the system not wor1<.ing?

5) Wh at are the fau lt-finding steps to be done on the PV array?

6) What fault-finding steps are to be performed on the inverter?

4
Chapter 14 - System Maintenance and Trouble Shoohng Page 175
Design and Insta"ation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 15 Economics of Grid-Connected Systems

15.1 Introduction
Solar energy is free . i.e. the energy source is the sun, and it does not send bills each quarter
for the energy which it provides.

On the oth er hand it can be expensive to set up a system to take advantage of Ihe free
energy. The cost of PV modules, the inverter and balance of system (80S) equipment can
be significant.

Conversety, energy from non-renewable energy sources (coal, oil. natural gas. LP gas ete) is
not free bu t the cost of establishing a system to use these energy sources is often much less
than the system required to utilise renewable energy sources, like the sun.

Some people will only respond to economic considerations when making the decision about
purchas ing a grid con nected PV system. If this is their reason for making a decision,
currently they would probably not purchase a system. People could buy a system lor
environmental reasons while others could look at the benefits of PV in meeting the peak
power dem ands.

So though . at this po int 01 time , people in Australia would probably not buy a system on pu re
economic grounds alone. it is important for a system designer to be aware 01 the /inancial
techniques lor determining si mple payback and lile cycle costing .

However. with the government now providIng incentives lor solar power. some states
planning the introduction of feed ·in tariffs and the predict ion that el ectricity prices are going
to rise considerably , solar power is becoming more economically viable in Australia.

15.2 Simple payback

The easiest to undersland. although not the most useful. method for examining the
economics 01 PV grid-connected systems is the simple payback method. People are olten
interested in the payback period of the installation. This is calculated lrom the formu la:

T =C (15.1)
S

where
T =the payback period, in years
C = the initial capital cost of the PV system
S= Ihe an nual cost savings in the electricity that dos not need to be purchased.

In the grid-connected system, C is the original purchase price while S is the annual cost
savings in the electricity that does not need to be purchased.

For example:
A 1kW p grid -connected system produces about 1,200kWh per yea r. The system costs
$1 6,000 . The average costs for residential electricity is $O.15/kWh. therefore the savings
per year will be $180 (1200 x 0.15).

Chapter 15 - Economics 01 PV Grid Connect Systems Page 177

Design and Instalfation of Grid-Connected P V Systems

The simple payback time is:

T = 16.000 89 yea rs
180

From thi s type of calcul at ion it might seem th at customers would hardly be willing 10 accept
the PV system on economic grounds ... but read on.

Electricity is sold in $/kWh, so the ${kWh for grid -connected PV systems needs to be
determined. This is undertaken by using lite cycle costing .

15.3 Life cycle cosling

Undertaking a life cycle comparison is simply determining all the costs associated with
operating that system over its life. Therefore to perform this task you must:
• Determine all the installed capital costs of the equipment;
• Determine all the operating and maintenance costs associated with each piece of
equ ipm ent; and
• Determi ne component life and replacement cost.

15.3.1 Present value or present cost

It is diflicult to evaluate the costs of a system over the life of that system because the value
of money is con stantly changi ng and it is difficult to determine what the costs of items will be
in the future. Any money spent on the system in the future is best und erstood if it is
converted into a present value. i.e. what it would cost. using the value of money as it is
today, to purchase components for the system in the future.

We need a formula which will determine the value that a particu lar amount of money today
will have after a given number of years. The factors which influence thi s are firstly the
inflation rate g, secondly the interest rate d and th irdly the number of years n.

Such a formula exists, in general a sum of money, P, today will have a value X, after n years
according to the formula:

x = p x (1+d}n (15.2)
(1+g}n

W here
d = interest rate (i t is on the top line as the money Pwill grow with interest)
9 = in flation rate (it is on the bottom line as it reduces the purchasing power of the money)

The value of the money is increased by interest, but its purchase power is reduced by the
inflation.

Th e lime-value of money says that an $ earned, or spent, today has a greater value to the
earner, or spender, than does a $ earned , or spent, ten years from now. So , if I were to offer
you $20,000 for your car today, or gave you the alternative of delaying payment of the
$20,000 until 5 years from now, you would no doubt demand the $20.000 now! Were you to
agree to del er payment until 5 years from now you would want an add itional amount over
and above the $20,000 to compensate yo u for the delay in payment. You would , in other
words. put a time valu e on money. The percentage extra which you would demand for each
year's delay would represent your interest rate (roughly what you could expect to earn from
the $20,000 each year if you had access to it yourself) .

Chapler 15 . Economics of PV Grid Connect Systems I Page 178

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Present value works in reverse, it discounts (ie down-values) any costs and benefits which
resu lt from an investment by an annual percentage. If. in the above example, you were the
purchaser of the car for $20.000 in 5 years time, you could put away a sum of money now
which . with the interest earned on it, wou ld provide you with the necessary $20,000 five
years from now.

In effect present value evaluates the total sum of money which would need to be put away
now, and invested at the appropriate discount rate, in order to cover each year's costs as
they came up for the whole life of the system.

The above formula can be re -arranged to calculate the present value 01 a future sum of
money:

P = X x fh9ln (15.3)
(1 +d)n

For Example:
Conside r an inverter that costs A$SOOD. The inverter needs to be replaced after 10 years,
during which time the inllation rate has been 5% and the discount rate has been 7%. The
present value is:

p " 5000 x (1+0.05)" = $ 4,140.24

(1 +0.07)"

This means that we would have to invest A$414D at the current inltalion rate and interest
(discount) rates for 10 years to have the money to replace the inverter. i.e. $4140 is the
present value of the replacement costs.

15,3.2 Present worth factor

Sometimes th ere are regular maintenance costs associated with a PV system. We can
calculate the present value of all of the yearly maintenance costs using a factor called the
present worth factor, PWF. This again depends on g. d. and n.

The formula for the present worth factor is:

I - fh9ln
PWF \g,o,n) ~ \1 +ol" (15.4)
(1 +d) - 1
(1 +9)
For Example:
The cost of maintenance for a PV system is assumed to be $500 per year. Th e cost of
maintenance is expected to rise at the inflation rate 01 5% each year and the market discount
rate is 7%. We need to work out the present value of the maintenance over 20 years.

Presenl worth = $500 x PWF (0 05.07.20)

Using Ihe above formula, PWF (0.05, 0.07, 20) c 16.5

Therefore present worth is = 16.5 x $500 =$8,250

Therefore the maintenance over the next 20 years is $8.250 in today's money.

Chapter 15 - Economics of PV Grid Connect Systems Page 179

Design and Installation 01 Grid-Connected PV Systems

15.4 Determining Costs associated with PV system

The PV system comprises of the PV array, inverter and 8 0S equipment. To determine the
present value of the system then the capital costs , maintenance costs and replacement
costs need to be determined for each part of the system. The balance of systems has been
included in the ana lysis of Ihe PV array.

15.4.1 PV Array
15.4.1.1 Capital Costs
A PV array can cost approximately $12.000 to S15,000 per kW " inst al led. This depends
mainly on the price of mod ules, but is also affected by the 80S costs such as support
structures, foundation s, cabling etc, and labour.

15.4.1.2 Maintenance Costs

In general the maintenance associated with solar modules is small, and undertaken at 6 or
12 month intervals.

It is recommended that for the life cycle analysis a minimum of 2 hours per kW installed per
year is costed in undertaking maintenance at a typical site .

Alternatively, if a detailed calculation is not required , a figure of 1% of the capital cost is

usually su/ficienl as an approximate figure.

15,4.1.3 Replacement Costs

Solar modules will last longer than 20 years . It is very unusual to perform a life cycle analysis
for a life cycle period grealer than 20 years. therefore no replacement is necessary. A
conservative approach could include replacement lor a sma ll percentage of modules every 5
years due to premature failure.

15.4.2 Inverter
15.4.2.1 Capital COS1S
Grid Interactive Inverters range Irom $SOOIkW (SOkW unil) up to $3 .000IkW (1 kW unit) .

15.4,2.2 Maintenance Costs

Assum ing the electronic component is located in a clean, cool, dry environment then very
little maintenance is required. The only maintenance that shou ld be undertaken is the
checking of the terminal (cable) connections to ensu re they have not become loose. This
sh ould be undertaken at the same ti me as the arrays are checked and therelore will be
included in th at labour cost.

Most electronic equipment ca n require repair during their lifetime and po ssi bly some token
charge should be incl uded every 10 years .

It a detailed calculation is not required. a figure of 1% of the capital cost is usually sufficient
as an approximate figure.

15.4.2.3 Replacement Costs

Electronics products can last 10 10 20 years (possibly longer) bu t can also generally be
repaired. The designer should ask the manulacturer what is the expected lile 01 the inverter
they are installing in the system. If it is less than the length of the ]jfe cycle analysis then a
replacement should be included in the analysis.

Chapter 15 - Econom ics of PV Grid Connect Systems Page 180

Oesign and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

15.5 Calculating $ per kWh

The full life cycle costing involves applying the formulas in Section 15.3 to the PV system
costs determined in Section 15.4.

Historically life cycle costs have been undertaken based on 20 years , that was the predicted
lifetime of the PV modules, but realistically the PV array will last 25 to 30 years so there is an
argu ment to undertake lile cycle costing lor longer tha n 20 years.

To determine the $ per kW h, the present value of the whole system over a 20 year lifetime is
calculated. T he total discounted energy that will be produced over the 20 years IlIe is
estimated and then the $ per kW h is determined by:

A U$ per kWh
' =-=---,-_ _P,:-es:-e--:
_ /l--:' ,-al-,
v,-- u-,e--,o-,-f-,ys
s,,-:-,..:,...:...:
Discount ed nkWh produced by system over 20 y
em o:...,_'_e' -,2..:,O-,Y_--:--:_ 115 .5)

Once the costs (Section 15.4) have been determined and the 20 years has been selected,
how do we choose the inflation rate and discount rate?

The inflation rate used must be based on the current rate as provided Federal Reserve Bank
of Australia. The discount rate can be difficu lt to determine.

Naturally discount rates vary considerably from individual to in dividual and fro m organ isation
to organisation. The discount rate will typically include a profit portion so they are higher than
inflation . Sometimes people quote a real discount rale. These rales reflect the real (aiter
inflation) rates of return these sectors could normally expect to achieve on low-risk
investments.

Certain ly. the choice of discount rate affects the life cycle cost of the PV system substantially
since they have high capital costs and low running costs. Therefore, the eco nomic and social
benefits accrue over the life of the system .

11 is however, often useful to examine the sensitivity 01 the costing to changes in discount
rate.

Let"s assume we have installed a 1kW p PV system with the costs as shown in Table 15.1

Table 15.1 Costs for a O.99kWp Grid Connect System

Unit Price Total Price

Item No Item Qty
(A$) (A$)

1 PV Module (165 Wp each) $1 ,500 6 $9,000

2 Inverte, 11.1 kW) $2,700 1 $2,700

Installation , testing and

3 $3,000 1 $3,000
com missioning charges

System Price 10,99 kWp) $14,700

Chapter 15 - Economics of PV Grid Connect Systems Page 181

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected P V Systems

Let's assum e the inverter will be replaced after 10 years and the life cycle costing is based
on 20 years. Th e system produces 1300kWh per ann um with a tota l degradation of 15%
over the 20 years. Maintenance is based on 1'% 01 th e total capital costs . Table 15.2
provides AS per kWh for a variety of rea l discount rates.

Table 15.2 $/kWh tor Different Discount Rates

Real Di scount Rate AS/kWh

3% 1.03
4% 1.09
5% 1.1 5
6% 1.22
7% 1.29
8% 1.35

Chapter 15 - Economics of PV Grid Connect Systems I Page 182

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Questions For Chapter 15

1) What are the two methods of calculating the economics of a PV system? Which is the
better one?

2) Define Ihe "simple payback" melhod.

3) What is the disadvantage 01 using the simple payback method ?

4) Def ine the ~ ljf e cycle costing ~ method .

5) Why is the life cycle costing method more suitable 10 the PV system?

6) Deline:

a) Present value
b) Present worth factor

Chapter 15 . Econom ics of PV Grid Connect Systems Page 1B3

 Des(gn and Instaflation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

Glossary of Terms

Alternating Reversible flow of electric current. The direction of Ihe current

Current (a.c.) reverses periodically. usually 100 reversals per second (50 cycles).
Electricity tra nsmission networks use a.c. because voltage can be
transformed with relative ease resulting in lower transmission losses.

Altitude Angle The angle between the Hne to the sun and a horizontal plane.

Ambient The temperature of the environmen t surrounding the components 01

Temperature a system.

Array A collection of photovoltaic modu les, electrically wired together and

mechanically installed in their working environment. The modules
may be wired in series or parallel so that the output matches the
requirement of the application.

Atomic Structure The structure of atoms indicating Ihe number 01 protons, neutrons
and electrons in the atom and the positions 01 them relative to one
anolher. Negatively charged electrons are bound 10 the positive
nucleus (prolons and neutrons) by powerlul electric forces .

Azimuth Angte The horizontal angle between the point on the horizon directly below
the su n and true nonh • measured clockwise from north.

Blocking Diode A diode placed in series with a photovolta ic modu le or group of

modules to prevent the reverse Ilow of currenllhrough the module(s)
(also called a series or isolation diode).

Bypass Diode A diode placed in parallel with a photovoltaic module or group of

cells allowing a route lor Ihe current under conditions 01 shading or
ceU fai lure (also called a shunt diode).

Crystalline Atoms bonded together in a three dimensional structure called a

Structure crystallanice. In a silicon crystallallice the silicon atoms are bonded
together by the sharing 0 1 lour valence electrons with valence
electrons from four neighbouring aloms .

Current The rate 01 flow 01 electrons is the net transfer of electrons per unit
time. The unit of current is the ampere. Symbol - A. In electric
circuits the current is referred to by the symbol· I.

Diffuse Radiatio n The component of solar radiation which arrives at the poinl of
observation atter scanering due to clouds , fog, haze, dust or other
particles in the atmosphere.
It is more or less uniform from all directions .

Di ode A semiconductor which allows current to !Iow in one direction only.

Direct Current (d.c.) One way flow of electric current. There are no periodic reversals in
current di rection, as with a.c.

Direct Radiation Solar radiation that has travelled in a straight path from the sun to
the point of observation. An object in the path of direct radiation will
cast a shadow.

Glossary 01 Terms Page 185

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Dopants Impurities introduced at the atomic level into the crystalline

struclure of a base malerial. such as silicon, 10 alter the electrical
properties of that material.

Effi ciency The ratio of energy (power) produced by a device to the energy
(power) consumed by the same device. It is a number less than or
equal 10 unity.

'F ill Factor The ratio of maximum power 10 the product of open ci rcuit voltage
limes short circuil current. The fill factor is always less than unity
and is a measure of the squareness of the I-V curve and indicates
the performance of the module under conditions of poor irradiance.

·Free Electrons Electrons which have been removed from their atomic structure
and are free to move under the influence of a num ber of exte rnal
influences such as: an electric field; magnetic field Electric
Potential , Heat excitation, Light excitation .

Holes Vacancies where electrons would normally be in a perfect

crystalline structure.

'., The corresponding current for the maximum power point (i.e . the
product at current and voltage is a maxim um) on an IV curve. IMP is
usually specified at 1000W/m 2 , 25"C and 1.5 Air Mass, but it varies
with irradiance and temperature .

Short circuit current. It is the current produced by a pv cell. module

'' or array when exposed to solar radiation, when the +ve and -ve
term inals are shorted together, that is voltage is zero Isc is usually
specified at 1000W/m 2 , 25"C and 1.5 Air Mass but it does vary with
irradiance and temperature.

I -v Curve A graph showing the variation of current with voltage as a variable

resistor is varied in an external circuit of a solar cell. As the voltage
increases the current stays almost the same until it reaches the
~k nee ~. aller which the current drops off dramatically to zero.

Inverters Devices used to converl DC electrical current into AC current

Irradiance Solar power per unit area. Measured in W im 2 or kW/m2.

Irradiation The amount 01 solar energy over a specified period

Kilowatt-hours A unit of energy used to specify electrical energy. Symbol, kWh.

Load The energy requirement (lights and appliances) of an installation. It

is generally measured in kWh. The load takes into account the
power rating 01 each of the appliances and the lime lor which it
operates.

Modules Solar cells wired together to increase the voltage and/or current 10
match the characteristics required by the application. Generally.
modules for grid-connected systems have 72 cells wired in series.

Glossary of Terms Page 186

Design and Installation of Grid·Connected PV Systems

N· Type Silicon Silicon to which phosphorous has been added to provide an excess
electron in the valence band of the silicon. Phosphorous has five
electrons in its outer shell compared with silicon's lour. When bound 10 a
silicon alom the exces s electron is more freely removed from the atom.
Once the electron has been removed it leaves behind an excess of
positive charge.

Nominal The nominal operating photovoUaic cell junction temperature in a

Operating Cell standard reference environment of O.8kW/m 2 irradiance, 20"(; ambienl
Temperature air temperature, 1 m/s wind speed and electrically open ci rcuit.
(NOCT)

P·Type Silicon Silicon to which boron has been added to provide acceptor sites (holes)
in the valence band of the silicon . Boron has three electrons in its outer
shell compared with silicon's four. When bound to a silicon atom the
lack of an electron provides a site into which an eleC1ron can move.
Once the hole has been filled by an electron there remains an excess of
negative charge.

Peak Sun Hours The equivalent number of hou rs at peak sun conditions (i.e. lkW im:! ,
AM." 1.5, temperature"" 2S 'C) that produces the same total radiation as
actual sun conditions for that day. PSH = MJ/m2 +- 3.6

Photovoltaic The ejection of an electron from its position relative to the nucleus of an
Effect ato m by the energy transferred by a collision with a photon from
sunlight. (Visible part of spectrum)

Photon The smallest discrete packet of energy associated with light

Power The time rate of using energy. The unit of power is the Watt . Symbol, W.
A Watt is a sm all unit and a more common unit is the kiloWan.
Symbol, kW .
The powe r dissipated in an electrical circuit is the product 01 the vo ltage
across the circuit times the current flo wing throug h the circuit. P :;; I x V.

Power Factor The ratio of real power (Watts) to apparent power (Volt-Am ps) in an a.c.
circuit. Grid·connected inverters must have a power factor of 1.

RFI Radio Frequency Interference . Devices that switch power at high

frequencies such as inverters produce electrical noise. This can
interfere with radios, particularly in the AM band.

Silicon The most abundant element on the surface of the earth. lis particular
atomic structure makes it suitable for use as a solar cell .

Solar Cell The basic photovoltaic dellice which generates electricity when exposed
to sunlight (visible part of spectrum). A solar cell is a photo-diode which
~ond.ucts ~urrent in one direction only. It is formed by creating a p·n
Junction usrng p·type and n-type silicon.

Solar Radiation Electromagnetic radiant energy, originating from the sun, ariSing from
nuclear fusion reaction producing helium 1rom hydrogen.

Solar Spectrum Solar radiation is made up of many dillerent wavelengths or frequencies.

Each is a part of the solar spectrum. Gamma rays , X-rays , Ultra-violet
rays, Visible light, Infra·red radiation, Micro-waves, Short radio waves
and Long radio waves make up the solar spect rum.

Glossary of Terms
Page 187
Design and Instalfation of Grid -Connected PV Systems

Standard Test Conditions under which all pv cells can be rated and compared.
2
Conditions (PV) The conditions are an irradiance of 1kW/m , 25"(; ceU temperature and
an Air Mass of 1.5.

Temperature The am ount by which the voltage, current or power from a solar cell will
Correction change with changes in the temperature of the cell.
Factor

The corresponding voltage for the max imum power point (Le. the
product of current and voltage is the maximum) on an IV cu rve. Vac is
usually specified at 1000W/m2 , 25"C and 1.5 Air Mass but it varies with
Irradiance and tem perature .

Vc, Open circuit voltage. It is the voltage produced by a PV cell, module or

array with no load attached, when exposed to solar radiation, measured
with a voltmete r having internal resistance of at least 20kON . Voc is
usually specified at lOOOW /m2 , 25"C and 1.5 Air Mass but it varies with
irradiance and temperature.

Voltage A measure of the force or "push" given to the electrons in an electric

circuit; a measure of electric potent ial. The unit of voltage is the Vo l\.
Symbol· V.
One Volt produces one Amp of current when acting against a resistance
of one Ohm.

Wavetorm A graphical representation of how the current, voltage or power of an

electrical signal change over lime at a fixed point in space.

Glossary of Terms Page 188

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Index
References in italics denote figures , images or tables

Blocking Diodes, 63 NOCT,63

Bypass Diodes, 61, 136 Ohm's Law, 29
Cables, 87, 115, 129, 152 Parallel Circuits, 33
Current, 26 Peak Sun Hours. 17. 18, 19
a.c., 28 Performance Ratio, 138
Carrying Capacily , 133 Power, 29
d.c., 28 Curve, 44
De-rating , Factor, 68
Dirt, 123, 149 Losses, 121 1 130
Manufacturer's, 124 Protection, 134
Tem peralure, 122, 125, 126 Array, 90
Disconnection (devices), 135 Inverter, 8t
PV Main, 91, 92, 152 Ughlning, 90, 136
Siring, 90 PV modules , see 'Modules'
Hazards, 5 PV Cells, 39
Inverters,S, 67, 77 Irradiance. 45
Ell iciency, 80, 124 In series. 55
Moniloring , 83, 84 Mismatch, 56
Match ing array 10 , 125,128 Performance , 46
Protection , 81 Shaded,60
Selecl ing, 120, 151 Types , 47
Types, 70 , 75, 76 Resistance, 27
Irradiance, 11 Series Circuits, 33
Ellecl at, 45 Shading, 60 , 110, 112,113,124
Irradiation, 17, 19, 20, 111 Signage, 155, 156, 165
IV curve, 43, 55 Sile Survey, 109
Metering, 99 Solar Allilude, 20, 2 1, 22
Modules, 3, 57 Specific Yield, 138
Efficiency, 121 STC, 63 ,
In arrays , 58, 148 Temperature
In parallel, 36, 59 Ellecl 01 , 44
In series , 34, 60 Module, 122
Mismatch, 124 Vollage, 26
Temperature, 122 Warrant1es, 143

Index Page 189

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Summary of Formulas
Please note that not all fo rmulas are listed here. These are the most common formulas that
you may require. Page references are also given for your convenience.

Chapter 2

Page 20 Altitude of the sun when it's over the equator:

Page 20 Altitude of the sun when it's over the tropics:

Chapter 3

Page 29 Oh m' s Law

Power Equation P = IV

Energy Eq uation E = Pt
Chapter 4

Page 33 Resistors in Se ri es

Vo ltage Sources in Series VI = VI + V2 + ..

Page 34 Curre nt Sources in Ser ies 11 = 11 = 12 = .

Page 35 Voltage Sources in Parallel

Cu rrent Sources in Parallel

Chapter 5

Page 47 FiJI Factor FF == (11.'1 ' x V.... ) ·(I s·:.; x V; \

Chapter 7

Page 67 RMS Voltage

Page 68 RMS C urrent lAMS = Ir l\2 = 0.707 x Ir

Page 69 Power Factor PF == cos <P

True Power

Powe r Factor for Appliances PF = P,/P

Page 80 Inverter Efficiency Il.NI' = lleON x IlTA

Summ ary of Formulas Page 190

Design and Installation of Grid-Connected PV Systems

Chapter 11
Page 117 Maximum Modules (theoretical) Nmax = A.ooIAm«!

Page 122 Efficiency of Module I) = P""p/(A mod x 1000) x 100%

Cell Effective Temperature Tcell et! =TaYe amb + 25 OC

Page 123 Temperature De-raling ' ,amp = 1 -[V X (T teII , f1 - TsrcJl

Page 125 VMI' at a Spec ified Temperat ure V",p cell 111 = VMPSlC - IVv x (TceIIalt - Tslc ))

Page 126 Minimum Modules in a String N minpersrriI\Q '" V itNmlnl V mln MPPInY

Maximum Voc Vm8Jt.OC = Vac ' ,c - IVv x (Tmin - TSlclJ

Page 127 Maximum Modules in a String N mu pe. Siring = VInv max i Voc ma.<

VMP al Different Irradiance Levels V""P2 = VL4PSIC+126mV x In( G;lGstdl

Page 130 d ,c, Voltage Drop in Cables Vd",' (2 X L X I X p)/A

Page 13 1 Minimum CSA for d .c. Cable A. (2 X L X I X p)/(Loss X V MP _ )

Power Loss in d.c. Cable P. (2 X L X I' X p)/A

Page 137 De-rating of PV Array

Sub-system Efficiency I)ss = r"\pv jrw X rj 'M

Average Array Energy Output Epv = Pa"ay X H' il'

Average Energy Yield Es)'S = Epv X r"\ ss

Page 138 Average Energy Yield E sys = P arranlc X framp X fmm X ' din X I) pvinv X 'li<w X Hlill

Speci fic Yield SY = E s)'S/Palr.~a1c

Performance Ratio PR . E.,.IE....

Page 140 Rating 01 Array Required Pllmlr slC = P arr.! ( flemp X ' mm X ' d.,)

Number 01 Modules in Array N = P8ffIlY .JPmod Ire

Number of Modules in Array N 2 EsvJ( PmodN;: X f-.np x f..... x IcIrt x r)pY ...... X I),rw x Hid.)

Chapter 15
Pag e 179 Simple Payback Period T • C/ S

Page 180 Future Value X • P X (1 +d)"/( 1+g)"

Pag e 181 Present Value P• X X (1 +g) "/(l +d)"

Present Worth Factor PWF (g,d,n ) . [l .(( l +g) "/(l+d)")V[( (1 +d)"/( l +g)")· l[

Summary of Formulas Page 191

 Global Susta inable Energy Solutions Ply Lld

Head Office Training Centre

PO Box 57 PO Box 264
Uliadulia Pambula
NSW 2539 NSW 2549
AUSTRALIA AUSTRALIA
Ph : + 61 244573057 Ph : + 61 264957800

www.gses.com.au
[email protected]
•
Thanks for reading this book
感谢阅读这本书

Your approval - We appreciate

大家的认可， 是我们的感激

Wish you all have a nice study life

祝愿大家美好的学习生活

Special thanks:
To Mr. Little Ma 小马

Lynn Matthew and Phoenix

小田 小马 和 华子