PREFACE

In acquiring a knowledge of electronics, or in the applica-

tion of such knowledge, once it is acquired, a certain amount
of mathematics is indispensable. The topics covered here have
been selected as some of the most essential and will provide
a good basic foundation in electronic math,
Scientific notation (powers of ten) greatly reduces the num-
ber of digits required in dealing with very large or very small
quantities. The text shows how to use powers of ten to add,
subtract, multiply, divide, square, and extract square roots.
The working principles of basic algebra are useful when-
ever it is necessary to find some unknown quantity in terms
of known quantities. Only the simplest operations are covered,
FIRST EDITION including negative numbers, terminology, combining terms,
SECOND PRINTING—1976 factoring, and simple equations.
Ohm's law is probably the most important and most used law
Copyright © 1974 by Radio Shack, a Tandy Corporation in electronics. The three basic forms and their application to
Company, Fort Worth, Texas 76107. Printed in the United series circuits, parallel circuits, and combinations of these two
States of America. circuit types are given.
The circuit elements, resistance, capacitance, and induc-
All rights reserved. Reproduction or use, without express tance, each receive a separate chapter for their study. This
permission, of editorial or pictorial content, in any manner,
includes definitions, series and parallel combinations, reac-
is prohibited. No putent liabilityis asgumed with respect
to the use of the information contained herein. tance formulas, charge and energy, and time constants.
|
In electronics, many phenomena are associated with the use
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 74-78010 of alternating current with certain components. Reactance,
both inductive and capacitive, varies as the frequency of ap-
plied AC varies. This is shown by the reactance formulas. In
addition, there are such properties as phase relationships, rms
and peak values of voltage and current, real and apparent
power, power factor, and series and parallel resonance. These
are all given the detailed attention their importance warrants,
and worked examples show how formulas are used to solve for
their numerical values.
The reader who understands and masters the math pre-
sented here will be able to handle a majority of the math
problems associated with general electronics applications.
If further specialized study is needed, he will have a good
foundation on which to build.
ALAN ANDREWS

=
 CHAPTER &

GAPAOITANGE |: << soe soe Be ee 82

CONTENTS
Factors Affecting Capacitance—Capacitive Reactance—Series
Capacitors—Paralle! Capacitors—Charge and Energy—Time
Constant
CHAPTER 1
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION. . . m Pe ae gb CHAPTER 9
Ge Gr eon og
Addition and Subtraction—Multiplication—Division—Recipro- 94
RESONANCE ’ s
eals—Squares ‘and Square Roots—Units of Measurement
Series Resonance—Parallel Resonance—Decibels

CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 10
REMI EGR BEN ie er spon eet omens aves ee ou a ae ee
Hoi REVIEW GUI & howe ee we ee ® om ow & BOD
Negative Numbers—Terminology—Combining Terms— Fac-
toring —Equations
APPENDIX

CHAPTER 3 DECIMAL EQUIVALENT CHART . . 109

GAME DAW ides e@a my Be GS 2 wok! a INDEX . 110
Series Circuits—Parallel Circuits—Series-Parallel Circuits—
Power

CHAPTER 4
BoC RO ie ae oe acl eS eee ee ce, A
Series Resistors—Parallel Resistors—Conductance

CHAPTER 5
AC AND AC Circuits. . ... ; . 50
Average Values—Effective Values—AC Cireuits—Series Cir-
cuits—AC Power

CHAPTER 6
DEERMIENOY uc es oR Gf eo ke Bae ec se
Wavelength—Time

CHAPTER 7
SRTERNE: US Ql Bg 2 lee. gg, 8
Inductive Reactance—Inductor Combinations—Energy and Q
—Time Constant—Transformers
 SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS

Sa RESISTOR

TAPPED PRESS STOR

| Y OR VOLTAGE DIVIDER
CHAPTER 1
== POTENT[OMETER: ee POWER. SWITCH
AFOLUME CONTROL —2)- S)NGLE-POLE. SINGLE THROW

} = fee: SWITCH
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
TR stg SINGLE-POLL DOUELE-THEOW

i of switcK
Pn DOUBLE-POLE, SINGLE-THROW
In electronics, numbers in the millions are often used, as
RR (ROM CORE
CHdaE COIL
well as numbers of less than one—on down to a millionth or
=
Ue
—hi— ALR 4 ev oe PQBRE-POLE, MLE-THROW less. The complete numbers, expressed in basic units, can be
peat
MO CONMECT ION
~ -AWHEN CONNECTIONS carried straight through an entire problem. But we waste time
ARE GMOUCATED
BY DOTS) “3B wees by doing so, and greatly increase the chance of error. As an
example, suppose we had to take 10 megohms times 50 pico-

ae
—— CONNECTION CRYSTAL DETECTOR
WHEN MC)- COANE
THOM
CROSSOVERS ARE farads, to find the time constant of a circuit. The problem
INDICATED SYHALF-CIRCLESI
ot PLOT Law would read:
10,000,000 x 0.00000000005 = 0.00050000000
)NPN
ADO STASLE-CORE
COIL
im |
~ TRANSISTORS POWER TRANSFORMER Look at all the zeros we have to write, thus increasing the

{|PAF
H
‘

}
P= [VOLT Pe IARY

Oo & possibility of making mistakes.

In this chapter we will show you a method of abbreviation
FILAMENTS OF
a q| iELECTROOYNAMIC)
ealled “engineer's shorthand,” “scientific notation,” or more
SIGHAL-CIRCUIT TURES
oe OWE=CELL OF "AM
EATERY S2-SECONDARY FOR
simply, “powers of ten.” The last title most aptly describes the
RECTIFIER TUBE process, because all numbers are expressed as powers of ten.
MLE ELL, FILAMENT
—ih}— SPEARER
i
BATTERY
$3-CLMTER
= TAPPED
HIGH-WOLTAGE SECONDARY
[PERMLAMENT MUGHET | This means any number can be expressed as a number between
1 and 10, multiplied by 10 raised to some power. For example:
4 FMS CAPACITOR
MICA OF PAPER
628 = 6.28 = 10°
de
LGR EMT) (NG
Fie CAPACITOR Oe aie
TLECTROWYTI
2,000 = 2 x 10*
UA LPTFO
x LL. ADJUSTABLEO@ VARIABLE 1B AMS 15 1 3,000,000 =3 x 10°
TT) CAPACITOR
0.005 = 5 x 107"
t7
AQIUST ABLE OF VARIABLE GTA CSE SL ECR
CAPACITOS IGANGEDE FELD SECT Tans TORS
mnsten The power of 10 is the exponent; it tells how many times
10 is used as a factor in multiplying. For example 10° indi-
PECL BF ECT
TRANSISTORS FET) cates 10 = 10, or 10 used twice; 10* is 10 = 10 x 10, or 10
SILI OK
CONTROLLED
used three times, etc. Following is a partial list of the powers
_ RECTIFIER of ten which occur most often.
 10°=1 190-'=0.1 Rule 2. For a number smaller than 1, move the decimal
10*= 10 10-* = 0.01 point to the right until a number between 1 and 10 results.
10° = 100 10-* = 0,001 Then count the number of places the decimal was moved and
10* = 1,000 10-* = 0.0001 use that number as a negative power of 10.
Thus:
104 = 10,000 10-* = 0.00001
10° = 100,000 10-* = 0.000001 0.00732 = 7.32 x 10-4,
10° = 1,000,000 In this example the decimal point was moved three places
to the right, again resulting in 7.32. To compensate for the
The negative powers of 10—10-', 10--, ete—may require change, 7.32 was multiplied by 10-* to make the two quantities
some explanation. Actually, it is difficult to imagine 10 being equal,
used minus 2 times as a factor. In fact, anything less than We reverse the process by performing opposite actions.
zero has little practical meaning. But we can show that 10 to For example:
a negative power has a real-number meaning. There is a rule
that states that the numerator and denominator of a fraction 2.4 x 10° = 2,400,
can be multiplied or divided by the same number without The decimal point was moved to the right the number of
changing the value of the fraction. Let’s use 10-' and multiply places indicated by the power of 10. An example of a number
by 10'. less than 1:
10-1
1
10"
10'
_10°_
10°
1_
10
3.24 X 10-* = 0.0324.

Here the decimal was moved to the left two places, as indi-
For the present we will assume that any number to the cated by the power of 10. We could summarize these actions
zero power has a value of 1. In the next chapter we will show by saying: A number /arger than 1 has a positive power of 10.
why this is true. Using the same method as above we can A number smaller than 1 has a negative power of 10. The
show the value of 10~-". number 1 itself has a zero power of 10 because 10°= 1. 10! is
16-* 1" _- 19" 1 1 usually written as 10, the power of 1 being understood. It is
i “io? ie 102 100 ~ 2"? necessary, however, to include the minus sign in 10-'.
In the examples thus far, we have converted each number
There are two rules we can apply in converting numbers to a value between 1 and 10 and then used the proper power
to powers of 10. of 10. For some problems it may suit our purpose to express
Rule 1. For a number larger than 1, move the decimal
a number in a slightly modified form; the next examples show
point to the Jef? until a number between 1 and 10 results. several ways of expressing 254.
Then count the number of places the decimal was moved,
and use that number as a positive power of 10. 2.54 x 10° 254 x 10° 0.0254 x 104
Thus: 20.4 x 10 0.254 x 105 2,540 x 10-1
782,000 = 7.32 x 10°
In this example the decimal point was moved five places ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
to the left to make the number 7.32. To compensate for the To add or subtract numbers expressed as powers of 10, we
change, 7.32 was multiplied by 10° to make the two quantities must first convert all numbers to the same power of 10. Then
equal. the numbers can be added (or subtracted) and the same power

9
retained in the answer. This is illustrated by the next two 360 * 0.5
problems: = $.6' x 107 x 5x 10-*
1. 4.32 * 10* + 6.68 x 10°+ 142 x 10= 7 = 3.6 x 5 x 10° x 10-1!
=18 x 10= 180
4.32 x 104 = 4,320 x 104
6.68 x 10° = 0.668 x 104 7500 * 0.0004
142 x 10 = 0.142 x 104 = 7.5 x 10? x 4x 10-4
5.130
x 10* =f. % 4 > 10? x.10-*
=$80:%10-" =8$.0
2, 2.88 x 10'-— 0.65 x 1 = 7
288% 10*= 2.880 x 104 Multiplication of more than two numbers would be handled
0.65 * 10 = —0.065 « 104 in the same way, as illustrated by the next example:
2.815 x 108
~ 650 « 2300 « 0.0002
Or we could have solved the second problem like this: = 6.5 x 10x 2.8 x10 x 2x 10-4
= 6.5 x 2.8 x 2 x 10° x 10% x 10-4
28.80 x 10°
= 29.9 x 10 = 299
—0.65 x 108
28.15 x 10%
DIVISION
which is the same answer obtained in the first solution.
To divide numbers involving powers of 10, divide the num-
bers and then subtract the exponent of the divisor from the
exponent of the number being divided. Thus:
MULTIPLICATION
To obtain the product of numbers expressed as powers of (64 x 10°) + (4 « 10%)
10, multiply the numbers together and then add the expo- _ 64 x 10°
nents of the 10's. For example: 4x 10°
4200 * 300 _ 64x 10° x 10-"
4
=42 x 10? x 3 x 107
=42x3x 10*x 1¢ = 16 x 10° = 1600
= 12.6 x 105 Notice that when the 10’s are divided, the 10 in the divisor
In this example both powers of 10 were positive and so were can be moved to the numerator by changing the sign of the
added. The same rule also holds true when all exponents are exponent.
negative, as in the next problem: 420,000 4.2 x 105
0.0386 * 0.002 210 °=—« 2.1 kK«10?
= 3.6 x 10-7 x 2x 10-* _ 4.2 «10° x 10-*
= 8.6 x 2x 10-7? x 10-4 ~ 24 |
= 7.2 10-5 = 2.0 x 10% = 2000.
If the exponents have different signs, the smaller exponent Both multiplication and division may be found in the same
is subtracted from the larger and the sign of the larger 15 electronics problems. They can be combined and solved as
retained. This is illustrated in the next two problems: follows:

10 WW
 520 x 0.0036 5.2 x 10° x 3.6 x 10-8
“2600 “2.6 X 10 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
_ 5.2 x 8.6 x 10% x 10-* x 10-4
2.6 For effective exchange of information in any technical field,
we must have units by which we can measure and express
= 7.2 x 10-4 = 0.00072
various quantities. This is especially true in electronics be-
cause so many separate components and circuit character-
istics enter into the over-all operation or description of any
RECIPROCALS
particular piece of equipment. Especially in the mathematical
To take the reciprocal of a number means to divide that study of electronics, these units and their uses should be well
number into 1. For example the reciprocal of 250 is 1/250. understood.
An easy way of taking reciprocals with powers of 10 is to
state the number with the decimal point just preceding the
first significant digit. Then, after the number is divided into 1, Ohm’‘s Law
the decimal will appear after the first digit. The power of 10
In the answer is the same as in the original problem but has The units used in Ohm's law probably occur more frequently
the opposite sign, Two examples are given, using these rules than any others. So let’s define these first.
in the solutions: Volt—The volt is the basic unit of electromotive force, or
electrical pressure. One volt is the force necessary to cause a
current of one ampere to flow through a resistance of one ohm.
Ampere—The ampere is the practical unit for measuring
current. One ampere is the amount of electron flow that re-
sults when one volt is applied across a resistance of one ohm.
(Actually, the ampere is a rate of flow rather than a quantity,
and the number of amperes can be defined as the number of
SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS coulombs passing a given point each second.)
When squaring a number stated as a power of 10, multiply Coulomb—The coulomb is the unit for measuring the quan-
the number by itself and then double the exponent of the 10. tity of electricity, or charge. Numerically, one coulomb is a
charge of 6.24 x 10" electrons, and is the amount delivered
(6 x 102)? = 36 « 104 by a current of one ampere in one second. Coulombs are used
(2.5 x 10*)? = 6.25 x 108 to measure the quantity of flow, and amperes the rate of flow,
(4 x 10-1)? = 16 x 10-2 of electrons through a circuit. Coulombs are also used to ex-
The opposite is done when taking the square root of a num- press the quantity of charge on a capacitor.
Ohm—The ohm (©) is the basic unit of resistance or oppo-
ber. But first the number should be arranged so that the power
of 10 is an even number, either positive or negative. The square sition to electron flow. One ohm is the amount of resistance
root of the number is taken, and the power of 10 is then di- which will allow a current flow of one ampere when one volt
vided by 2. is applied across it.
Mho—The mho (ohm spelled backwards) is the unit of
\/52.9 x 10" = \/5.29 x 104 = 2.3102 eonductance, or the ease with which electrons can flow in a
V6.4 x 10-5 = \/64 x10-" =8 x 10-* circuit. The numbers of mhos is the reciprocal] of the circuit
\/144 x 10" = 12 x 10* resistance. The symbol for conductance is G or g.

12
 flow. A farad can also be defined as the amount of capacitance
Power and Energy which will produce a current of one ampere when a change of
The capacity or ability to do work is called energy. The rate one volt per second occurs across it.
at which the work is done is called power. For energy, the
practical unit of measurement is the watt-hour. For power, Units of Length
the practical unit is the watt.
Watt—tThe practical unit of power. One watt is the dissi- Various units of length are used in electronics to express
pation which occurs when one ampere of current is passing wavelength, antenna length, and other physical characteristics
through a resistance of one ohm. One watt is also the same of components and devices. Two different systems are used,—
as one joule per second. the English and the metric—and the electronics technician
Joule—The joule is a unit of energy. One joule is the amount should be familiar with the primary units of both. Following
of energy (or work) required in maintaining a current of one is a list of length relationships which occur most frequently
ampere for one second through a resistance of one ohm. It is in basic electronics calculations:
also equivalent to one watt-second—3,600 joules (watt-sec- 1 mil = 0,001 inch 1 centimeter = .8937 inch
onds) equal one watt-hour. 12inches =1 foot 1 meter = 3.28 feet
Watt-Hour—The watt-hour is the practical unit of elec- 3 feet = 1 yard 1 meter = 39.57 inches
trical energy. The number of watt-hours is calculated by mul- 1,760 yards = 1 mile (statute) 1 kilometer = 3,280 feet
tiplying the number of watts times the hours during which 5,280 feet =1 mile (statute)
that amount of power is being dissipated. One watt-hour is
equal to 3,600 joules. For measuring extremely short wavelengths, other units
Horsepower—The horsepower is a practical unit of power. are used. One of these, the micron, is equal to 10—* centimeter.
One horsepower (hp) is equal to 746 watts. The millimicron is 0.001 of a micron, or 10-" centimeter.
Another similar unit is the Angstrom unit, which is equal to
10-* centimeter.
Reactive Units
Cycle—An alternating current goes through one complete Prefixes
cycle when it increases from zero to maximum, decreases to
zero, increases to maximum in the reverse direction, then de- Expression of electronics quantities often involves extremely
creases to zero again. The number of cycles of AC which occur large or small numbers. We have already seen the number of
in one second of time is called the frequency, and the basic electrons in a coulomb (6.24 x 18'*). Capacitance in a circuit
unit of frequency is the hertz (cycle per second). may be as small as 5 x 10-'™ farad. Other quantities of com-
Henry—The basic unit of inductance is the henry. One henry parable numbers are often used. To express these numbers
is the amount of inductance that will result in an electromotive as powers of ten simplifies the writing, as well as the calcu-
force of one volt being generated by a change in current rate lations involving them. But prefixes are also used (prefixes
of one ampere per second. (As voltage is applied to a coil, it are portions of words used before the names of the units),
opposes the increase of current by generating a counter volt- each separate prefix indicating a certain power of 10. For in-
age which is opposite in polarity to the applied voltage.) stance centi indicates 0.01(10-*); therefore, a centimeter is
Farad—tThe basic unit of capacitance is the farad, although 0.01 of a meter. Kilo means 1,000 (10°); so a kilometer is
it is too large to be a practical unit. One farad is the amount 1,000 meters.
of capacitance that will exhibit a potential of one volt across Following is a list of prefixes used most frequently in ex-
it when it is charged for one second by one ampere of current pressing electronics measurements. Each represents a certain

14
power of 10 (either positive or negative) as indicated. Each 0.05 uF would become 50,000 pF. When a quantity is expressed
prefix also has a symbol which is often used to represent it: in smaller units, the nwmber of these units becomes greater.
deka (da) = 10" deci (d) =10-1 Using the chart, convert 3,000 kHz to MHz as follows: Mov-
hekto (h) = 10? eenti (c) = 10-* ing from kilo to mega, move 3 units to the left. Hence, 3,000
kilo (k) =10 milli (m) = 10-8 kHz becomes 3 MHz (after the decimal point has been moved
mega (M) = 10° micro (4) =10-* to the left). Without the chart, the conversions are made by
giga (G) = 10" nano (n) = 10~-* using powers of 10, For example, 3,000 kHz is 3,000 x 10° Hz,
tera (T) =10" pico (p) = 10-2 Since a megacycle is 10° we can change the 10" to 10°, but the
or decimal point must be moved three places to the left (to com-
micromicro (sp) pensate for the changed power of 10). To change 0.05 pF to pF,
we change the power of 10 from 10-° to the smaller 10-™.
Examples of the use of prefixes in electronic notation, and
To compensate, the 0.05 is changed to 50,000, a larger number.
their numerical equivalents, are illustrated next:
In a few cases a combination of prefixes may be used. Kilo-
1 microfarad = 1 x 10-* farad = 0.000,001 farad megahertz (10°) is used in connection with super high fre-
& kilohertz = 8 x 10° hertz = 3,000 hertz quencies.
5 picofarads = 5 x 10-"* farad = .000,000,000,005 farad
2 nanoseconds = 2 * 10-" second = .000,000,002 second

Sometimes confusion may arise in using M for mega and

m for milli. Unless completely understood, it may be advis-
able to write out the prefix and unit—for example, megahertz
or milliampere. Another source of confusion is the use of m for
micro. In this case, when denoting capacity, common usage
has determined it to mean micro. By the same token, when
used with amperes it is understood to mean mulli.
In some calculations it is necessary to convert from one
prefix to another. This involves moving the decimal point a
certain number of places. Figure 1-1 is useful for this purpose.
Notice that the calibration is reversed from our usual method
of counting. The numbers are progressively smaller as we
move toward the right. For instance, to convert 0.05 »F to pF,
we start at micro (10-") and move to pico (10-"), a move of
six places to the right—to a smaller unit. The decimal point,
therefore, would be moved six places to the right, so that

6 $ &§ 25 828882 MICRO 3 Pico

1012011
920199108107
) 10° 10% 194 107 102 10! ’het Paotwrohohotioch
hehe!
d
Figure 1-1. Relative values of multiple and submultiple prefixes.

17
 not indicate “less than nothing’; it only indicates that the
potential is 10 volts negative with respect to whatever we are
CHAPTER 2 calling zero.
Temperature measurements also illustrate this point: a read-
ing of zero or below does not mean there is no temperature.
BASIC ALGEBRA The measurements are taken with respect to what has been
arbitrarily set up as zero on the temperature scale, and nega-
tive readings are opposite in direction from positive readings.
In a sense, algebra can be considered as arithmetic ex- Thus, the use of positive and negative numbers gives us a
pressed on a general rather than specific basis, For example, mathematical means of expressing direction as well as quan-
2 amps multiplied by 3 ohms equals 6 volts. This is Ohm’s law tity in our electronics calculations. We have already used posi-
expressed in terms of those specific values. If we say that tive and negative voltages as one example. Phasing in AC
E =I x R, we are using an algebraic expression to give the circuits, and measurement of sound levels, also make use of
relationship of voltage, current, and resistance for all values. these ideas.
Electronics formulas are algebraic expressions showing how Direction is illustrated by Figure 2-1, which is a numbered
some value varies with respect to others. Thus, our prime scale extending from zero in both directions. On the scale, +2
concern in studying algebra is to be able to manipulate these and —2Z are both separated from zero by the same amount, but
formulas in such a way that we can solve for any circuit in different directions. However, +2 and —2 are 4 units apart
characteristic. on the number scale, The absolute value of a number is its
Algebra is different from arithmetic in two ways. First,
algebra can include negative numbers, a concept usually not
considered in arithmetic. Second, algebra makes use of literal Fs 4 = «at =) low 7 wl 6

numbers (letters) in place of actual numerical values, al- Figure 2-1. Scale showing both the positive and the negative direction from
though numbers can also be used. The use of literal numbers © zero point.
limits what can be done in a given problem; hence most alge- value, neglecting the sign; both +2 and —2 have absolute
braic expressions are more involved than their arithmetical values of 2.
counterparts. We can say that 2 plus 3 equals 5, combining the In algebra, a negative number is noted by placing a nega-
separate numbers. But we cannot combine a and b unless we tive sign in front of the number; for example —2, —3a, —4x°,
know the specific value of each. etc. In combining numbers, the signs must be considered part
of the operation, as evidenced by the four examples listed
NEGATIVE NUMBERS below:

In arithmetic we normally use zero to indicate a complete 4+3=7

lack of whatever we are numbering. If we have zero dollars,
we have no dollars. And, in a practical sense, it is difficult 3-4=-]1
to imagine having less than zero of anything. But if we con-
sider zero as merely a reference point on a number scale, we
~§- 4249
can go in either direction from that reference. Voltage meas- The positive sign indicates that the quantity is added; the
urements illustrate our point. If we call chassis ground zero negative sign, that it must be subtracted. When numbers are
volts, we can have either a positive or a negative potential added the result is called the sum. When subtraction is per-
with respect to that reference, A reading of —10 volts does formed the result is the difference.
18
 We also use other signs of operation. If we wish to indicate An algebraic expression is a mathematical statement in-
that a and b are multiplied together, it can be shown as a x b, cluding both literal and arithmetic numbers grouped accord-
a:b, or simply ab—all three methods signifying multipli- ing to algebraic standards. Some examples are:
cation. When negative numbers are involved, parentheses are
used to show multiplication, (—3)(—2) for example. Other- “+ y,2a— b, zy, —3a/b and 2? + y*.
wise this might be read as —3—2, or —5. In expressing arith- A term is a number, or the product or quotient of several
metic numbers, all of these methods are valid except one. numbers. Examples are 3a, b, xy, a,b, etc. In the expression
The symbols 2 x 3,2. 3, (2)(3) would all express multipli- 2a + b, there are two terms, 2a and b; and in any expression
cation of 2 times 3, but 23 would be read as twenty-three. of two or more terms, each term is separated from its adjacent
With literal numbers, though, the latter method is all right, terms by either a plus or minus sign.
as with ab. Similarly 212 is usually considered to be 2 + % Terms which contain the same letters are called like terms
rather than 2 times 44. The result obtained when numbers are or similar terms (for example, 24 and —3a, x* and 22°, 2ab
multiplied is called the product. and dab, etc.). Unlike terms have different literal numbers:
Dividing a by ) can be shown by a + 5 or a/b, the latter 2a and 35 are unlike terms. An expression containing only one
being used almost exclusively in algebraic operations. Thus in term is called a monomial. A two-term expression is a binomial,
these examples, and one including three terms is a trinomial. The word poly-
nomial is often used to describe an expression which contains
two or more terms.
An algebraic term consists of several parts—namely the
the numerator is divided by the denominator. Multiplication base, the coefficient, and the exponent. In the term 327, x is
and division are inverse processes. If we multiply a number the base, 3 is the coefficient, and 2 is the exponent. The x2
by 3 and then divide the result by 3, we obtain the original indicates that x is used as a factor twice, or x times x.
number. Multiplying a number by 44 is the same as dividing The coefficient tells us how many of these x? terms we have.
by 3, so that a/3 is the same asa = 44. The result of dividing Actually, 3 is the coefficient of x*, and x* is the coefficient of 3.
one expression by another is called the quotient. But popular usage describes the number as the coefficient—
Zero can be added, subtracted, or multiplied. But we cannot 3 in this case.
divide by zero because the answer would have no meaning. Whenever the number in front of the letter is omitted, the
We can divide into zero; as an example, 0/3 is still zero. coefficient is assumed to be 1. The term x actually means 1z,
Any number multiplied by zero produces a product of zero. and ab means lab. Similarly, omission of the exponent also
indicates 1. The term a@ actually means 1a!, the ones being
TERMINOLOGY implied.
Coefficients, bases, and exponents can be either literal or
Arithmetic uses only constants—that is, numbers which arithmetic numbers. In ab° all three components are literal.
have specific, unchanging values. For example, 5 always has In 32° only the base is literal. The term base sometimes indi-
a value of 5. Algebra uses constants, but it also uses variables. cates the combination of base and exponent, but this should
Consider the formula for inductive reactance, X, = 2efL. 2-
cause no difficulty.
has the same value (6.28) in every problem, so it is a constant. When numbers are multiplied together to give a product,
But f and L may be assigned any values, which makes the each of the numbers is called a factor. In 3 x 3 x 4 = 24,
value of X, dependent upon them. These are variables because the 2, 3, and 4 are factors and the product is 24. Similarly a,
their values vary from problem to problem. In any given in- b, and ec are factors of abc, and each factor can be considered
stance, however, each variable will have a specific value.
the coefficient of all the other factors.
20
21
 COMBINING TERMS tains as many terms as there are different bases, unless a
coefficient turns out to be zero. An example of this type is:
Addition and Subtraction
Algebraic terms can be added or subtracted as long as a — 2b — 2a + 3b — de = —a + b — 4e
their bases (including the exponents) are the same. For in-
stance, 2a + 3a = 5a. Here the numerical coefficients are com- Multiplication and Division
bined. The base remains the same, the reason for which can When multiplying algebraic terms, the sign, coefficient, and
be seen from a simple analogy. If we add 2 tubes and 3 tubes,
exponent of the various terms must all be considered. The pro-
the sum is 5 tubes. Similarly, adding a’s in the first example
duct of two terms having like signs, either positive or negative,
produces the result of 5a. is always positive.
In combining terms the signs must be considered, as indi-
eated by the following examples: 8% 4= +412; (—2)(-3) = +6
1. 562 — 22 = 32 Parentheses are used in the latter example in order not to
. -2A-—3A=—-5A confuse the problem with —2 —3, an addition problem. When
the multiplied terms have unlike signs the product is always
. sf — Ty? = —4;*
negative.
. 36% + 2b? = 5b4
ob. -ab + 2ab = ab
oo
ye
on (2)(—38) = —6, and (—4)(3) = —12
The exponent of a product is the swm of all exponents of
When the signs are alike, add the numerical quantities and
the factors having like bases:
affix the same sign. When the signs are different, subtract
the smaller number from the larger and use the sign of the ee Erte a ea = Era

larger, as in examples 1, 3, and 5 above. a*- b3+a-b=

ath
Terms with unlike bases (or exponents) cannot be combined
The coefficient of the product is the value of all separate
algebraically. For example:
coefficients multiplied together, as in the following examples:
3a + 2b = 3a + 2b (a) (3a) = 3a?
47?
— 3a = 42°
— 3x (2a) (3b) = Gab
2a*b + Sab" = 2a*h + Sab?
Qe) (By) = Say
An analogy of this would be the attempt to add 3 resistors
Notice that all coefficients are multiplied, even when the
and 2 capacitors. The combined result is still 3 resistors and
separate factors have unlike bases,
2 capacitors. In raising a number to a power, the coefficient is raised to
Using the same rules, expressions involving more than two
that power and the exponents are multiplied by the order of
like terms can be combined. Add all the positive terms to-
the power:
gether, and then all the negatives. Finally, combine by the
rules given previously. As an example: (22)2 = 42° (3a*x)* = 27a%x
4a — 2a + a-—8a—a
= +5a — 6a = —a (—3ab?)? = 9a2b' (—2a)* = —8a*

If two or more bases are involved, the terms with like bases
Taking the root of an expression involves the opposite op-
are combined as previously shown. The combined result con-
eration from raising a number to a power. Take the indicated
a2
23
root of the coefficient; then divide the exponent by the order 3a"—2ab+b= by a—b, the problem would be set down in this
of the root. This is illustrated in the next four examples: manner :

2x? = 1.4142 8x" = 2x7

W/ =—2ab+b?
V16a%5* = 4ab? =~8a
e278 =)
S5a°—2a"b+ab=
ee
When multiplied by an expression having two or more terms, —8a*h+2ab-—b*
a monomial is multiplied by each of the other terms separately 3a*—5a*b+3ab-—b*
as in:
2a(3a—4b) = 6a*—B8ab Notice that all terms in the trinomial are first multiplied by a,
giving 3a"—2a-b+ab-. Then each of the three terms is multi-
and: plied by —b, the terms with like bases being placed under those
—3a(a* + 2b — 4c) = —3a* —6ab + 12ac in the first step. Finally the two are added.
If the monomial factor is positive, the signs of the terms in In some electronics equations a binomial quantity must be
the product will be the same as those within the parentheses.
squared by one of the methods just illustrated. However, a
If the monomial is negative, as in the second example, then special formula that can be applied to squaring a binomial is
all signs change. Placing parentheses around the binomial expressed as follows:
indicates that the entire quantity within the parentheses is (a+b)? = a2+2ab+b?
multiplied by the monomial. For example, 2a(S5a—4b) =
607—8ab. But 2a3a—4b = 6a*—4b. Using the parentheses There are three terms in the product. The first is equal to
changes the problem in such cases. the square of the first term of the binomial. The second term
A binomial can be multiplied by another binomial in any is twice the product of the two original terms, and the third
of several ways. Two are illustrated, both multiplying (2a+b) term is the square of the second term of the binomial. The
and (S$a—2b). The first method has the entire problem set up numerical coefficients follow the same rules. For example:
on the same line, and the separate multiplications are all made
as indicated below. Then the like terms are combined, in this (22+y)* = 4z°+4ay+y"
case —4ab and +3ab: (3a+46)* = 9a*+24ab+ 1657
Ge SN Dividing algebraic expressions also involves the signs, ex-
(2a+b) (8a—2b)
ponents, and coefficients, and they must all be considered in
6a°—4ab+S8ab—2b2 = 6a2*—ab—2b" order to arrive at the correct quotient. As to signs, the same
rules apply as for multiplication. When the numbers to be di-
Or we can solve the problem in much the same way as in vided have like signs, the quotient is positive. When the signs
arithmetical multiplication: are opposite, the quotient is negative:
2a+6
3a — 2b
oe —6 _ S.) —6_
6a*
+ 3ab
— 4ab — 2b"
The exponent of the quotient is obtained by subtracting
6a! — ab — 2b? the exponent of the divisor from the exponent of the number
The latter method is probably easier for expressions in- being divided, assuming like bases. This is shown in the fol-
volving more than two terms. For instance, multiplying lowing :

24 25
 be arranged so that its terms are in ascending or descending
powers of some literal number. An example follows:

Notice that a negative or zero exponent can appear in a 2a*—3ab+3b"

quotient. A term having a negative exponent is equal to the a+2b)20"+a"b—Bab?+h*
2a'+4a*b
reciprocal of that term with a positive exponent of the same
numerical value: —3a*b—3ab"
—sa*b—bab*

go PS x3 = ¢F aab*+b*
3ab7+6b"
—5b* is the remainder.
This can be verified by multiplying numerator and denomi-
nator by the same term with a positive exponent, as follows: a (of the expression a+ 2b) will divide into 2a" (of the ex-
“2 ee lt 1 pression 2a°+a*b—3ab*+b*) 2a* times (=e = 2a* |.As in regu-
1 ee ne lar long division, this answer is placed over the term 2a* and
the divisor a+2b is multiplied by it. This equals 2a*+4dab-,
and:
which is placed under the first two terms and subtracted from
1 yt
—
Bi
=
them. a*b—4a"b equals —3a*b. Bringing down the third term in
the expression gives —3a°b—3ab". a can be divided into (—3a*b),
—3ab times. The result is placed at the top as part of the
Any number, arithmetical or literal, raised to the zero answer and is multiplied by a+2b. This gives —3a*)—6ab-,
power has a numerical value of 1. This can be shown by which is placed under like terms and subtracted. —3ab?—
assuming that any quantity divided by the same quantity has (—6ab*) equals +3ab*. Bringing down the last term we now
a value of 1: have 3ab7+5*, @ divided into the first term of this expression
equals 367. This is placed with the answer as the final term
and multiplied by a+20 to give 3ab7+6b6". Placing under like
== r--= y=]
terms and subtracting, we have a remainder of —55‘,
If the two expressions are exactly divisible, there will be
ips= 10'-8 = 109 = 1
hi

no remainder, as shown in the next problem:

Thus we can assume that any expression raised to the zero a+b
power is equal to 1. a — b)a? —b-
_ The numerical coefficient of a quotient is found by dividing a*’—ab
the numerical coefficient in the numerator by the one in the +ah —b+
denominator. +ab —b?

6a? —823 _ . —12a_ , 4a Notice that there is no term containing ab in the dividend, so
2a aa se a zero is substituted. Therefore, when subtracting, change the
Division involving polynomials can be performed by long sign of the subtrahend and add. Changing —ab to +ab and
division just as in arithmetic. Each part of the problem must adding it to 0 is equal to +ab.

26
 numbers giving the relationships between them. # = JF is an
FACTORING equation; so is X, = 2afL. Most of the time we are interested
In some instances it is desirable to break down a mathemati- in solving the equation—that is, finding the values of the lit-
eal expression into its various fundamental elements—that is, eral numbers which make the equation hold true.
to obtain the basic elements which, when multiplied together, the formula, X; = 2rfL, if we are given the values of
give the original expression. This is called factoring. As an frequency and inductance, we can multiply them together, and
example, the number 75 can be factored into 5x5x3, the lowest then multiply by 2 to obtain the value of X,, (inductive re-
whole numbers (omitting 1) which will give a product of 74 actance). Suppose, however, that frequency and inductive re-
when multiplied. Other examples are: actance are given and we must solve for inductance. Then the
equation must be solved for L.
48=2x2x2x2x8 A large portion of practical mathematics consists of work-
210=2xS8x5xT ing with equations in order to solve for one of the component
102=2x 3 x 17 parts of the equation. The ideas illustrated here will be neces-
Numerous factoring forms are used for algebraic quan- sary tools in most of the remaining chapters. In this chapter
tities, but we will consider only the one used to any extent we are using simple literal numbers such as a, x, etc., but in
in basic electronics formulas. This method is referred to as actual electronics equations, literal factors often use subscripts
removing a monomial factor. An example is given here: (as #,, R,, ete.) to distinguish between various components.
Subscripts are numbers or letters written under and slightly to
ac +ab=a(e+b) the right of the symbol. They play no mathematical part in the
A factor can be removed from the expression only if it ap- solution of the equation, as do exponents, but are used solely
pears as a factor in each term. ab + ac + bd is not factorable, for identification. Even though the literal parts may be iden-
since no one factor appears in all three terms. Numbers can tical (R, and R, for example), they are not like terms.
also be factored if they are factors of each term, such as the There is one basic rule in working with equations—you must
following: do nothing to destroy the equality existing between the two
sides. Simply stated, whatever is done to one side of an equa-
2xry + 2rz = 2xr(y + z) tion must also be done to the other side. Consider the equation
3a°b — bate = Sa*(b—2c) 32—3 = +1. There is only one value of « which will make
—15ab—5a7*b = —5ab (3+a) this statement true. Solving the equation consists of deter-
This form of factoring will be used to a limited extent in mining this value mathematically. In order to do this we must
some of the calculations in later chapters. Each factoring isolate x on one side of the equation and the numerical value
problem can be checked by multiplication. In the first example, on the other. Our manipulations are of several types, but we
multiplying out 22 (y+z), gives a product of 2r7+22r2, the orig- must always do the same to both sides of the equation. We can
ina] quantity. perform virtually any mathematical operation except dividing
by zero—which is never possible anyway.
Let’s solve the equation previously given:

EQUATIONS 32-8 =7+1

An equation is a mathematical statement that two expres- If we subtract x from both sides we obtain:
sions are equal to each other. 3+2 = 5 is an equation, but not
$2—8—x = ¢+1l—x
of the type we have in mind. Electronics equations (often
called formulas) are stated in terms of literal and arithmetical Collecting terms:

28 29
 22-3 = 1 Divide both sides by a:
Then we add 3 to both sides and again collect terms: az _eec+b
227—3+8 = 14+38 a a
22:4 C-+
o> b
ts
Dividing both sides by 2, we obtain:
Literal equations, in which the wanted factor appears in
s=2 more than one term, pose an additional problem not encoun-
This should be the solution for our equation, but let’s check it tered previously in this chapter. Let’s try one to illustrate the
by substituting 2 for z in the original: point, solving for a:
‘sv
ox—o = x+1 ac — be=ad
3(2)—3 = 2+1 Collect all the terms containing a on one side by subtracting
6-3 =8 ad and adding be to both sides:
3=3
ac — be — ad + be = ad — ad + be
Since the two sides are equal, our solution must be correct.
ac — ad = be
This is the general idea for solving almost any type of equa-
tion, except that additional steps sometimes must be included Then we factor a out of the left side:
in the process. Keep in mind that nothing should be done which a(e—d) = be
will disturb the equality of the equation. We can add a quan-
Next we divide both sides of the equation by (c—d), the coef-
tity to or subtract it from both sides. We can multiply or
ficient of a:
divide both sides by some quantity. We can raise both sides
to some power, or take a root of both sides. Always remem- a(e—d)_ be
ber, the same operation must be performed on both sides. c-d = e—d
ea OE
c—d
Literal Equations
Most electronics formulas contain more than one unknown.
These are often called literal equations, and they may or may Fractional Equations
not contain constant terms. The X, formula and Ohm's law In general, whenever an equation contains one or more frac-
previously given are examples of literal equations. In solving tions, the solution is simplified if we rid the equation of the
this type the rules already given are followed. Instead of a fractions, The following equation illustrates the procedure:
definite numerical answer, however, the solution also contains
litera] terms or factors. Let’s solve one to see what we mean. Fis 2r+4
Solve for z in this problem:
To eliminate the denominator, multiply both sides of the
ax—b=e
equation by 3, making sure to multiply every term:
Add b to both sides:
2 —3=627+4 12
axr—b+b=c4+5
azc=e+b x-8=—62+12

30 31
Collecting terms:
od Lie. 2
5 t8=5
—ba = 15
—30 es
— 2
Multiplying both sides by —1, we obtain:
—15+3=-10-2
ba = —15 —12=-12
Then dividing by 5 we get the solution:

£=-—5 Equations With Radicals

Many calculations in electronics include either the square or
This answer can be proven as shown: square root of one or more quantities. For example, power
equals the square of the current multiplied by the resistance
Substituting —3 for x in a —1=2r+4 (P = FR). In this equation we must express the wanted factor
with an exponent of 1, For example:
ee = 2(-8)44 227 = 50
—-1-1=-6+4 If we divide both sides by 2 the result is:
—Z=-2
a? = 25
If several denominators occur in the same equation, it is
Taking the square root of both sides we find:
usually advisable to find the least common denominator (LCD)
and use it for the entire equation. From that point the solu- x=5
tion follows the same pattern as in the previous equation.
Actually, \/25 is either plus or minus 5, because either one
Let’s try one of this type:
squared gives a product of 25. In practical problems, however,
: _ the negative may have no practical meaning. Hence we use
gt3=5 2 the positive value, which is known as the princtpal root.
The following equation has a square root in the original
The LCD of 2 and 3 is 6. So the entire equation is set over problem:
a denominator of 6:
\/3BR = 8
ez+18 27-12 If we are to solve for R, then we must eliminate the radical.
a IS This is done by squaring both sides:
If both sides are then multiplied by 6, the problem is no 3k = 36
longer fractional, but can be expressed in straight-line form: Or:
on + 18 = 27 —12 R=12

Collecting terms:
x =-—30

Which is proven as follows:

33
 Multiplying current by resistance gives voltage, as shown
in the next calculation:
CHAPTER 3
E=IR
= 0.5 x 24
OHM’S LAW = 12 volts

If we calculate the voltage drop across each resistor, their

In all probability, the formula used most often in electronics sum should equal the applied voltage. In the diagram, EF, is
calculations is Ohm's law, which expresses the relationship of the voltage drop across R,, and E, is the drop across R,.
voltage, current, and resistance in electrical circuits. It can Therefore:
be expressed in any of the three forms shown below:
EB, =1 x E,
E=IR = 0.5 x 18
FE
= 9 volts
=F
p= B,=T] x R,

= 0.5
x6
= 3 volts
All three of these circuit characteristics are expressed in
basic units—volts, amperes, and ohms. and:
B=9+83
SERIES CIRCUITS = 12 volts
Ohm's law holds true for the entire circuit or for individual
portions of a circuit. Let's refer to Figure 3-1, to illustrate this.
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Ohm's law also holds for parallel circuits like that of Figure
3-2. The total resistance in the circuit is:
Figure 3-1. Series-connected
R _, xR,
resistances illustrating Ohm's- RB, +R,
low calculations.
_ 86x12
~ $6+12
The total resistance in the circuit is 18 + 6, or 24 ohms. Circuit _~ 432
48
current is:
= 9 ohms

Figure 3-2. Parallel resistances illus-

~ B4 trating Ohm's-low calculations.

= 0.5 ampere

34 35
 I, is the current through FR, and J, is the current through f,: is used for solution. Let’s put these ideas to use in solving

I
_E several problems.
a Ry 1. Solve for the applied voltage (#) of the combination
_ 36 circuit shown in Figure 3-3.
~ 86
= ] ampere

Figure 3-3. Series-porallel resistance

combination illustrating Ohm’‘s-law
calculations.
= 3 amperes
E
la
= 4 amperes
We can check this by multiplying the total current and total By remembering that the voltage drops across parallel re-
resistance, the latter being 9 ohms: sistors are the same, we can solve for total circuit current.
E=!I, x i,
The voltage across FR, is:
=4x9
Bu. =x Ry
= 36 volts
=f 32
Several basic facts can help us in Ohm’s-law calculations:
= 6 volts
1. In a series circuit, the current is the same through all
parts of the circuit. The individual voltage drops add The current through F#, is found by dividing resistance into
up to the applied voltage. the voltage drop:
2. In a parallel circuit, the voltage is the same across all
components. The current through the individual compo-
nents may be different, but the sum of these currents
equals the total.
3. Current in a circuit is directly proportional to the ap-
plied voltage, and inversely proportional to the resist-
= 2 amperes
ance, As circuit resistance is increased, the current is
is decreased and vice versa. The current through RF, is 5 amps, being the total of J,
4. The voltage drop across an individual circuit component and /f,;. Voltage across R, is:
is directly proportional to both current and resistance.
As either or both are increased, the voltage drop also Bn =F, 3B
increases and vice versa. =5x4
= 20 volts
The applied voltage, then, is the sum of the two separate
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
voltages:
Circuits where both parallel and series resistances are pres-
ent are a little more complicated, but the same basic method = 26 volts

36 37
 2. With 200 volts applied, the current through a resistor
is 2 amperes. What is the current if the resistance is doubled? POWER
As long as current and resistance are inversely proportional, The power in a circuit is measured in watts and can be cal-
we could set up a formula where J, is the original current culated from three different formulas, all based on Ohm’s law.
and J, the final current. The original resistance (R,), by Ohm's The first of these is:
law, is 100 ohms:
tp Re P=ExI!
Tr, RP, where,
LR, =1,R, P is the power in watts,
FE is the voltage in volts,
| _ 5
f, &,
fis the current in amperes,
_ 2x 100 By making Ohm's-law substitutions, we can obtain the other
~~ 200
two forms:
= 1 ampere
Substituting [R for E:
We could also reason out the answer by assuming that when
the resistance is doubled, the current is halved. Therefore the P=fh xT
current drops from 2 amps to 1 amp. = [2p
8. How is the current of a circuit affected if the voltage is
doubled and the resistance halved? By reasoning the problem ‘iy ie
in two separate steps, we find that the current is quadrupled. Or substituting R for I:
If the voltage is doubled, the current is also doubled. Then
halving the resistance doubles the current again. _pyF
P=EXs
As we shall see in later chapters, Ohm's law can also be
used for calculations in circuits containing AC as well as DC.
For AC, however, inductance and capacitance may enter into
—
our problem, Ohm's law will still apply, however, since it
The formula for solving a given problem depends on what
states the basic relationships between voltage, current, and
Was given originally in the problem. For example, if current
circuit opposition to electron flow.
and resistance were given, then P = I*F is the logical formula
In the last chapter, conductance was determined by G = - to use. These formulas can be used for calculating the power
in an entire circuit or in individual components. Several prob-
One form of Ohm's law states:
lems will illustrate how.
_# 1. In the circuit of Figure 3-1 the total power dissipated can
ae be calculated from any one of the three formulas. Voltage is
80, 12 volts, resistance 24 ohms, and current 0.5 ampere.
: on
RE
= 12 x 0.5
therefore
= 6 watts
I
oTy Or:

38 39
 Py =P YE
= 06.5" x 24
= 0.25 x 24
= 6 watts

Or:

(A) Resistance in series. (8) Resistance tn parallel,

Figure 3-4. Circuits illustrating total power dissipation.

and the same wattage ratings, then the power would be added
directly, resulting in 20 watts in this problem.
Connecting the two resistors in parallel (Figure 3-4B) pro-
dues the same total power dissipation, 15 watts, as when they
Power dissipated by F, is: are in series. In parallel, however, the 50-ohm unit will dissi-
pate twice the power of the 100-ohm resistor. The reason is
P, =]? x Ri, that twice as much current will flow through the 50-ohm unit
= 0.57 x 18 as flows through the 100-ohm unit.
= 4.5 watts 3. A 100-ohm resistor is carrying 50 mA of current, What
minimum power rating should it have?
And in R*:
P=f[R
P,=F x &,
= 0.5" x 6 = (0.05)* x 100
= 1.5 watts = 0.0025 x 100
= 0.25 watt
The total power is the sum of the two individual powers,
4.5 + 1.5 = 6 watts. 4. A 200-ohm resistor is dissipating 12 watts. What is the
2. What is the total power dissipation in a circuit (Figure voltage across the resistor?
3-44) composed of a 50-ohm, 10-watt resistor connected in
series with a 100-ohm, 10-watt resistor, if the latter is dissi-
pating 10 watts?
The 10-watt ratings mean that each resistor can safely dis-
sipate 10 watts and presumably no more. But don’t jump to
conclusions—the answer is not 20 watts. As long as the re-
sistors are in series, the current through them is the same.
The power dissipation is directly proportional to the resist-
ance; so if the 100-ohm resistor is dissipating 10 watts, the
50-ohm resistor will be dissipating 5 watts, for a total of
15 watts. This is the maximum, above which the 100-ohm re- 5. What is the effect on power dissipation if the current
sistor will burn out. If both resistors had the same resistance in a circuit is doubled?

41
 since P = FR, doubling the current increases the power
by the square of 2, or 4. So the power dissipation is quad-
rupled.
Power is the rate at which energy is dissipated ina circuit, CHAPTER 4
the basic unit being the watt. Energy involves power and the
time while this power is being used. Its practical unit is the
watt-hour or kilowatt-hour (kWh). RESISTANCE
Energy = Watts x Hours
As an example, a receiver is rated at 120 volts and 1 ampere. Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current in an
How much energy is used if the receiver is played 12 hours? electrical circuit. The basic unit of measurement is the ohm.
One ohm is the amount of resistance which allows a current
P=ExI of one ampere to flow when one volt is applied. In a con-
= 120 x1 ductor, the resistance is directly proportional to the length
= 120 watts and inversely proportional to the square of the diameter.
Resistance of a length of wire can be determined by the
therefore, formula:

Energy = 120 watts x 12 hours R=—;KL

or where,
K is a constant which is the resistance of a mil-foot of wire.
= 1,440 watt-hours, or 1.44 kWh A mil-foot is a section of wire having a diameter of 1 mil
(.001 inch) and a length of 1 foot,
EL is the length of wire in feet,
d* is the diameter (in mils) squared.
For copper, the resistance of a mil-foot is 10.4 ohms. Other
materials have values which vary inversely with the conduc-
tivity of the material. (See Table 4-1.) Thickness of a wire
Table 4-1. Resistivity Constant of Different Metals
at ao Temperature of Approximately 68° F.

eee)

Platinum
Silver
Tungsten
Zine

42
is often expressed in terms of its circular-mil area, which is Rl Re Ra
determined by squaring the diameter (expressed in mils).
Suppose a copper conductor is 12 feet in length and has a Figure 4-1. Finding the total resist-
diameter of 5 mils. What is its resistance and circular-mil ance of resistors in series.
area? + Ry

Ry Rl +2 +R
KL 104x12 124.8
As an example, suppose that resistances of 27, 47, and 100
Circular-mil area = 5° = 25 circular mils ohms are connected in series, as shown in Figure 4-1. The total
resistance will be:
Another length of wire has a resistance of 100 ohms. If the
length and diameter are both doubled, what is the new resist- R, = 27 + 47 + 100
ance? = 174 ohms
For problems of this type the formula below can be used:
A, _L, xd;
R, 7m L, * d," PARALLEL RESISTORS
Not knowing the length and diameter we can assume any When two or more resistors are connected in parallel, the
values and the result will be the same. Let’s assume them total resistance is less than the smallest resistor of the group.
to be 1. Therefore: If all the parallel resistors have the same value, the total can
be found by:
100 1x2
R, 2xt » I 70
=|
100 4
oma where,
4k, = 200 R, is the total resistance in ohms,
FR, = 50 ohms R is the resistance of one resistor in ohms,
N is the number of equal-value resistors connected in par-
If both diameters are the same, the formula reduces to: allel.
R »_ 4h,
RK, 2b,
Figure 4-2. Finding the total
If both lengths are the same, the formula can be written as: resistance of two or more equal
R, _.d;* resistors in parallel,
k, ad? , BiorONE RESISTOR!
TH WUMBER OF RESISTORS)

SERIES RESISTORS As shown in Figure 4-2, four resistors, each 100 ohms, are
connected in parallel. The total resistance is:
Resistors connected in series are added directly. This can
be expressed as: _&_ 100 _ :
R, =” on Sea 25 ohms
R,=R#,+Hh,
+R, +...
where, When two resistors (whatever their value) are connected in
R, is the total resistance in ohms, parallel, the total resistance can be calculated by the “product-
R,, &, and A, are the individual resistances in ohms. over-the-sum” method, as shown next:

44 45
 _ R,R,
i= R,+R, Figure 4-4, Finding the total resist-
where, ance of parallel resistors by the re-
ciprocal formula.
R; is the total resistance in ohms,
FR, and FR, are the resistances connected in parallel. a
Hence, 2, 4, and 6-ohm resistances connected in parallel
(Figure 4-4) would be calculated like this:
Figure 4-3. Finding the total re-
sistance of two unequal resistors 1 1 ee: ee |
in parallel. Ro 37476
1 6+3+2
7 is |
Figure 4-3 illustrates an example where a 20-ohm and a 60- ] 1]
ohm resistor are connected in parallel. The total resistance is: nae
R _ Riki k= tor 1.09 ohms
' BR, +R;
20 x 60 In some problems the total resistance and one of the indi-
Re = 50+60 vidual resistance values may be given, and we must solve for
_ 1,200 the other. As illustrated in Figure 4-5, the total resistance of
~ gO
= 15 ohms
Another arrangement of this formula works this way: Figure 4-5. Finding the value of an
unknown resistance when the total
Divide the smaller resistance into the larger, add 1 to the and the other resistance volues ore
answer, and divide the larger resistance by the result. Ex- known.
Rexky
pressed as a formula it becomes: “Re-Ry

Ri, two units connected in parallel is 8 ohms. One of the resist-

hk, = R, 24 (where FR, is larger than R,)
ances is 24 ohms. What is the other? First we must transpose
R,i
our basic formula, assuming Ff, to be the unknown:
Reworking the same problem, 20 (F,) can be divided into
60 (#,) 3 times. Adding 1 gives 4. Dividing 4 into 60 gives
a resultant resistance of 15 ohms, the same as obtained before.
The reciprocal formula works for two or more resistors in H,R,+ AR, R,= RR, R,
parallel, and is stated as follows: R,k, — FR, R,=—-R, RP,
FL, (k,-—R,) =—R, R,
Badd £3
) eae - Pama SR = a R — —-R.R, ee 2,

Redy RR,
where,
R, is the total resistance in ohms, RF, =
Seeeo4—-8 I6 =
eee
12 ohms
R,, R,, and #, are the parallel resistances in ohms.

46 47
 The FCC examinations very often contain a problem like et feo ener
this: Draw a schematic diagram showing how to connect three G= | ae a .05 mho
equal resistors to give a total which is 1% times the resistance With the conductance given, the resistance can be found by:
of one. This would be drawn as shown in Figure 4-6, Substitute
a value for # and see if it works out. Once you understand the me
principles of series and parallel resistances, many such prob-
vanie® ©
A circuit having a conductance of 2 mhos has a resistance
of 0.5 ohm:

Figure 4-6, A circuit in which all re-

sistors are of equal value and the to-
tal resistonce is 1 times the value
of a single resistor. Notice that whenever the resistance is larger than 1 ohm,
the conductance will be smaller than 1 mho, Conversely, if
the resistance is smaller than 1 ohm, the conductance will be
larger than 1 mho.
lems can be solved by simple reasoning. In this case, you know
that placing all three resistors in series would result in a total
resistance three times the value of one. Placing them in par-
allel would result in a total resistance less than the value of
any one. Obviously, then, at least one of the three equal re-
sistors must be series-connected; the additional one-half value
then means the two remaining resistors are in parallel.

CONDUCTANCE
Conductance is the ability of a material to carry current.
It can be thought of as being inversely proportional to re-
sistance. As resistance decreases, more current can be carried.
We say the conductance is increased. If resistance were in-
creased, the conductance would decrease. The basic unit of
conductance is the mho, which is the conductance that exists
with a resistance of 1 ohm. (Mho is ohm spelled backward!)
Conductance may be calculated by:
1
=F
where,
G is the conductance in mhos,
F is the resistance in ohms,
A circuit having a resistance of 20 ohms has a conductance
of 0.05 mho:

48
 mum is reached at 90° and again at 270°, each having oppo-
site polarity from the other. The mathematical relationship
CHAPTER 5 between the peak and the instantaneous values of voltage can
;
be found ae
‘A i E,, * sin a ®
bs+ ,! .]
AC AND AC CIRCUITS ae] eA
e is the ins neous amplitude in volts,
E,, is the maximum amplitude in volts,
Most commercial electricity is AC (alternating current). -@ is the angle at which instantaneous voltage is being
So are the signals which occur most often in electronics.
Alternating current is so named because it alternately flows Several examples are given, and these can be verified by
in first one direction, and then reverses and flows in the other reference to Figure 5-1. Using a maximum value of 100 volts:
direction. This is caused by the voltage alternating between a
At 0°,e=100x sin 0°=100x0 0 volts
positive and a negative polarity at a definite rate. The basic i
At 30°, e= 100 x sin 30° = 100 x 0.5 50 volts
AC waveform is the sine wave shown in Figure 5-1. All other At 45°, e= 100 * sin 45° = 100 x 0.707 = 10.7 volts
AC waveforms are composed of sine waves of various fre-
At 60°, e= 100 x sin 60° = 100 « 0.866 = 86.6 volts
quencies and amplitudes added together. The term sine wave
At 90°, e = 100 x sin 90° = 100 x 1 = 100 volts
was adopted because in the generation of a complete cycle, the
These values are repeated during the remainder of the first
alternation, but in reverse order. Then the same values occur
during the second alternation, but with opposite polarity.
The same relationship exists for current, as given by the next
Figure 5-1, One cycle of a sine formula:
wove, showing the relationship
between the various volues of a
i=I,, x sin @
current or voltage.
where,
iis the instantaneous current in amperes,
!

AVG.-4----------4 4 -...--
RMS ~4--—--------+-----— J, is the maximum current in amperes,
PEAK ~~ ante wn pm ~~ joo - @ is the angle at which instantaneous current is being cal-
7 culated.
=
1 cyoue——— -
Because of the nature of inductance and capacitance, there
may often be a phase difference between the voltage and the
instantaneous amplitude at any time is equal to the maximum current in AC circuits. That is, the voltage and current maxi-
amplitude multiplied by the sine of the angle through which mums may not occur at the same instant, as they do in com-
the generating conductor has moved during that period. By pletely resistive circuits. A large number of the calculations
motting a graph of the sine values at a number of different found in later chapters are concerned with the problems of
angles, a sine wave is formed. The complete sine wave is a phase and changing values of AC waveforms.
eycle, each half being called an alternation.
The amplitude of a sine wave varies continuously, the mag-
nitude at any instant of time being known as the instantane- AVERAGE VALUES
ous value. The peak value is the maximum reached at any In some calculations we are interested in the average value
point during a complete cycle. With a sine wave, this maxi- of an AC waveform. Actually, the average amplitude of a
50 51
complete cycle is zero, because the amplitudes in the positive So for sine-wave calculations we have three different volt-
direction equal those in the negative direction. For a single age or current values which may be of interest to us—peak,
alternation, however, the average amplitude is equal to 0.637
average, and rms. In some instances the peak-to-peak voltage
of the peak (maximum). This could be shown by adding a also may be indicated. Numerically, this is the over-all change
large number of instantaneous values, equally spaced across of voltage or current from maximum to maximum,—it is equal
the half-cycle, and then dividing by the number of values used. to twice the peak value.
As a formula: Table 5-1 gives the relationships between the various values,
which can be used in converting from one to another.
E, = 0.6387 x £,,
where, Table 5-1. Sine Wave Value Conversions
E.,, 18 the average amplitude of one alternation in volts,
E,, is the maximum amplitude in volts.

Average current of one alternation can be obtained in the

same way—by multiplying the maximum by 0.637. It should
be stressed that this relationship holds true only for sine
waves, Any other waveform will have a different average
value. One example is a square wave; here the average and
peak values are the same.

EFFECTIVE VALUES AC CIRCUITS

With DC, the amplitudes of the voltage and current remain
constant, and a certain current (say, 1 ampere) gives a cer- With purely resistive circuits the use of alternating current
tain heating effect. An AC wave with a peak current of 1 am- poses problems no different from those when DC is used. All
pere, will not produce as much heating as DC, because in AC the Ohm’s-law relationships hold, just as for DC, as well as
the amplitude is less than the peak most of the time. The ef- the various formulas for determining power. However, in
fective value of AC is the equivalent DC value which produces many cases, the # in the various formulas must be replaced
the same heating effect. The effective value can be calculated by A,, X,, or impedance (2), the latter representing the com-
by taking the square root of the average of all instantaneous bined resistance and reactance in a circuit. In order to make
values squared. Average is also referred to as mean, so the the various values comparable to DC, the rms values of the
effective value is also called the root-mean-square (rms) value. AC is expressed unless otherwise indicated. Thus if we say
The rms value for a sine wave can be found by: the line voltage is 115, we are implying the rms value. Simi-
larly, AC power of 100 watts is understood to have been calcu-
Ewe = 0.T0T * Ey lated from the rms values of voltage and current.
where,
Whenever inductance or capacitance, or both, are used in
Em. ig the rms or effective voltage, an AC circuit the relationships assumed for DC are not quite
E,, is the maximum amplitude in volts.
true. The reason is the phase difference between current and
Effective current is found in the same way—by multiplying voltage. For purely resistive AC circuits, even this causes no
the maximum current by 0.707. Again it should be stressed problem since the current and voltage are in phase (See Figure
that this relationship holds true for a sine wave only, not for 8-2A). In an inductance the current lags the voltage by 90°
any other waveshape. (Figure 5-2B); for capacitance the current leads the voltage

52 53
 Since a capacitor opposes a change of voltage, the current
maximum precedes the voltage—hence the leading current in
a capacitive circuit.
When resistance and reactance are both contained in a cir-
cuit, the phase angle is between 0° and 90°. The exact angle
Eac(*) depends on the relative values of resistance and reactance.
Because of this phase difference, resistance and reactance
cannot be added directly in a series or parallel circuit. Rather
we must add these quantities vectorially (at different angles)
and use the results in our Ohm’'s-law calculations.

SERIES CIRCUITS
In any series circuit the current is the same in any part of
the circuit—whether AC or DC, resistive or reactive. This
fact gives us our starting point for calculations involving the
Eat!
R ™, R Ac
On ——<— TF —<—o ae

(A) Resistance and (8) Resistance and

inductive reactance. capacitive reactance.
Figure 5-3. Reactive circuits.

RL and RC circuits of Figure 5-3. For absolute values of cir-

cuit characteristics, both circuits are treated alike. The only
CIRCUIT
* CURRENT difference is that in Figure 5-3A the current lags the applied
voltage by the phase angle @. For Figure 5-3E the current leads
the voltage. So the formulas to be given apply equally to
either circuit, except that.we will express the formulas in
terms of the inductive circuit of Figure 5-3A. To apply them
for the capacitive circuit of Figure 5-3B, simply insert X, into
the formulas in place of X,, each time it appears:

(C) Purely capacitive circuit. Z=\/RF+ Xp = Hs

Figure 5-2. Phase relationship between current ond voltage.
E, =\/E2 EG =1x2
by 90° (Figure 5-2C). This can be remembered by thinking of E,=IxR
the basic properties of L and C. Since an inductor opposes a EBE,=I1%x X,

change of current, the current does not reach maximum until

after the voltage—hence the lagging action of the current.
Gmare ion R2 = are tan Ey

54 35
where, Bear in mind that what we have worked out for the RL
2 is the impedance in ohms, circuit also holds for an RC circuit with the same values
Fis the resistance in ohms, (except that X. is 3 ohms, instead of X,). Even the phase
X, is the inductive reactance in ohms, angle is the same, except the current is lagging by 36.9° in
F, is the applied voltage in volts,
I is the circuit current in amperes, the FL circuit, but leading by the same angle for the RC
E,. is the voltage across the resistance in volts, network.
E,, is the voltage across the inductance in volts, All these formulas can be transposed to solve specific prob-
@ is the phase angle in degrees, lems, a few of which are given next:
1. In a series RC circuit, R is 5 ohms and the impedance
a i a ; —=¥
= is 9 ohms. Solve for X,:
:
ER Z=./R*+X2
(A) Impedance triangle. (B) Voltage triangle,
Figure 5-4, Triangles used for solving certain AC problems.
Z?= R2+X2
X2= Z2— R?
These formulas can be referred to the impedance and volt- X, = 1/2" — R? = »/9? — 5?= 1/56 = 7.48 ohms
age triangles given in Figures 5-4A and B, which apply only
to series circuits. Notice that X, and RF are drawn 90° out of 2. Applied voltage is 36 and F£, is 20 volts. Solve for FE, in
phase, with @ representing the angle between the applied this series RL circuit:
voltage EF, and the current J. Impedance Z is the hypotenuse
of the triangle. The current is not labeled, but can be assumed
E,=VEP+
E,Z=E+ 2
EE
to be on the same line with # and E,. Also the voltages across E,2=E2—-—E,
Feoand A, are drawn 90° out of phase, with EF, being the BY, = VEZ -— B22 = \/3 — 20 = 896 = 29.93 volts
hypotenuse of the triangle. Impedance is always larger than
either FR or A,, and applied voltage is always larger than 3. In a series RC circuit, the phase angle is 30° and X, is
either FE, or E,. Let's try some problems, to see how these 10 ohms. What is the resistance?
calculations would be used. 2. dig
@= arc tan R
In an AL series circuit, R is 4 ohms, X, is 3 ohms, and the
applied voltage is 10 volts. Find the impedance, current, phase
taking the tangent of both sides:
angle, H,, and KF.
Za=V/FR? + X,)* =1/4 + 3?= 25 = 5 ohms tan o=“s
by Ohm’s law,
_-B 10 _
i= 7% ~ 2 amperes

—_ Xp _ 3 + go
@= are tan >> = arc tan 7 = 36.9

E,=Ix R=2x* 4=8 volts t=_ Saag

40 _= 17.32
5 ohms
E,=I« X,=2x*38=6 volts
So far we have considered RL and RC series circuits, but
As a check, let’s solve for E,, using FE, and E,:
not those containing R, L, and C, as shown in Figure 5-5.
E, =\/E2 + E,2= \/8? + & = 1/100 = 10 volts Actually the addition of the extra component does not make

57
too much difference in our calculations, except that the effec- EL,=IxR
tive reactance in the circuit is the difference between X,, and = 3.71 * 5 = 18.55 volts
A,. Using this, the impedance of the circuit is: E,. =] ™ Xy,

Z= JRF (X,—X.)* = 3.71 x 8 = 29.68 volts

E,=I x X.
Or, if X, is larger than X,, then:
= 3.71 x 6 = 22.26 volts
Z=\/RF
+ (X.— XD)? Notice that FE, and EF, are both larger than the applied voltage.
But since they are 180° out of phase, the total reactive voltage
Figure 5-5, Circuit containing series-
R L
THR c
rT! “ :
connected resistance, inductance, is 29.68 minus 22.26, or 7.42 volts. By adding EZ, of 18.55 volts
and capacitance. and FE, of 7.42 volts vectorially, we should obtain the applied
voltage:
Similarly, the other formulas are based on the difference
between the two reactances: E,=WVEZ+ EL
BE,= WE? + (Ei — E.)? E, = \/18.55? + 7.42?
And: = \/344.1
+ 55.06
Ap—A, = \/399.16 = 19.98 volts
@=are tan

When X, is larger than X,, the reactive parts of the formulas There is a difference of 0.02 volt because various calcu-
are interchanged: lations in the total problem have been rounded off.
Suppose that in a series RCL circuit, R = 50, A, = 8, and If you must solve a series RCL circuit for X, or X., there
X, = 602. What is the impedance? may be two possible answers. As an example, suppose the
impedance of a series circuit is 10 ohms, resistance is 8 ohms,
Z = \/R? + (X, — X,)?
and capacitive reactance is 10 ohms. Solve for inductive re-
= V/5* + (8 — 6)? actance. In the solution we will use the symbol X to indicate
= \/25 + 4= 5.39 ohms the difference between the reactances:
To find the phase angle,
X= 1/2? -— Fe = 710-8
= xX,
— X,
@ = arc tan—_, — = \/100 — 64 = \/36=6

= arc tan -= 21.8° The total reactance is 6 ohms, and as X, is 10 ohms, then
X,, could be either 4 ohms or 16 ohms, producing a capacitive
The inductive reactance is larger than the capacitive reac- circuit in the first example and an inductive circuit in the
tance. Hence the total circuit acts inductively and the current second. In some problems, one value of reactance may turn
lags the applied voltage. out to be negative. This is an impossible situation, since only
If 20 volts is applied to the above circuit the current will be: the positive value of reactance can produce a valid result.
To illustrate, suppose that in the previous problem XA, = 4
i=
ohms. Then for a reactance difference of 6 ohms, X;, must be
either —2 ohms or 10 ohms, the first answer of which is im-
possible to attain. So only the 10-ohm answer would be valid.

38 59
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS ee AZ
=e 4 amps
When R, L, and C are connected in parallel as in Figure 5-6,
EI
the voltages across all three components are the same, just as I.= am la
in any other parallel arrangement. The currents in the differ-
ent branches are not necessarily the same, however, nor at the E12 |
=X =— = 2 amps

Since J, and J, are 180° out of phase with each other, the
: Figure 5-6. Circuit containing paral-
67 lel-connected resistance, inductance, total reactive current is 3 minus 2, or 1 ampere. This is the
and capacitance. current J, in Figure 5-6. Since this reactive current is 90° out
of phase with the resistive current (4 amps), they must be
added as shown:
same phase angle. Current in each branch can be determined
I, = VI2+iZ= 4° + i
by Ohm’s law—dividing the resistance, or reactance, into the
= \/17 = 4.12 amps
applied voltage. Then the currents can be added vectorially
to calculate the total current J,, in Figure 5-6, The impedance Impedance is then determined by Ohm’s law:
of a parallel RLC circuit cannot be calculated by the formula
4=\/R+ (X,—X,)*, as was done for series circuits, but
must be calculated by other means.
several formulas can be used to calculate impedance of this hE L 2.91 |ohms
=T35™
circuit directly, but they are lengthy and often difficult to
remember. As an example: Suppose we use 24 volts as the applied voltage? We obtain
RYN, | the same result:

Vkixke+ (RX,
—RX)?
z=
_£
a f,.
Phase angle can be calculated by:
24
= 8.24 = 2.91 ohms

@= arc tan
RX, — RX,
Do:a This is classed as a capacitive circuit because capacitive cur-
Here is a method of calculating impedance which can be rent is larger than the current through the inductance,
remembered much more easily: Find the total circuit current:
then divide it into the voltage. Using the R and X values given Figure 5-7. Resistance and inductance
in Figure 5-6, let’s calculate the impedance by the current in porollel.
method. Applied voltage is not given in the problem; so we
can assume one in order to find the currents. The impedance
will come out the same no matter what voltage is assumed.
If the parallel circuit contains only one reactance, the prob-
For this problem, 12 volts is a good choice because AR, X,,, and
lem is worked the same way but is simplified. An example is
A, all divide into it a whole number of times, Then the cur- the circuit in Figure 5-7, where F is 50 ohms and X, is 100
rents are as follows:
ohms. If we assume an applied voltage of 100, then:

61
 E Power, which is calculated from rms values, is usually re-
L=>5 ferred to as average power. When AC is applied across a re-
_ 100. _ sistance only, the voltage and current are in phase. So & x J,
=—g9 = 2 amps FR, or E*/R can all be used to calculate power in the circuit.
And:
In this respect AC circuits are very similar to DC as long as
rms values are used. This calculated power gives the amount
E
ae 7 dissipated by the purely resistive circuit.
However, when an AC circuit also contains reactance—
= 100 1am either inductive or capacitive, or both—the power calculations
oe will be altered. Circuit resistance dissipates power because in
Then: a resistance the voltage and current are in phase, Circuit re-
I, =i 22 +. 1° actance returns power to the line because of the 90° phase
= \/5
= 2.24 amps difference between voltage and current. This results in cer-
And: tain relations which may be confusing. In a series circuit. com-
_£ posed of resistance and reactance, multiplying the applied
ay, voltage by the circuit current gives a certain result called
apparent power (P,). This value is greater than the power
_ 100:
=5aq — 44.6 ohms dissipated by the resistor, called true power (P,). To distin-
guish it from true power, the apparent power is usually ex-
Note that these parallel circuits cannot be calculated like pressed in volt-amperes, which are numerically the same as
resistors in parallel because of the phase differences involved. watts. The ratio of true power to apparent power is called
Neither can we add the oppositions vectorially as we did for the power factor (PF):
series circuits, although we can add the currents by that
method. For series circuits, the phase angle was determined
by the relative values of reactance and resistance. For parallel
circuits we use the reactive and resistive currents. For ex- where,
ample, in Figure 5-6: PF is the power factor (always between 0 and 1),
P, is the true power in watts,
é= are tan : P, is the apparent power in volt-amperes.
Power factor of a series circuit can also be expressed in
are tan i= 14° terms of circuit opposition and phase angle, as shown next:
For Figure 5-7: . fi
PF =—=—cos0
= I# A
6@= arc tan a
where,
PF is the power factor,
= arc tan 5= 26.6" R is the circuit resistance in ohms,
Z is the circuit impedance in ohms,
@ is the phase angle in degrees.
AC POWER
As indicated at the beginning of this chapter, AC values These relationships are the same because in the standard
are normally stated in rms values unless otherwise indicated. impedance triangle (see Figure 5-4A) the cosine of the phase

63
62
angle is equal to RF divided by Z. Let's solve for the power Figure 5-8 is an inductive circuit because X,, is larger than X..
relationships in the series circuit of Figure 5-8: Current lags the applied voltage, so the power factor can also
be termed “a lagging power factor.” In a few instances, power
Z — X.)? = V8" + (6-2)
=\/R?+ (Xi factor may be expressed as a percentage, in which case 0.6
= 1/25 = 5 ohms would be the same as 60°. Power factor of a purely resistive
circuit is 1; for a purely reactive circuit, it is 0.
__E
a For parallel circuits the idea is the same except that the
methods of calculation vary slightly. The P,/P, relationship
_
aa 20 _a 4 amps still holds, as well as cosine @. But for parallel circuits the
angle is figured from the current, which is inversely propor-
P,=ExI tional to impedance. Therefore, instead of #/Z, power factor
= 20 x 4= 80 volt amperes in parallel circuits is calculated by Z divided by RF. Let’s use
P, = I? x ia
Figure 5-6 and illustrates power factor for parallel circuits,
assuming an applied voltage of 12 volts. From our previous
= 4° x3 = 48 watts
calculations, /, = 4.12 amps and #4 = 2.91 ohms,
PF =_ Pp. FP, = E x I,

= 12 x 4.12 = 49.44 volt amperes

48.3 And:
70 ee Pf x,
= 12 x 4= 48 watts
We can check this result with the other formulas:
Therefore:
Rr
P=

:
=—= 0.6

Checking:
= arc tan 1.38 = 53.1°
PF = cos @
= cos 63.1° = 0.6004
This latter result is extremely close, considering that we
determined @ only to the nearest tenth of a degree. For series Previously it was found that the phase angle for this circuit
RL or RC circuits, the calculations are the same except that is 14°. So:
we need to consider only one reactance—the total to be used.
PF =cos0
= cos 14° = 0.9708
iT ca rie]
Figure 5-8. Resistance, inductance,
and copacitance in series.

65
 feet) per second. Therefore, each cycle of radio energy occu-
pies a certain distance in space, called wavelength. It is usu-
CHAPTER 6
ally expressed in meters or feet, or for the shorter wave-
lengths, in centimeters or inches. Since the velocity is the
same for all frequencies, this means the wavelength of a given
FREQUENCY signal depends only on the frequency. The general formula
which follows can be used to solve for wavelength, the symbol
of which is the Greek letter lambda (A):
As defined in the preceding chapter, a cycle of alternating
v
current consists of two successive alternations, one positive
and one negative. We can express the duration as the number N=]
where,
of cycles which occur in one second. This is called the fre-
\ is the wavelength,
quency of the AC wave and it is always expressed as a certain v is the velocity of propagation,
value in hertz (cycles per second). Commercial AC power is f is the signal frequency.
usually supplied at 60 hertz, which means that sixty cycles
In using this formula, we express frequency in basic units
occur during each second, each cycle lasting \,,th of a second.
of hertz. Thus, both wavelength and velocity will be in the
Normally, DC is considered as having a frequency of zero
same units of distance. In the next formula, wavelength is
hertz, On the other hand, various types of radiation extend
listed in meters and velocity in meters per second:
into the millions-of-hertz region or beyond. Names are given
to some frequency ranges—for example the audio range, which —_ 300,000,000
h
extends up to about 20,000 hertz; or the ultrasonic range, start- 1k Hz
ing at about that point and extending to several hundred kilo- As an example, a wavelength at 1,500 kHz is:
hertz. Broadcast and communications stations are assigned
frequencies beginning at 10 kilohertz and extending up to _ 300,000,000
= 200 meters
30,000 megahertz. The Federal Communications Commission 1,500,000
(FCC) has established the following frequency-range desig- To shorten the formulas, the next two forms may be used,
nations: especially for the higher frequencies:
_ 800,000 300 |
Very low frequencies (VLF')
Low frequencies (LF)
—Below 30 kHz.
—30-300 kHz. \=— ine Mis 2s
Medium frequencies (MF) —300-3,000 kHz. Solving the previous problem with these formulas produces
High frequencies (HF) —3,000-30,000 kHz. the same answer, 200 meters. If we wanted the answer ex-
Very hich frequencies (VHF) —30,000 kHz-300 MHz. pressed in feet, we could multiply the number of meters by
Ultra high frequencies (UHF) —s00-3,000 MHz. 3.28 (the number of feet in a meter). For the previous prob-
Super high frequencies (SHF) —3,000-30,000 MHz. lem the wavelength would be 200 times 3.28, or 656 feet.
Extremely high frequencies (EHF )—30,000-300,000 MHz. We could solve for feet directly by using:
= 984,000,000 984,000,000
x = 656 feet
WAVELENGTH Te 1,500,000
Radio waves are assumed to travel through space at ap- Two other versions of this formula may be used to facilitate
proximately 186,000 miles (300 million meters, or 984 million calculations:

66 é7
 A
_ 984,000 _ 984 _
kHz MHz sis where,
If wavelength (A) is given in a problem, then the original t is the duration of one cycle in seconds,
formula can be transposed, giving the results shown next: f is the frequency in hertz.
=F p= v= df What is the period of a 400-Hz signal?

= rn = 0.0025 second
Since velocity is a constant, it is of no concern in ordinary 7 400
problems. Let's solve a problem, finding the frequency, if the
For higher frequencies we can use the same formula, stating
wavelength of a signal is 40 meters:
frequency in megahertz and time in microseconds. For ex-
v
f= j= 300,000,000
0 ample, what is the period of an 8,000-kHz wave?
= 7,500,000 Hz or 7.5 MHz
[= 2 = 2 = 0.125 microsecond
These formulas show that frequency and wavelength are ae
inversely proportional to each other. In other words, if the If the period of a signal is 0.5 microsecond, what is the
frequency is doubled, the wavelength is halved. This inverse wavelength in meters?
relationship can be shown from this formula: This can be solved by two separate problems. First the fre-
quency could be found, and then the wavelength. Or it could
Ar _ fe be solved directly by:
Ae fi
The wavelength at a certain frequency is 60 meters. What A=¥v xX t= 800 x 0.5 = 150 meters
will the wavelength be if the frequency is tripled? In some AC formulas, (such as those for reactance) the ex-

60_
Re
3 pression 27f often appears. This quantity is called angular
velocity and is sometimes indicated by the symbol w (omega).
There are 27 radians in each 360°, or a complete cycle. Multi-
3,
= 60 plying by the number of hertz gives us the number of radians
Ay = 20 meters covered during each second of time.
What is the angular velocity of a 2,000-Hz signal?
This formula shows that the inverse proportion holds true—
Angular velocity = 27f = 6.28 x 2,000 =1,256 radians per
since the frequency was tripled, the wavelength was reduced
second.
to one third its former value.
In some electronics applications we are interested in frac-
tions of wavelengths, such as in finding the length of a half-
wave antenna, The formulas already given can be used to find
a full wavelength, and then multiplied by the proper fraction
to give us the result,

TIME
As previously explained, each cycle occurs in a certain in-
terval, called the period. It can be found from the following:

68 69
 A 400-turn coil has an inductance of 3 henrys. If the num-
CHAPTER 7 ber of turns is increased to 600, what is the new inductance?
3 _ 4002
L, 600?
INDUCTANCE
g /2\a
7,- (3)
Inductance opposes any change of current through it. This
opposition is present because the coil develops a counterelec-
‘ee
Lk, 9
tromotive force with a polarity opposite that of the applied
41, =a
voltage. The basic unit of inductance is the henry, which was
defined in Chapter 5. L, = a
Inductance of an individual coi] depends on a number of
coil characteristics—primarily the number of turns, the physi- = 6.75 henrys
cal dimensions, and the permeability of the core. Permeability
(2) is a measure of the ease with which a material can carry
magnetic lines of force. Air has a permeability of 1. Inductance INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
varies directly with the permeability and directly as the square Inductive reactance (X,,) is the opposition offered by the
of the number of turns. These properties are shown mathe- coil to the flow of AC. It can be determined by this formula:
matically by the next two formulas, in which the subscript 1
indicates the initial condition and subscript 2 the same condi-
X= QefL
tion after a change in one of the coil characteristics: where,
X, is the inductive reactance in ohms,
Li _ im f is the frequency in hertz,
Ly fia L is the inductance in henrys,
27 is equal to 6.28 (a constant).
i NE
Inductive reactance varies directly with frequency and in-
where, ductance. If either or both are increased, the reactance will
L is the inductance of L, and L, (both in the same measure- increase and vice versa.
ment units), What is the inductive reactance of a 3-henry coil operating
uw is the permeability of the core,
N is the number of turns in the coil. at 600 kHz?

A coil having an inductance of 2 henrys has its core replaced A, =2sfL

by one having a permeability three times as great. What is A,=6.28 x61 x3

= 113 x 10 ohms
the new inductance?
We can use the basic equation and solve for either induct-
Eee! ance or frequency, as shown next:
iy 3
L, = 6 henrys
indicating that inductance is directly proportional to the per-
meability of the core.

70 71
or:
INDUCTOR COMBINATIONS
When series- or parallel-connected coils are physically close
together, the lines of force from each pass through the other,
At 50 kHz a coil has 500 ohms of inductive reactance. What changing the total amount of inductance. This interaction is
is the inductance? called mutual inductance and is measured in henrys—just like
pt,
“Bef
bi
6.28 - 50,000 628
= 0.0016 henry
the self-inductance of a single coil. 50, in considering total
inductance of a group of coils, we must take into account
whether or not there is mutual coupling between them. With
We could solve for frequency in the same manner, by using no coupling, a group of series-connected coils produces a total
the formula already given. As long as X,, is directly propor- inductance equal to the sum of the individual coils.
tional we can use the next two relationships whenever one of
the variables remains constant. With inductance constant: L,=6,+ L,+ £;,+ aon

For example, if three inductances, 2, 3, and 4 henrys, are

Xia _ fi series-connected (Figure 7-1A), the total inductance will be:
Xrz fe
With frequency constant: L,=2+8+4=9henrys
With mutual coupling, the total inductance of two series-
Ais _ Ly connected coils is:
Xr» Ly
L,=L,+L, +2M
These formulas can be used to solve the following types of
where,
problems:
L, is the total inductance,
1. An inductor has a reactance of 400 ohms at 100 kHz. L, and L, are the series inductances,
What is its reactance at 125 kHz? M is the mutual inductance.
If the coils are connected series-aiding (Figure 7-1B), the
Xu_fi
Xrs if
2M term is positive and adds to the total inductance. If the
coils are wound series-opposing (Figure 7-1C), there is at least
400_ 100 a partial cancellation of effective inductance and the 2M term
Ay, 125
is negative, decreasing the total. When the coefficient of cou-
100 X,,. = 50,000 pling is known, the mutual inductance can be determined from
Az: = 500 ohms * the following:
2. Ata given frequency a coil has a reactance of 7,500 ohms.
What will the reactance be if the frequency is quadrupled?

Xia _ fs
Ane fa
7,500 1 Petre) LyrLl +L242M Lyell L2-2M
En @ Lyng
Ars = 4 x 7,500 (A) No coupling. (8) Sertes-aiding. (C) Sertes-opposing.
Xr» = 30,000 ohms Figure 7-1. Circuits of series-connected inductances.

72 73
 M = Ky/L,L, _Lyg— Ly

where, a
M is the mutual inductance, where,
K is the coefficient of coupling, M is the mutual inductance,
L, and Ly are the series-connected inductors. L, is the total inductance with fields aiding,
The coefficient of coupling (K) is a decimal indicating the L, is the total inductance with fields opposing.
percentage of the lines of force passing through the other coil.
For this, ZL, and L, can be measured by suitable equipment,
It is always equal to 1 or less, thus a K of 80% would be the
and then M calculated. Reworking the previous problem to
same as 0.8. The decimal form will be used in our calculations,
find M, L, = 16 henrys and L, = 4 henrys. Then:

Kersh E=755
L2

2H eH
Mek Tide or edOE
Ly-Ll +L2+2M LypeLl+L2-2M = 8 henrys

(A) Series-ciding.
The coefficient of coupling can then be solved by:
(£) Series-opposing.
Af
Figure 7-2. Two inductances connected in series to illustrate the effect of
K =———
mutual inductance on the total circuit inductance.
Lil,
Suppose a 2-henry and an 8-henry coil are connected series-
aiding with a coefficient of coupling of 75%. (See Figure
7-24). We can find the mutual inductance by:

M=K\/L,L,
=0.75 2x8 Inductive reactances in series add directly, just like re-
= (0.75 x 4 sistors.
= 3 henrys
Xi — Xp aE Ana + Ars
L,=L,+L,+2M
=2+8+6 where,
= 16 henrys X,; is the total inductive reactance in ohms,
inyy Age, and A,,; are the individual reactances in ohms.
If they are connected in series-opposition (Figure 7-2B), the
mutual inductance will remain the same, But the total induct- Of course if there were mutual coupling, the total reactance
ance will now be: would be either larger or smaller, depending on how the coils
were connected. However, once we know the total inductance,
L,=L,+ L,—-—2M we can calculate the total reactance by the formula X, = 2rfL.
=2+8-6 Inductors can be connected in parallel, but this is seldom
= 4 henrys done in actual practice, primarily because the coils may be
Where the coupling coefficient is unknown, mutual inductance relatively expensive and paralleling them merely decreases
can be calculated by: the total inductance. So from a practical standpoint it would

74 75
be much better to use a single coil having a smaller value, where,
Connecting coils in parallel has the same effect on total re- Q is the figure of merit of the coil (no unit),
actance as on total inductance—the total is reduced to a value X, is the inductive reactance in ohms,
FR is the effective resistance in ohms.
smaller than the smallest individual reactance or inductance.
A coil which has an X, of 200 ohms and an effective resist-
ance of 40 ohms has a @ of:
ENERGY AND @
The energy stored in a coil can be determined
Q=
from this
formula:

=5
where,
W is the energy, in joules (watt-seconds), The F in the formula includes the ohmic or DC resistance
L is the inductance in henrys, of the coil, as well as any AC resistance, such as skin effect,
/ is the current in amperes.
which may be present in the circuit. We shall see in the next
Thus, if 3 amperes flow through an 8-henry coil, the energy chapter that Q indicates the charge on a capacitor. Hence, the
will be: two uses should not be confused.

TIME CONSTANT
Recall that inductance opposes any change of current
through it. Therefore, when voltage is applied, the current
requires a certain amount of time to reach a maximum. This
= 36 joules time depends on the time constant of the circuit. This time
eonstant is found by dividing the inductance by the series
We can also use the basic formula and solve for L or J: resistance.
LI?
lor
2W = LE where,
2W TC is the time constant in seconds,
aa 12 L is the inductance in henrys,
R is the resistance in ohms.
f=, jet
L A time constant is defined as the time required for the cur-
rent to reach 63.2% of its maximum value. During the next
The @ of a coil is the ratio of the energy stored to that time constant, the current increases to 63.2% of the differ-
dissipated; it can be stated as: ence remaining (36.8%), or to 86.5%. During the third time
constant, the current again increases to 63.2% of the remain-
der (13.5%). So, at the end of the third time constant the

76 a7
 _ ee f oe TRANSFORMERS

Turns and impedance

In a transformer, the voltage of the secondary can be cal-
PERCENT
CURRENT
OF PERCENT
CURRENT
OF
culated from the formula:

E,=E,* N
where,
E, is the secondary voltage,
(A) Current inerease. (B) Current decrease. E, is the primary voltage,
Figure 7-3. Rate of change of current through an inductance and resistance N is the turns ratio (no unit).
in series. is the number of turns
The turns ratio (N) in this formula
current is 95% of maximum. After four and five time con- on the secondary windings, divided by the number on the pri-
stants, the percentages are 98.2 and 99.3, respectively. For mary. In a step-up transformer, N is greater than 1 and the
practical purposes the current is assumed to reach its maxi- secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage. In a
mum value in five time constants. Figure 7-34 shows the rate step-down transformer, N is less than 1 and the secondary
of current increase from the time voltage is applied, until voltage is smaller.
the maximum value has been reached. The decrease of coil A transformer has 200 turns on the primary and 800 on the
current is at the same nonlinear rate and is shown in Figure secondary. If 115 volts is applied to the primary, what is the
7-3B. After one time constant of discharge, the current has secondary voltage?
decreased by 63.2%, or to 36.8% of its maximum value, At the 800
end of each of the next four time constants, the current is v= 300
13.5%, 5%, 1.8%, and 0.7%, respectively. A long time con- =4
stant can therefore be obtained by making the inductance E,=E,xN
large or the resistance small, or both. The time constant varies B,= 115 x 4
directly with inductance—the delay of current change being = 460 volts
directly proportional to the time constant. ratio is equal to the
In any transformer, the impedance
Suppose a 2-henry coil in series with a 1,000-ohm resistor
square of the turns ratio:
is connected across 200 volts DC. The maximum current will
be 200 + 1,000, or 0.2 ampere, because at the end of five time Z=N
constants the current will be limited only by the resistance where,
in the circuit. The time constant will be: Z is the impedance ratio,
N is the turns ratio.
ic= 5= can = 0.002 second
Conversely the turns ratio is the square root of the impedance
At 1 time constant, I = 63.2% of 0.2 = 0.1264
ratio (N = \/Z).
ampere
At 2 time constants, I = 86.5%
A step-down transformer has a 5-to-1 turns ratio. If the im-
of 0.2 = 0.1730 ampere
At 3 time constants, = 95% of 0.2=0.19 ampere pedance of the primary is 600 ohms, what is the secondary
At 4 time constants, I = 98.2% of
impedance?
0.2 = 0.1964 ampere
At 5 time constants, I = 99.38% of 0.2 = 0.1986 ampere £=N

78 79
Since: where,
P, is the secondary power (EF, x I,),
N=5
P, is the primary power (#, x f,).
Then: Thus, a transformer having 50 watts in the primary and
Z=5- 48 watts in the secondary has an efficiency of:
= 26
ob eff. = 25x 100
This means the primary impedance is twenty-five times
greater than the secondary. Therefore the secondary imped-
ance is 600 ohms divided by 25, or 24 ohma.

Efficiency
Neglecting losses, the power in the primary should be equal
to the power in the secondary, or:

E,!,= EJ,
where,
E,, and E, are the primary and secondary voltages,
I, and J, are the primary and secondary currents.
» times I, gives the primary power,
&, times J, gives the power in the secondary.

A step-up transformer has a turns ratio of 8-to-1. Primary

voltage is 100, with a current of 2 amperes. What is the sec-
ondary current? Since step-up operation is indicated, the sec-
ondary voltage is 100 times 8, or 800 volts. Then:

EI, = EJ,
i._ . i?
Fyl,
_ 100 x2
~ B00
= 0.25 ampere

Neglecting losses, notice that the current was stepped down

by the same ratio the voltage was stepped up. The yoltage
was increased eight times from primary to secondary. So the
current in the secondary is one-eighth that in the primary.
Efficiency of a transformer is calculated from the formula:

F Pi.
% efficiency = p.* 100
P
 A is the area of one plate in square inches,
D is the distance between plates in inches,
CHAPTER 8 N is the number of plates.

We may never use this formula to any great extent, but it

CAPACITANCE does give us a set of important relationships. It tells us how
the various factors determine the actual amount of capaci-
tance of a given unit. Capacitance varies directly with the
A capacitor is formed by separating two metallic plates by dielectric constant, area of the plates, and the number. Ca-
an insulating material called a dielectric. When a voltage is pacitance also varies inversely with distance between plates
applied across it, a capacitor charges by depositing electrons (thickness of dielectric). The dielectric constant is a measure
on one plate (making that plate negative), and by drawing of the insulating qualities of the dielectric material, compared
electrons from the other plate (making it positive). The num- with air (which is assumed to be 1). Table 8-1 lists the con-
ber of electrons which can be stored, with a given applied volt- stants for some of the more common materials. The factor
age, is a measure of the capacitance of the unit. When the
Table 8-1, Approximate Dielectric Constants
capacitor is charged, electrostatic lines of force exist between
of Common Materials
the plates. Hence the charge is assumed to be stored in the
dielectric material. Approximate Approximate
A capacitor tends to oppose any change of voltage across it. Dielectric Dielectric
Therefore, it takes a certain amount of time to charge to the Material Constant
applied voltage. Once charged, a potential difference (measured Paraffin coated
in volts) exists across the plates. The charge on the capacitor
is a measure of the number of electrons stored—the basic unit
of this charge being the coulomb. (One coulomb = 6.24 x 10"
electrons). There is also a certain amount of potential energy
stored, which is measured in joules.
The basic unit of capacitance is the farad. One farad is the (N—1), in the formula, represents the number of capacitor
amount of capacitance which stores one coulomb of electricity sections—if the capacitor contains five plates there are four
when a potential difference of one volt is applied across the separate dielectric sections, hence four capacitors, all con-
plates. A farad is much too large for practical work. So eca- nected in parallel. For a single-section capacitor (two plates),
pacitors used in electronic circuits are usually rated in micro- the N—1 factor can be ignored because it is equal to 1.
farads (uF) or picofarads (pF). In the formula just given, the area and the distance be-
tween plates were expressed in square inches and inches, re-
FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE spectively. With the area in square centimeters and the dis-
tance in centimeters, the numerical factor 0.0885 would be used
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor may be found instead of 0.2255.
from this formula:
C= 0.2235K.A(N—1)
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
a dD
where, The capacitive reactance (X,) of a capacitor is the oppo-
C is the capacitance in pF, sition offered by the capacitor to the flow of AC. It can be
K is the dielectric constant, determined by this formula:

83
 —

1 Solving for frequency would involve the same type of sub-

X= InfC stitution and calculation. Going back to the original X,, for-
where, mula we see that reactance varies inversely with frequency
X, is the capacitive reactance in ohms, and capacitance. And from this we can obtain the following
f is the frequency in hertz, two relationships. With capacitance constant:
C is the capacitance in farads,
2 is equal to 6.28, a constant. Xer = fe
: ne F
According to this relationship, the reactance varies in-
versely with frequency and capacitance. If either, or both, With frequency constant:
are increased, the reactance will decrease, and vice versa. Xer_Cy
What is the reactance of a 0.05-uF capacitor operating at Ko OC;
500 kHz?
wot Let's see how these would be used.
e= 370 1. A capacitor has a reactance of 200 ohms at 500 kHz. What
x= 1 is its reactance at 400 kHz?
° 6.28x 5 x 108
= 5 x 10-4
x 1 ] Xer fa
°— 757 x 10-9 0.157
200 _ 400,000
A eo Si

X, = 6.37 ohms
A.» 600,000
We could solve the basic equation for frequency or capaci-
tance:
200. 4
Xa.
1
A= 9G AX a = 1000
A.» = 250 ohms
2nfCX-=1
ak In other words, the reactance goes up by the same ratio that
l= FOX, the frequency goes down.

= 2. At a certain frequency a capacitor has a reactance of 100

= SFX, ohms, If the capacitance is tripled, what is its new reactance?
A capacitor has a reactance of 75 ohms at a frequency of
Xer_ Cx
600 kHz. What is the capacitance? A oe Cy

1 100_ 3
ami Fe Am «Of

a= —
= §a8
x6 x 10°X 75 X10) In the above step, no matter what the capacitance values
are, the ratio on the right will be reduced to 3 over 1:
a~ 282.6% 10°
a a
0.2826 x 10° 3X3 = 100

C = 8.54 x 10-8 = 0.00354 pF A» = 33.3 ohms

84 85
 C8
SERIES CAPACITORS Ci = No got 255 pF

When capacitors are connected in series, the voltage rating Voltage rating = 450 x 3 = 1,850 volts.
of the combination is equal to the sum of the voltage ratings
of all the capacitors. For example, two 450-volt units in series
2. A 4-vF and an 8-pF capacitor are connected in series.
What is the total capacitance?
cl @ C3 Figure 8-1. Schematic representation
—j__ of capacitors in series. _ Cl, _4%8_ 82 |
wend
fae oe
would have a voltage rating of 900 volts. But the series con- S. Three capacitors, 2, 4, and 8 pF, are connected in series.
nection causes the total capacitance to be smaller than the What is the total capacitance?
smallest of the group. And as the total capacitance is de-
creased, the total reactance is increased. For our calculations 1

of actual values we will refer to the three-capacitor series cir- a

cuit of Figure 8-1. | Cc, Cs Cra

Total capacitance is calculated in the same way as parallel ee ee

resistors, and the formula shown below can be applied for “=T
2
1,1
4 &
44241
8
any number of capacitors.

1 C, a
_& 3aia 1.14 pF
;
1 1 1 &
C, Ga CG; = pe ae
Capacitive reactances in series are calculated in the same
where, Manner as resistances in series—by adding them directly.
C,, C;, and C, are the individual capacitances, The formula given here holds for any number in series:
C, is the total capacitance.
Meo = AXcp + Xe + Apa + os
If two capacitors are connected in series, the total can be
For example, if three capacitors having reactances of 10,
found by the “product-over-the-sum” method, as shown pre-
15, and 20 ohms are connected in series, the total reactance
viously for two resistors in parallel:
is 10 + 15+ 20, or 45 ohms.
i= CC, When voltage is applied across a group of series-connected
6s Gy eapacitors, the circuit becomes a voltage divider. The voltage
drop across each capacitor is then inversely proportional to
If all series capacitors have the same value, (C), it can be
divided by the number of capacitors (N). its capacitance. As an example, let’s use the circuit of Figure
8-2, where the separate capacitors are 2, 4, and 8 wF. Several
GC methods can be used. Let’s examine two of them.
C, = N

tl C2 C3

Sample Problems Figure 8-2, Capacitors in series, ? uF dr Bur

i. Three capacitors, each rated at 8 uF, 450 volts, are con- with aon AC voltage applied to
nected in series. What is the total capacitance and the voltage the combination.

rating of the combination? POV.

86 ay
 If we let x equal the voltage across C3, then there must be For example, three capacitors, 500 pF, .05 pF, and 1.0 pF,
2r volts across C2, and 4z volts across Cl. These three, added are connected in parallel. Find the total capacitance. We could
together, equal the supply voltage of 210 volts: convert them all to either ~F (or pF) and then add as shown
x+22+42r= 210
here:
Tx = 210 500 pF + .05 uF + 1.0 pF
x = 80 volts Converting to pF
So there is 30 volts across C3, 60 volts across C2, and 120 0005 pF + .05 pF + 1.0 pF = 1.0505 pF
volts across Cl, adding up to a total of 210.
Or we can use this formula, which holds for any number We can handle the addition in a number of other ways, such
of capacitors: as placing all values in a column:
0005 wF
E,
_E, C.XG;
0 or
where, 1.0505 uF
FE, ia the unknown voltage across a capacitor,
EF, is the applied voltage, Capacitive reactances in parallel are calculated in the same
C, is the total capacitance of the circuit, way as resistors in parallel, using any one of the following
C, is the capacitance across which the unknown voltage formulas:
FE, appears (C, and C; should be expressed in the same
units). Ae
X=
N
We can use this formula to solve the same problem, except where,
that we must solve for the voltage across one of the capacitors. A. 18 the total capacitive reactance,
X,. is the value of each reactance, _
Let's solve for the voltage across C2, the 4-uF unit: N is the number of equal reactances in parallel.
Ei, C.
x C,
B= Or:
__. - Wahtiot
E.= 210 x 1.143 _ 240
Ker % Aer + Aes
: 4 4
E, = 60 volts The above formula is used when two reactances, X,; and X,,
are connected in parallel. For any number of two or more, the
which is the same answer obtained by the previous method.
reciprocal formula shown next should be used:

PARALLEL CAPACITORS
Capacitors connected in parallel act like a single capacitor
having a larger plate area. This means that capacitors in
parallel add directly, just like series resistors. Any parallel We have already performed these calculations a number of
combination can be solved from this equation: times, so sample problems will be omitted.
C,=¢,+C,+ 6; + to #
The next type of problem often appears in the FCC exami-
where, nation. We have a number of 8-uF capacitors, each rated at
C, is the total capacitance, 450 volts. How many would be required to make up a combina-
C,, C's, C; are the individual capacitors. tion rated at 8 uF and 1,800 volts?

89
 To obtain the 1,800-volt rating, four capacitors in series
would be required, but the total capacitance of this combi-
nation is only 2 uF. So, to obtain 8 uF we would need four where,
parallel branches, each containing four capacitors, for a total W is the energy in joules,
@ is the charge in coulombs,
of 16 capacitors. C is the capacitance in farads,
E is the applied voltage in volts.
CHARGE AND ENERGY A 0.05-uF capacitor has 200 volts connected across it. How
The charge stored in a capacitor can be calculated by: much energy is stored?

Q=CE w= oS
5x4x10
w== 5X10-* x5 (2x10%)?=_5 x 10-*
where,
@ is the charge in coulombs,
C is the capacitance in farads, 5 =3
E is the applied. voltage in volts. = ES = 1x 10-' joule
As an example, 250 volts is applied across a 0.05-uF capaci-
To solve for C or E, with the other factors given:
tor. The charge is:
__ CE
Q=CE sear
Q=5 x 10-* x 2.5 x 10°
Q@ = 12.5 « 10-* coulombs 2W =CE*
So:
which could be expressed as 12.5 microcoulombs.
Using the formula @ = CE, solve this problem, being care- _2W
=
ful not to make a snap judgment as to the answer:
And:
A 0.01-uF capacitor is charged to 200 volts, and the charg-
2W = CE?
ing source is disconnected. An uncharged 0.01-~F capacitor
is then connected in parallel with the charged capacitor. What
oo
+= 20GC
will the voltage be across the combination?
The first capacitor was charged to 2 microcoulombs (Q = So:
CE) and the charging source was disconnected. Adding the E= /2W
additional capacitor doubled the capacitance. So, with Q re- C
maining the same the voltage is cut in half, to 100 volts.
If the source had remained connected, then of course both
capacitors would have charged to the source voltage. TIME CONSTANT
We can rearrange the basic Q = CE formula, if necessary, When DC is applied across an RC ¢ircuit, the capacitor
to produce these results: requires a certain amount of time to charge to the supply
voltage. This time is proportional to what is called the time
C=— E B=_QCc constant. The time constant is equal to the resistance multi-
plied by capacitance:
The energy stored in a capacitor can be calculated from this
formula: C= Fx 6

91
90

_
where, Table 8-2. Percentage of Voltage Across a Capacitor in an
TC is the time constant in seconds, RC Circuit At the End of Certain RC Time Constants
FR is the resistance in ohms,
C is the capacitance in farads. % of Applied % of Applied
Voltage During Voltage During
The time constant is not the time required for full charge,
but is the time required for the charge on the capacitor to
reach approximately 63.2% of the available voltage. At the
end of one time constant, a capacitor will have charged to
63.2% of the applied voltage. During the next time constant,
the eapanstor charges to 63.2% of the remaining voltage
(36.89%), or to 86.5%. During the third time constant the
additional charge is 63.2% of the remaining voltage (13.5%) As R or C, or both, are increased so is the time constant,
or 95%, etc. Table 8-2 shows the percentages of full charge This causes the capacitor to take a longer time to charge or
the capacitor has attained at the end of each time constant, discharge. When charging, the sum of EF, and E,, at any in-
while Figure 8-3 shows it graphically. For practical consider- stant of time is always equal to the applied voltage. On dis-
ations the capacitor is assumed to be fully charged at the end charge, at any instant FE, and E, are equal, but opposite in
of 5 RC time periods. polarity, to each other. Hence their sum is always zero (See
Discharge occurs at the same rate. At the end of 1 RC time, Figure 8-3).
the capacitor has discharged 63.2% of its full charge and has A .05-uF capacitor is connected in series with a 500,000-
36.8% left. Table 8-2 also lists the remaining percentages ohm resistor. Find the time constant and the voltage across
of voltage at the end of 1 through 5 RC times of discharge. the capacitor for 1 through 5 time constants of charge. The
sly gs VOLTAGE aad (TGR VOLTAGE applied voltage is 200.
jet

TC => RCO=—5 x 10-* x 5 x 10 =2.5 x 10-* second.

For charging:
At 1 time constant, E.. = 63.2% of 200 = 126.4 volts
ALT At 2 time constants, EF, = 86.5% of 200 = 173 volts
At 3 time constants, F,= 95% of 200=190 volts
At 4 time constants, E. = 98.2% of 200 = 196.4 volts
At 5 time constants, F, = 99.3% of 200 = 198.6 volts

PERCENT
VOLTAGE
APPLIED
OF
(E,)HEGATIVE
———
POSITIVE

CHARGE CURRENT BSSMEEISos2eaus

(A) Crreutt. (B) Charge. (C) Discharge:

Figure 8-3. Charge and discharge curves of an RC combination, showing
the voltage distribution across the copocitor and resistor at different
RC times, Notice that on discharge, the polarity of voltages across the
resistor is opposite that during charge.

93
92
 Suppose that a series circuit, as shown in Figure 9-1 consists
of a 20-ohm resistor, a 50-uH inductor and a 250-pF capaci-
tor. Solve for the resonant frequency.
CHAPTER 9
oe
20\/LC
1
RESONANCE
—_—

~ 6.28\/5 x 10-5 x 25 x 10-4

1
Circuits are said to be resonant when the capacitive and ss6.285/125 x 10-4
inductive reactances in the circuit are equal. This principle 1
is used in many electronics applications. As frequency is in- ~ 6.28 x 11.18 x 10-*
creased from zero, the inductive reactance in a circuit also —_ 10°
increases but the capacitive reactance decreases. At some fre- ~ 70.21
quency the reactances will be equal—this point being termed > 10%
the resonant frequency. As long as this condition occurs at ~ 7021 x 10?
only one frequency, an LC circuit becomes discriminatory = 1.424 x 10° = 1,424 kilohertz
and its behavior depends on whether the reactive components
are connected in series or in parallel.

Figure 9-1. A series RLC circuit.

SERIES RESONANCE
When X, equals X,, in a series LC circuit, the circuit is series-
resonant. However, any circuit contains at least a small amount [3-3
of resistance. So, in discussing resonance we must assume that 250pF
resistance is also present. We can calculate the resonant fre- By use of basic algebra we can also solve the resonance
quency by determining that frequency which causes the re- equation for either L or C when frequency is known:
actances to be equal. The formula is developed as shown: , 1
= = VEC
Si H =
since: A, =X,
Then: 2,fWLC=1
Then ;: IefL ark
= Safe And: de2f?2LC = 1
1
And: 4°fLC = Therefore: L= tefC

“ee 1
P= TLC Or:
ee!
C= ae PL

f=2n\/LC
At series-resonance the reactances effectively cancel each
other and the following conditions exist:
where frequency, inductance, and capacitance are expressed 1. Cireuit impedance is minimum and is equal to the circuit
in basic units—hertz, henrys, and farads, respectively. resistance. Effective reactance is zero.

94 95
 2. Current is maximum since impedance is minimum. 2. Circuit Impedance is maximum, resulting in minimum
3. The phase angle is 0°, and the power factor is 1. _ line current.
4. Each of the reactive voltages may be much larger than 3. The circuit will be resistive, having unity power factor.
the applied voltage.
If a zero-resistance tank circuit could be designed, all these
In the circuit of Figure 9-2, solve for Z, J, E,, E;, and E,: conditions would occur at the same frequency. However, every
Z=\V/F? +X? LC circuit has some resistance, mostly in the inductive branch.
= \/10? + (500-500)? = 10 ohms, the same as R Even so, if the resistance is small, all these conditions will
occur at approximately the same frequency. Tank circuits are
usually designed for high @ (having low resistance). Hence
we can use the resonance formula already given for series
circuits:

E,=IxE 1
= 2 10 = 20 volts, same as E,, fS 2a VEC

Bai KX,
At parallel resonance, the following conditions occur (Fig-
= 2 x 600 = 1,000 volts
ure 9-3 will be our reference circuit) :
Po LMA,
= 2 x 500 = 1,000 volts 1. Circuit impedance between points A and B is maximum:
therefore the line current is minimum.
Previously Q was defined as X,,/FR so in the circuit of Figure 2. Opposition within the tank is minimum because the effec- oe
—-_

9-2 the @ equals 50. In a series-resonant circuit the voltage tive reactance is zero. This means the circulating tank
current is maximum.
®. The circuit acts resistive, the power factor is approxi-
mately 1, and the phase angle is nearly 0°, as long as the
Fig. 9-2. A series-resonont circuit. resistance is negligible.
Ey
mV

across either reactive component can be found from the for- Figure 9-3. A parallel circuit,
Wlustrating the effect at its
mula:
resonant frequency.
Q mm E, = Ey, — E.

Therefore in the circuit just discussed, EF, or E,= 50 x 20,

or 1,000 volts. Using Figure 9-3 again as our reference, the impedance pre-
sented by the tank at resonance can be considered as:
PARALLEL RESONANCE
aySe
Several conditions can be used in defining parallel reso- “= — Re
nance. These are listed as follows:
Where all electrical characteristics are stated in basic units.
1. Inductive reactance equals capacitive reactance. We could substitute X. for X,, because the basic condition for

96 97
resonance is that the reactances be equal. Impedance can also According to the formula, the resonant frequency depends
be stated as: on the product of L times C and not on the individual values.
Z=X,xQ=X, XQ In the example problem just worked, the fact that L = 40 »H
and C=80 pF, made this circuit resonant at slightly over
Suppose these conditions exist in our reference circuit; L = 2.81 megahertz. If instead L=20 pH and C=160 pF, the
40 nH, C= 80 pF, and F=10 ohms. Solve for the resonant resonant frequency would be the same. In the latter example
frequency and the circuit impedance at resonance: we have halved L and doubled C, leaving the LC product at the
same value. In fact many combinations of L and C would pro-
duce the same product and hence the same resonant frequency.
Connecting a resistance across a parallel-LC circuit loads
down that circuit by decreasing the Q. This lowers the imped-
ance of the circuit, but broadens the band of frequencies the
circuit can pass. The resistor, however, has no effect on the
~ §.28\/32
x 10-8 resonant frequency.
1
~ 6.28 x 5.66 x 10-5
= 1 DECIBELS
~ .30b4x 10-8
= 2.81 x 10°=2.81 MHz The decibel (dB) is the basic unit for measuring the differ-
L ence between two levels of sound. It is a nonlinear function
4= RG based on logarithms, just as human hearing is nonlinear, or
a 4x10-5 =4x 10-8 logarithmic, in nature. The human ear cannot determine ac-
~Tx10xsxil0-" 8xi10-™ tual sound levels, but can detect differences in levels provided
they are not too small.
= 0.5 x 10° = 50,000 ohms
There is no such thing as zero sound. Hence any absolute
Checking: measurement is impossible. Therefore we measure the level
X, = 2efL of a particular sound with respect to some other level as a
reference. The decibel, then, expresses numerically the ratio
= 6.28 x 2.81 * 10°x 4 «10-4 of a particular sound level to a certain reference level.
= 705.9 ohms Let’s see how the fact that our hearing is logarithmic af-
fects our sense of volume. If a sound level is increased from
1 to 2 watts (using an electrical quantity), the difference (or
change) in the level, as interpreted by our ears, will seem to
be the same amount of change as an increase from 2 to 4
watts, or from 5 to 10 watts. The latter ratings are certainly
Z= Xr x q@
freater changes in power than our first example and will
Sound louder, but in each case the change in levels will seem
= 705.9 x 70.69 identical to our ears. The power was doubled in each of the
= 49,829 ohms examples given and each of these changes is represented
by the same number of decibels. So each change seemed to
The slight error results from rounding off the resonant be the same, although the difference in power in each example
frequency; actually it is slightly higher than 2.81 megahertz. Was not.
 resonance is that the reactances be equal. Impedance can also According to the formula, the resonant frequency depends
be stated as: on the product of L times C and not on the individual values.
Z2=X,x*Q=X.x@Q In the example problem just worked, the fact that L = 40 wH
and C=80 pF, made this circuit resonant at slightly over
Suppose these conditions exist in our reference circuit; L = 2.81 megahertz. If instead L=20 wH and C=160 pF, the
40 pH, C=80 pF, and R=10 ohms. Solve for the resonant resonant frequency would be the same. In the latter example
frequency and the circuit impedance at resonance: we have halved Z and doubled C, leaving the LC product at the
same value. In fact many combinations of L and C would pro-
a duce the same product and hence the same resonant frequency.
2xx/LC
2 4 Connecting a resistance across a parallel-LC circuit loads
* 10-5 x 8 x 190-0
down that circuit by decreasing the @. This lowers the imped-
2 6.285/4
ance of the circuit, but broadens the band of frequencies the
| 1
circuit can pass. The resistor, however, has no effect on the
x 10-™
~ 6.28\/32 resonant frequency.
1
~ 6.28 x 5.66 x 10-8
7 1 DECIBELS
~ 9654 x 10-8
= 2.81 x 10°=2.81 MHz The decibel (dB) is the basic unit for measuring the differ-
L ence between two levels of sound. It is a nonlinear function
a= 56 based on logarithms, just as human hearing is nonlinear, or
3 4x10-5 _4x 10-5 logarithmic, in nature. The human ear cannot determine ac-
~Yx10xsxl0—™ 8x i0-™ tual sound levels, but can detect differences in levels provided
they are not too small.
| = 0.5 x 10°= 50,000 ohms
There is no such thing as zero sound. Hence any absolute
Checking: measurement is impossible. Therefore we measure the level
AX, =2efL of a particular sound with respect to some other level as a
reference. The decibel, then, expresses numerically the ratio
= 6.28 x 2.81 x 108% x 4 x 10-5 of a particular sound level to a certain reference level.
= 705.9 ohms Let’s see how the fact that our hearing is logarithmic af-
fects our sense of volume. If a sound level is increased from
1 to 2 watts (using an electrical quantity), the difference (or
change) in the level, as interpreted by our ears, will seem to
be the same amount of change as an increase from 2 to 4
watts, or from 5 to 10 watts. The latter ratings are certainly
Z= Ar x Q
greater changes in power than our first example and will
sound louder, but in each case the change in levels will seem
= 705.9 x 70.59 identical to our ears. The power was doubled in each of the
= 49,829 ohms examples given and each of these changes is represented
by the same number of decibels. So each change seemed to
The slight error results from rounding off the resonant be the same, although the difference in power in each example
frequency; actually it is slightly higher than 2.81 megahertz. Was not,

bs
 Doubling the power causes the sound to be louder, but defi- 1. The input and output signal voltages of an amplifier are
nitely not twice as loud, as might be supposed. This is due to 8 and 48 volts respectively. What is the decibel gain?
the logarithmic characteristic, which can be explained in still
another way. A small change of volume may be noticeable at dB == 20 log ay
E.
low levels, but not be noticeable at all for higher levels. As an
example, a change from 1 watt to 2 watts would be noticed dB = 20 log i
by most people. A change from 19 watts to 20 watts however,
would not be noticed at all, even though the actual change in dB = 20 log 16
power (1 watt) is the same in both instances, Thus we hear dB = 20(1.2041) = 24.082 dB
changes with respect to the ratio of the levels involved, rather The output signal is 24 dB above the input level or, con-
than hearing any certain degree of change. versely, the input level is 24 dB below the output.
As long as the decibe! specifies no definite signal level we 2. A transmission line has an input of 1,200 watts and an
say that it is a relative unit, and the numerical value of these output of 1,000 watts. What is the dB loss in the line?
units depends on the ratio of the two levels—not the numeri-
cal difference between them. The average ear can detect sig- dB = 10 log Pp.
nal level changes of about 1 dB for a single tone, and about s

oe 1200
83 dB for mixed signals such as voice or music. dB = 10 log 1000
The original unit used for the measurement of sound was
dB = 10 log 1.2
the bel, the number of bels being equal to the log of the ratio
dB = 10(.0792) = 0.792 dB
of the power of two sound sources, This was too large a unit
so it was divided into ten parts, each called a decibel. Numeri- Notice that in both examples the larger number of the ratio
cally the number of decibels can be determined by the follow- was made the numerator of the fraction. This was done to
ing formula: simplify the calculations, because then all the ratios are larger
than 1, giving positive logarithms in all cases.
dB = 10 log P- The subject of decibels is useful in a study of amplifiers,
£
since they are quite often used in describing amplifier gain or
where P, and P, are the two levels of power, P, being the loss. However, they can be applied to microphones, recorders,
larger. transmitters, filters, attenuation networks, transmission lines,
If the impedances across which the signals are measured or any other signal-handling device.
are equal, the following relationships for voltage or current
also hold true: Zero Level
Actual output signal levels of various types of equipment
dB == 20 log
| E,
= such as microphones, amplifiers, etc., are often expressed in
dBs. The dB level is rated against some power level as a zero
reference. Various zero references have been used, with 6 milli-
dB = 20 log 2
Z watts probably being the most prevalent. In many usages the
VU (volume unit) is preferred instead of the decibel. It is
The first two are used to a much larger extent than the exactly the same as the dB except that the VU is always re-
current formula, although the latter is just as applicable. ferred to a specific zero-reference level of 1 milliwatt as read
A couple of problems will illustrate how these formulas are across 600 ohms. When expressing a certain number of deci-
used. bels we are not sure what the zero level is unless it is specified.

100 101

-
 Solving a problem involving the zero level is the same as and we must find the other level. Such solutions all follow a
already shown except the zero level is one of the figures in the definite pattern, as shown in the next problem.
ratio. For example, if zero decibels is assumed to be 6 milli- An amplifier output-signal voltage is 60 volts and the stage
watts, what db level is 600 milliwatts? raises the signal level by 15 dB. What is the input signal?

dB = 10 log ~
dB = 10 log 100
dB = 10(2) = +20 dB
Using the same reference, what is the dB rating for 3 milli- Dividing both sides by 20:
watts? Then:
dB = 10 log 8 ie= log pe
Z

dB = 10 log 2
Taking the antilog of both sides:
dB = 10(.801) =—3.01 dB
In the latter solution we set the larger power as the numer- 5.62 _= 5
60
ator of the fraction, but affixed a negative sign to the answer. 5.62E, = 60
This was necessary because 3 milliwatts is below the zero-dB
reference level. If we invert the ratio, as shown next, the
_ 60
E, = 5 6D = 10.68 volts
answer comes out as a negative number:
The steps are as follows:
aB = 10 log
1. Substitute the known values into the proper dB formula,
dB = 10 log 5 using 20 as a multiplier for voltage or current, and 10 as
dB = 10(.6990—1) a multiplier for power.
dB = 6.990—10 = —3.01 dB 2. Divide both sides of the equation by either 10 or 20,
whichever is used.
What VU level is represented by 6 milliwatts? In this prob- 3. Take the antilog of both sides.
lem zero VU is assumed, as always, to be 1 milliwatt. The 4. Solve the equation by the methods described in Chap-
problem is set up as follows: ter 3.

VU =10 log 5 Let’s try another problem, using this outline. The numbers
of the various lines correspond to the previous step numbers.
VU = 10 lox A transmitter output is increased by 20 dB, the original out-
put being 100 watts. What is the new level?
VU = 10(.7782) = 7.782VU

Inverse Problems
The same formulas are used for solving inverse dB prob-
lems—that is, when the dB level and one signal level are given

102
 2, 2,0=lo¢ 100
CHAPTER 10

3. 100=— 700
P,

4. P,= 10,000 watts BOOK REVIEW QUIZ

Successive Stages
Decibels are additive (or subtractive) when applied to suc-
cessive stages. Consider the block diagram of Figure 9-4, where CHAPTER 1
the output of the microphone is —50 dB and the volume con-
trol] loss is 5 dB, leaving an input to the preamp, of —55 dB.
) State the rule for converting a number larger than 1 to its scientific
notation form.
The preamp gain is 35 dB, so its output is at a —20 dB-level, 2. State the rule for converting a number smaller than 1 to its scientific
while the amplifier adds 25 dB, making its output +5 dB. This notation form.

55.8 Pde Express each of the following numbers in scientific notation form.
+508
a. 285
b. 0.0354
| || PREAMPLIFIER [||AMPLIFIER ce. 8,200,000
| | 508 T) +2508
d. 0.000064
e. 35
Figure 9-4. Block diagram of an amplitier, showing
In problems 4 through 8, express all answers as numbers between 1
dB losses and gains.
and 10, multiplied by a power of 10.
makes the total dB gain, from microphone to amplifier output, » 82x 1° x 6x10"=
595 dB (35 +25 —5). Successive voltage gains, however, are 12 x1i10¢+ 24x 10°
multiplied as shown previously, so are different from dBs in 1942 x 10* ~ 0.0515 x 10° =
that respect.
$40,000 —
What is the combined voltage gain of the two amplifiers of
(2.6 x 10%)? =
the previous problem?
Since both stages have a total dB gain of 60, the problem Convert 5 megahertz to kilohertz.
is set up with gain (A,) being the ratio between the two Convert 2.5 microfarads to picofarads.
voltages.
CHAPTER 2
dB = 20 log A,
- oxy + 4xy—2x*y+xy'=
60 = 20 log A,
3 = log A, 2. (x—y) (x+y) =
Taking the antilog: 3. —15x‘y*_
—6sy7
A, = 1,000 4, Factor9 a*b’ 15 a*b’
So the total voltage gain is 1,000, corresponding to a dB 5, 6y+ 15 = 2y + 7. Solve for y.
6.
gain of 60. N=| _2S8
xe Solve for L,

T. V2" —4 Solve for A.

8. p= * Solve for E.

104 105
 . Resistances of 4, 8, and 12 ohms are connected in parallel. What is the
CHAPTER 3 total resistance?
1. What is the effect on the current in a series circuit if the voltage is
A circuit has a resistance of 250 ohms. What is the conductance?
doubled and the resistance halved? What if the voltage is tripled and
the resistance is tripled?
2. A 20-ohm resistor and an &0-chm resistor are in parallel across a 64- . Convert 117 volts rms to peak volts. (yo) = |.
volt source. What current is drawn from the source? . A circuit contains 3 ohms of resistance, T ohms of inductive reactance,
a. What is the total current in the circuit of Figure 10-17 What is the and 5 ohms of capacitive reactance, What is the circuit impedance?
current through R1? The phase angle?
. With 24 volts applied to the circuit of Question 2, what will the circuit
eurrent be?
. In a series RL circuit, the impedance is 15 ohms and the inductive
reactance is 10 ohms. Find the value of R.
. A series LCR circuit has an impedance of 12 ohms, a resistance of
Figure 10-1. Circuit for Question 3. 6 ohms, and an inductive reactance of 3 ohms. What is the capacitive
reactance?
. A 3-branch parallel circuit has 8 ohms of resistance, 12 ohms of in-
ductive reactance, and 6 ohms of capacitive reactance. What is the
Ms impedance of the circuit?
E=]
. What is the phase angle in the circuit of Question 67
4. The resistance of a circuit is halved. What is the effect on power if . If 24 volts is applied to the circuit, what is the current?
the voltage remains the same?
CHAPTER6
The voltage applied to a circuit is doubled. What effect does this have
. A broadcast station has a carrier frequency of 650 kilohertz. What
5,

on the power dissipated?

is its wavelength in meters?
. A resistor has 25 volts across it and a current of 20 mA through it.
. What is the wavelength in feet of a 2200-kHz signal?
How much power must it dissipate?
. A signal has a wavelength of 2 feet. What is its frequency?
. A heating device is rated at 120 volts and has a resistance of 20 chms.
What is its power dissipation? . What is the period of a 4-megahertz signal?
. Two 500-ohm, 10-watt resistors are connected in parallel. What is the . Each cycle of a certain signal has a duration of 250 microseconds.
total power-dissipation capability of the circuit? What is the frequency?
. A signal has a period of 25 nanoseconds. What is the wavelength in
CHAPTER 4
centimeters?
. What is the resistance of a copper wire that has a length of 30 feet
. The wavelength of certain X rays is 3 x 10° millimeters. What is the
and a diameter of 15 mils?
frequency in terahertz? (See list of prefixes in Chapter 1.)
. A conductor has a resistance of 250 ohms. If the length is doubled and
the diameter halved, what is its new resistance? CHAPTER 7F

. If the diameter of a conductor is tripled, how is the resistance . The core permeability of a 1-henry coil is quadrupled. What is the
affected? new inductance of the coil?

. What is the total resistance of five 2000-ohm resistors connected in . A 200-turn coil has an inductance of 250 millihenrys. What is the in-
parallel? ductance if the number of turns is increased to 2507

. A parallel combination of resistors is made up of a 50-ohm, a 150-ochm, 3. What is the inductive reactance of a 250-yH coil to a 300-kHz signal?
and a 200-ohm resistor. What is the resistance of the combination? 4. Three coils are connected in series, with no mutual coupling. If their
. Two parallel resistors have a total resistance of 750 ohms. One of the inductances are 1 henry, 500 millihenrys, and 1000 microhenrys, what
resistors is 1000 ohms. What is the value of the other? is the total inductance of the combination?

106 107
 . Two coils have a total inductance of 12 henrys when connected series-
aiding and 8 henrys when connected series-opposing. What is the
mutual inductance between them?
' The inductive reactance of a coil is 1500 ohms and its effective re-
sistance is 50 ohms. What is its Q?
What is the time constant of a circuit containing a 5-henry coil in APPENDIX
series with 2000 ohms of resistance?
A step-down transformer having a 6-to-1 turns ratio is operated with
8 primary voltage of 220 volts. What is the secondary voltage?
CHAPTER & FRACTIONAL INCH, DECIMAL,
If the distance between the plates of a capacitor is halved, how will AND MILLIMETER EQUIVALENTS
this affect the capacitance?
A .05-1F capacitor has a reactance of 60 ohms to an applied signal.
What is the frequency of the signal?
. At 600 kHz a capacitor has a reactance of 150 ohms. What is the
capacitance?
. A 16-uF capacitor is connected in series with a 4-uF unit. What is the
total capacitance of the combination?
. Three capacitors, 8, 12, and 16 pF, are connected in series. Find the
total capacitance.
If 300 volts is connected across the series combination in the preced-
ing questions, what is the voltage across the 12-4F capacitor?
. Three capacitors having reactances of 12, 24, and 36 ohms are con-
nected in parallel. What is their total reactance?
Four parallel capacitors of equal capacitance have a total reactance
of 80 ohms. What is the reactance of each?
CHAPTER #
What is the resonant frequency of a series circuit consisting of an
inductance of 100 »H, a capacitance of 300 pF, and a resistance of
10 ohms?
What effect would increasing the resistance in Question 1 have on the
resonant frequency? What effect would it have on the Q?
. If 100 volts is applied to the circuit described in Question 1, what
voltage drops would be developed across R, L, and C?
4. What value of capacitance is needed to resonate with an inductance
of 200 nH at 600 kHz?
6. What is the total effective reactance in the tank circuit of a parallel-
resonant cireuit?
6, Considering the circuit of Question 4 as a parallel-resonant circuit,
find its impedance. The parallel resistance is equal to 10 ohms.
7. State the formula for the dB ratio between two voltage levels.
8. What is the zero reference level for the volume unit (VU)?

109
 L R
INDEX Lambda, 67 Reactance
Literal equations, 30-31 capacitive, #3-85
Lagging voltage, 53 inductive, 71-72
Leading voltage, bo Reactive units, 14-15
Length, units of, 15 Reciprocals, powers of ten, 12
Level, sero, 101-102 Resistivity constants, 43
A F Like terma,21 Resisto
ra
Factoring, 28 M phn -
Ac
average values, 61-2 Factor, power, 65 Mensurement, uniia of, 15-17 Rachace
circuits, 53-54 Factors affecting capacitance, 62-8 Mho, 1a parallel, 96-99
effective values, §2-i3 paras, ue eeneeanial, 21 serien, 94-96
power, H2-63 orm las ultiplication and division of algebrai: c Review quiz, 106-100
Addition and subtraction ac es terms, 23-28 =
of algebraic terms, 22 nveroge value of, 6 Multiplication, powers of ten, 10-11 5
powert of ten, #10 effective value of, 52 Mutual inductance, 73 Serica
Algebraic expression, 21 peak and instantenots values, 59 cacshiccs: seas
Algebraic terms chipachames, 32-83 N circuits 55-59
addition and subtraction, 22 capmcitive reactance, A3-f4 Negative numbera, 15-20 Ohm's law for, 24.26
multiplication and division, 23-28 charge on a capacitor, 90-91 Negative power of ten, 9 -parallel circuit, Ohm's law for, 36-35
Ampere, 13 condiuctanes, 48
resistors, 44-45
APMrent power, iit] decibel, 100 o
reonanece, $4.08
Average values, AC, 51-52 enerey, 42 Ohm, 13 Squares and square roots, powers of ten, 12
stored in # coil, 768 Ohm's law
impedance Successive stages, 104
Parallel circuits, 35-26 Sum, 18
Bane, 21 parnilel cirewit, 60 bower, $9.42
Binomial, 21 series clreult, 55 series circuit, i435. T
ratio of «a transformer, TH series-paraliel circuits, 36-25
a inductance, 70
Term,21
Capacitance, 52-3 inductive resetanee, 71 Pp Terminology, 20-21
Time constant, 77-78, 80-93
factors affecting, 22-54 in series, Th Parallel
Capacitive reactance, £3-35 mutual inductanes, T2-75 Tranaformer efficiency, 80-3)
capacitors, 85-f0 Transformers, 79-51
Capacitors qerallel cincuita, 6052
capacitors, 58
Trinomial,21
parallel, F5-50 Ohm's law for, $5.36
nerhes, B6-88 resistors, 40h resistors, 45
True power, 62
Charge and energy, 90-91 reaonanes, 87 Turns and impedance, 79-80
Pesonanee, SiH
Circuits period, 6 Permenhility, 70 U
AC, 5a-i4 power, 35 Polynomial, 21
power factor, 62 Units
parallel, 60-62 Positive power of ten, of length, 15
peries, h0-[t Q of a eoll, 76-77
Coefficient, 21 risistance. of measurement, 13-17
Unlike terms, 21
Combinations, inductive, T4-76 of wire, 44
Cambining terme, 22-27 parabbel cirewite, 35
v
Conductance, 45-49 sérics cireult, 34
Volt, 13
Constente series Ohm's law for, 25-42
dielectric, 34 capechior, 56 trun, 62 Ww
resistivity, 43 resistors, didi Powers of ten, 7 Watt, 14
time, TT-78, ¥1-94 resonance, i addition and subtraction, 9-10
time constant, 17, 11-02 Wiatt-hour, 14
Converting numbers to powers of ben, 3-0 division of, 11-12
Coulomb, 13 transformer eMficigney, E081 Wavelongth, 66
multiplication of, 1-11
Crele, 14 voltage, 35 recipricals of, 12
wavelength, 67 Zz
aquare) and square roots of, 1% Zero level, 101-102
D Fractional equations, 11-03 Prefixes, 16-17
Decibels, 99-101 Frequency, (6-69
Dielectric constants, 83
Differenee, 19
Division, powers of ten, 11-12 Henry, 14
Horsepower, 14
E
Effective valued, AC, 2-52
Efficieney, transformer, BiH Inductance, TO-BL
Energy and @, 16-77 mutal, TH-76
Equations, 25-32 Inductive reactoncoe, 71-72
fractiongl, 21-35 Inductor combinations, 73-76
literal, 30-31 Inverse problema, 102-104
with radicals, #4
Eaponent, 21 z|
Expression, algebraic, 21 Joule, 14

110
1