CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT

2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)

TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC VECTORS (BASIC) 2023/JC1

Chapter Opener

Role of Vectors in Insect Navigation

The main navigation mechanism used by most insects, is called path integration. This involves a zig-
zag path which can be modelled as a series of vectors added together.

For example, biologists believe that ants can measure direction and distance which helps them
represent each step in a foraging path through use of a vector. Neural processing enables them to add
vectors as they go along, so they always know how to get back home quickly when they have found
food, or if they are attacked by a predator.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

Mastery Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, I should be able to :

 x

 understand and use notations for vectors, such as a (printed), a (written), AB ,  y  ,
 z
 
xi  yj  zk .
 perform addition and subtraction of vectors, and provide geometrical interpretation.
 perform multiplication of a vector by a scalar, and provide geometrical interpretation.
 find position vectors, displacement vectors and direction vectors.
 calculate the magnitude of a given vector.
 find the unit vector of a given vector.
 find the distance between two points.
 represent a vector problem using a diagram to aid visualization.
 determine whether three points are collinear.
 apply the ratio theorem in order to obtain the position vector of a point that divides a line
segment with a given ratio.
 solve a two-dimensional vector geometry problem, by formulating a vector equation with
two non-zero, non-parallel abstract vectors as base vectors, and equating corresponding
coefficients of respective base vectors to solve the problem.
Scalar product:
 define and calculate the scalar product between two vectors.
 manipulate vector expressions that involve the scalar product, applying properties of the
scalar product.
 calculate the angle between two vectors.
 describe the geometrical meaning of a  nˆ , where n̂ is a unit vector, and relate it to the
length of projection.
 construct the projection vector of a vector onto another vector.
Vector product:
 define and calculate the vector product between two vectors.
 manipulate vector expressions that involve the vector product, applying properties of the
vector product.
 describe the geometrical meaning of a  b , relating it to the area of the parallelogram
defined by vectors a and b.
 describe the geometrical meaning of a  nˆ , where n̂ is a unit vector, and relate it to
perpendicular distance.

Pre-requisites:
 Basic trigonometry
 Vectors in two-dimensions (O Level Math)

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

1 Terminology, Notation and Definitions

1.1 Scalar
A scalar is a quantity which has only magnitude.
Certain physical quantities such as mass, area, volume, strength of earthquake, pollution index,
energy, the absolute temperature, distance or speed only have magnitude. These quantities can
be represented by numbers alone, with the appropriate units, and they are called scalars.

1.2 Vector
A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction.
There are other physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction; the magnitude
can stretch or shrink, and the direction can reverse. These quantities can be added in such a way
that takes into account both direction and magnitude. Force is an example of a quantity that acts
in a certain direction with some magnitude that is measured in Newtons. When two forces act
on an object, the sum of the forces depends on both the direction and magnitude of the two
forces. Position, displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum and torque are all
physical quantities that can be mathematically represented by vectors.
1.3 Representation of a Vector
A vector can be represented by a directed line segment or an arrow that points in the direction
of the vector, with the length representing the magnitude of the vector.
A vector is denoted by symbol a (printed) or a (written). a

 Remark: In print, a small letter styled in boldface (as in a ) is used for representing a vector,
and in writing, a tilde ~ is put beneath the letter (as in a ). They are equivalent.

Practise now: How do you write the following vectors?
(a) p Written form:
(b) 0 Written form:
1.4 Free Vector
A free vector is a vector of which only the magnitude and direction are specified.
It does not have any fixed initial point, nor any fixed terminal point.

1.5 Position Vector

A position vector defines the position of one point relative z
to the origin O. A
The position vector of a point A relative to origin O is O y

denoted by OA .
x
1.6 Displacement Vector

A displacement vector AB defines the position of one point B relative
to another given point A, which is not necessarily the origin O. B

AB has initial point A and terminal point B. A

1.7 Direction Vector

A direction vector (usually associated with a given line) is obtained using displacement vector
 
AB , where A and B are two distinct points on the line. Any vector parallel to AB is also a
direction vector of the given line.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

2 Vector Algebra

2.1 Modulus of a Vector

The modulus of a vector a The modulus of vector

is its magnitude or length, AB is denoted by B
denoted by a . 
a AB or AB .
A

2.2 Equal Vectors

Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and same direction. They
need not be in the same position or have the same initial point.

Vectors a , b and PQ are equal as they have the

same magnitude and direction. We write a  b  PQ .

Meanwhile, vectors b and c do not have the same

direction even though they have the same magnitude.
They are not equal, and we write b  c .

2.3 Vector Addition

Given two vectors a and b , positioned such that the
initial point of b is at the terminal point of a , then the
resultant vector a  b is the vector from the initial point
of a to the terminal point of b as shown.

This is known as the Triangle Law of Vector Addition.

Properties of Vector Addition
Drawing another copy of a and b in the reverse order
to represent the vector b  a , with the initial points of
both sums placed together completes a parallelogram.
(i) We see that ab ba
(Commutative Law of Vector Addition)
as well as another way to construct the vector sum. If a and b are placed such that they
start at the same point, then a  b lies along the diagonal of the parallelogram with a and
b as its sides. (This is known as the Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition.)
(ii) When three or more vectors are added, their sum
is independent of the way in which the individual
vectors are grouped together. This is
geometrically demonstrated in the figure on the
right, for three vectors.

a  b  c   a  b   c  a   b  c
(Associative Law of Vector Addition)

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)
Pause and Think: When a vector b is added to another vector a , under which condition does the
resultant vector sum a  b have magnitude a  b  a  b ?
(1) a and b are parallel and in the same direction
(2) a and b are parallel and in opposite directions
(3) a and b are perpendicular Answer : (1)
 Remark: In general, the vector sum a  b has a length which satisfies the following inequality:
ab  ab  a  b .

Worked Example 1: The helicopter view shows two people pulling on a stubborn mule.
Find the single force that is equivalent to the two forces shown.
The forces are measured in units of newtons (abbreviated by N).
Solution:
The single force that is equivalent to the forces F1 and F2 ,
 
is the vector sum of the two forces F1  F2 .
 

120 N
80.0 N α

75.0° 60.0° x

By the cosine rule,

2 2 2
F1  F2  F1  F2  2 F1 F2 cos 
     
The angle  = 75.0  60.0  135.0
2
F1  F2  (120 N) 2  (80.0 N) 2  2(120 N)(80.0 N) cos135.0
 
 34,376.4... N 2

 The magnitude of the vector sum, F1  F2  185.40... N

 
sin  sin  sin  sin135.0
Applying sine rule,   
F2 F1  F2 80.0N 185.40...N
  
 80.0 sin135.0 
   sin 1    17.764...
 185.40... 
The resultant force has a magnitude of 185 N (3 s.f.) , acting in a direction that is
17.764...  60.0  77.8 (1 d.p.) anti-clockwise from the direction of the positive x-axis.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

2.4 Zero (Null) Vector

The zero (also known as null) vector is a vector of zero magnitude or length, denoted by 0 or
0 . Geometrically it is just a point, and it is the only vector with no specific direction. It is also

the unique vector such that a  0  0  a  a .

2.5 Negative Vector

The negative vector of a , written as a , is defined as the
vector with the same magnitude as a , pointing in the
 
opposite direction. Therefore, if OA  a , then AO  a .

For each vector a , a is the unique vector such that a  ( a ) = 0 , the zero vector.

2.6 Vectors Subtraction

The vector subtraction of b from a , denoted by a  b is
defined as the vector sum of a and b , i.e. a  b  a   b  .

The vector a  b could be constructed by first drawing the

negative vector of b , b , and then adding it to a by the
Parallelogram Law.
Alternatively, since b  (a  b)  a ,
a  b is the vector that must be added to b to obtain a , and
can also be constructed by means of the Triangle Law.
If both a and b start from the same initial point, then a  b
connects the tip (terminal point) of b to the tip of a .

 Remark: Often, it is helpful to express a given vector either as the sum or the difference of
two other vectors. Consider vectors representing the sides of a triangle OAB.
B   
OA  AB  OB
  
OB  BA  OA
  
AO  OB  AB
O A
     
Generalising, AX  XB  AB  AB  XB  XA where X is any point.

In general, any vector AB can always be expressed as a sum or a difference of two
    
vectors (a frequently used result) : AB  AX  XB  XB  XA where X is any point.

For example, vector AB could be expressed B
as any of the following:
    Q
 AO  OB or OB  OA
   
 AP  PB or PB  PA P
   
 AQ  QB or QB  QA .
O A

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

2.7 Scalar Multiplication

If  is a scalar (real number) and a is a vector, then the scalar multiple  a is the vector
whose length is  times the length of a , and whose direction is the same as a if   0 and
opposite to a if   0 .
If   0 or a  0 , then  a  0 .

Properties of Scalar Multiplication

Let m and n be two scalars (real values) and a and b be two vectors.
(i) ma  am

(ii)  mn  a  m  na   n  ma 
(Associative Law for Scalar Multiplication)
The order of multiplication does not matter.
(iii)  m  n  a  ma  na (Distributive Law of Scalar Multiplication over Addition of Scalars)

(iv) m  a  b   ma  mb (Distributive Law of Scalar Multiplication over Addition of Vectors)

2.8 Unit Vector

A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is unity, i.e. 1.
The unit vector in the direction of a non-zero vector a ,
a a
denoted by â or â , is given by aˆ  .
 a
The equation a  a aˆ expresses the vector a as a product of its length or magnitude a and
its direction that is given by the unit vector â .

 Remark: Any vector b that is in same direction as a can be written as b aˆ .

For example, if b is in same direction as a and has magnitude 6, then b  6aˆ .

2.9 Parallel Vectors

Two non-zero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if a  kb for some scalar k   \ 0 .

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

Worked Example 2: (Self-Directed Learning) Show that the line segment joining the midpoint of
two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half its length.
Solution:
Consider any triangle ABC. Problem Solving Tip: Understanding the Problem :
Draw a diagram.
Let M and N be the mid-points of AB and AC
respectively.
   B
MN  MA  AN
1  1 
 BA  AC M
2 2
1  

 BA  AC
2

1 
A N C
 BC
2
Therefore MN / / BC , and
 1  1
MN  BC , i.e. MN  BC . (shown)
2 2

3 Collinearity Theorem

Consider three distinct points A , B and C lying on straight line. i.e. they are collinear.

A B

Then line segment AB is parallel to line segment BC .

   
AB is parallel to BC . Hence, AB  k BC , for some k   \ 0 .
   
Conversely, if AB  k BC , for some k   \ 0 , then AB is parallel to BC .
Hence, the line segment AB is parallel to line segment BC . Observe that point B is common to both
line segments AB and BC . Therefore the three points A , B and C must lie on a straight line.

Three distinct points A , B and C are collinear, i.e lie on a straight line,
 
if and only if AB  k BC , for some k   \ 0 .

 Remark: If three distinct points A , B and C are collinear, we could also write
 
 AB   AC , for some    \ 0
 
 AC   BC , for some    \ 0 , so long as a common point exists on both sides.

 Self-Practice: Which of the following condition must be true when three distinct points A , B
and C are collinear ?
 
(1) OA  k BC , k   \ 0
 
(2) AB  k AC , k   \ 0
 

(3) OA  kOB , k   \ 0
Answer: (2)

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

 
Worked Example 3: If O, A, B and C are 4 distinct points such that OA  10a , OB  5b ,

OC  4a  3b . Show that A, B and C are collinear.

Problem Solving Tip: Heuristic: Restate the problem:

 
To show that AB is parallel to AC, is the same as showing that AB  k AC for some scalar k .

Solution:


 
 

AB  OB  OA  5b  10a  5  b  2a 
   

 
 

AC  OC  OA  4a  3b  10a  3  b  2a 
    
3 3 
 5  b  2a   AB
5   5

 5 
 AB  AC  AB // AC  A, B and C are collinear
3

Worked Example 4: (Self-Directed Learning) ABCD is a parallelogram. E is the mid-points of

AB, and F is a point on DE such that DE  3FE . Show that A, F and C are
collinear.

Problem Solving Tip: Understand Problem: Draw diagram.


 

Heuristic: Restate the problem: Show AF  k AC for some scalar k .

Solution:

 

Let AB  p and AD  q . D C
 


 AC  p  q
 

  F
AF  q  DF

2  A E B
 q  DE
 3
2  

 q  AE  AD
 3

21  1

1 
 q   p  q   p  q  AC
 32   3   3

Hence AF // AC  A , F and C are collinear.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

4 Ratio Theorem

Let A and B be two distinct points forming a line segment AB, A  P  B

and P be the point that divides AB internally in the ratio  :  .
   p
Let OA  a , OB  b and OP  p . a b

Since A, P, B are collinear,

A  P  B O
  
AP  AB

   p
b
 (OB  OA) a


As such,
   O
OP  OA  AP
    
(   ) OA  (OB  OA)   OA   OB
   OP  a  b
    p [in MF26]


This result (the Ratio Theorem) could alternatively be proven using similar triangles.

Proof: (Self-Directed Learning)

Construct a line parallel to OB passing through P A  P  B

that meets OA at C, and another line parallel to
p
OA passing through P that meets OB at D. a b

OAB, CAP and DPB are similar triangles ,

C
where AB : AP : PB D
 (   ) :  : 
O
CP OB    DP OA   
Hence,  . CP  OB . Also,  . DP  OA .
      

By the Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition,

  
OP  OC  OD
 
 DP  CP
     a  b
OP  OA  OB  p  (proven)
  

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

Worked Example 5: Given that a and b are the position vectors of the points A and B
respectively relative to the origin O. Find, in terms of a and b the position
vectors of the following points:
(a) P which divides AB in the ratio 3 : 7 .
AR 3
(b) R which lies on BA produced such that = .
BR 7
AQ 7
(c) Q which lies on AB produced such that = .
BQ 3

Problem Solving Tip: Heuristic: Draw a diagram in each situation.

Solution:
3
(a) By the Ratio Theorem 
A
 7a  3b 7 3 7
OP     a b 
73 10  10  P

(b) From the diagram, A divides RB in the ratio 3 : 4. 3 

 B
By the Ratio Theorem R


4 OR  3b 
a  A
 43
 7 3 7 
 OR  a  b
4 4 B
(c) From the diagram, B divides AQ in the ratio 4 : 3. 
A
By the Ratio Theorem

 3
4 OQ  3a
b  
 43 B
 7 3 7 
 OQ  b  a Q
4 4

 Remarks: 1. Check that all vectors start from the same point first before applying Ratio
Theorem.
2. The ratio theorem works for any triangle involving general point C that replaces
the origin. For example,
A  P  B

 


  CA   CB
CP 

C
ab
3. When    , P is the midpoint of AB and p  , which is the Midpoint
2
Theorem.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

5 Vectors for Two-Dimensional Plane

Consider a pair of non-zero, non-parallel vectors a and b.

Pause and think:

(i) In the diagram, draw a parallelogram with vector u as its diagonal and sides parallel to vectors
a or b. Could we find a second parallelogram that would take u as its diagonal, with sides
parallel to vectors a or b ?

v
b

(ii) Repeat the above with a different vector v.

Draw another such parallelogram with vector v as its diagonal, and sides parallel to vectors a or
b. Could we find a second parallelogram that would take v as its diagonal ?

Two Important Observations:

(i) For any vector u in the same plane as vectors a and b, there’s a u
parallelogram with sides parallel to a or b, taking u as its
diagonal. By the Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition, vector u
can be expressed as a vector sum of some scalar multiple a and
some scalar multiple  b .

u  a   b for some scalars  ,    .

( i.e. u is a linear combination of a and b. )

(ii) There is no other parallelogram that would take u as its diagonal, with sides parallel to vectors
a or b. There is one and only one way to draw the desired parallelogram. If someone says that
u = 1a + 1b and another person says u = 2a + 2b, then it must mean that
1  2 and 1   2 .

Given two non-zero, non-parallel vectors a and b ,

(i) For any vector r lying in the same plane as vectors a and b, r can be expressed as  a   b
for some scalars  ,  .
(ii) For any scalars 1 , 2 , 1 ,  2 , 1a  1b  2a  2 b   1  2 and 1  2  .

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

Worked Example 6: Find the values of  and  , given that a and b are non-zero and non-parallel.
(a)  a  3 b   b  2 a  8b  5a
(b) (8   )a  (   2)b  0
Solution:
(a)  a  3 b   b  2  a  8b  5a
     
   2   5 & 3    8
 6   15    8
   1 and   3
(b) (8   ) a  (   2) b  0a  0b
   
 8    0 and   2  0
   8 and   2

Worked Example 7: (Self-Directed Learning) Given that non-zero, non-parallel vectors a and b
are the position vectors of the points A and B respectively relative to the
origin O. The point P is the mid-point of AB and Q is the mid-point of OP.
The line AQ produced cuts OB at R.
Find, in terms of a and b, A
(i) the position vector of Q relative to O

(ii) the vector AQ .
 1
Prove that OR  b and find AQ : QR . P
3 Q
Solution:

 1a  1b
(i) OP    (by Ratio Theorem)
2 O R B

 1  1 1
OQ  OP  a  b
2 4 4 Problem Solving Tip: Heuristic: Draw a

    1 1 3 1 diagram.
(ii) AQ  OQ  OA  a  b  a   a  b
4 4  4 4
Important Heuristic: Use the fact that R is on both OB as well as AQ produced.


R is on OB : OR  k b for some scalar k - - - (1)

  3 
R is on AQ produced: AR   AQ   a  b for some  - - - (2)
4  4

    3 
From (2), OR  OA  AR  a  a  b
 4  4
 3  
Combining with (1), we get k b  1   a  b
  4  4 
Since a and b are non-parallel, by comparing coefficients
 
 3 4 1
k  and 0  1    and k  .
4 4 3 3
 1 4
 OR  b (proven) &    AQ : QR = 3 : 1
3 3

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

Worked Example 8: Centroid of a Triangle (Self-Directed Learning)

Consider any triangle, and choose one of the vertices A
to be origin O, labelling the two other vertices as A,
B. A median of the triangle is a line segment that
joins a vertex (O, A or B) to the midpoint of the
opposite side. e.g. AM is a median of triangle OAB R N
from vertex A. G

Let G be the point of intersection between two

medians of triangle OAB from vertices A and B.
B O
(i) Express the position vector of G in terms of M
the position vectors of the vertices A and B.
(ii) Determine the ratio AG : GM.
(iii) Show that G also lies on the median of triangle OAB from vertex O (i.e. origin).

Solution:
(i) Let a and b respectively be the position vectors of A and B with respect to origin O.
   1  1
Since N is the midpoint of OA, ON  a . Likewise, OM  b .
2 2
 
Since A, G and M lie on the same line (i.e. A, G, M are collinear) , AG   AM for some
scalar  .
  
The position vector of G, OG  OA  AG

 a   AM
  

 a   OM  OA


1  
 a    b  a   (1   ) a  b
 2    2
 
Furthermore, since B, G and N lie on the same line (i.e. B, G, N are collinear), BG   BN for
some scalar  .
  
The position vector of G, OG  OB  BG

 b   BN
  

 b   ON  OB


1  
 b    a  b   a  (1   ) b
 2   2 

  
Since OG  (1   ) a  b  a  (1   ) b ,
 2 2 
and since a, b are non-parallel, by comparing coefficients
 
1    12  1
   1
1  2 1  12   12   0 ,    , 1    12 
2  1    2  1
 1 1
   23 ,   23  OG  a  b
3 3

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

 2 
(ii) Since AG  AM , AG : AM  2 : 3
3
 AG : GM  2 :1

(iii)
Problem Solving Tip: Understand the Problem: Show that G lies on the median from vertex O.
Heuristic: Restate the Problem: Show that O, G, R, lie on the same line.

 

Devise a Plan: Show OG  k OR for some scalar k .

 1 1 1
By the Midpoint Theorem, OR  (a  b) = a  b .
2   2 2
 1 1 1
OG  a  b  (a  b)
3 3 3  
21 1 
  a  b
3 2  2 
2 
 OR
3

Hence G (the point of intersection of two medians of triangle OAB respectively from vertices A
and B), lies on the median from vertex O too ! (shown)

 Remark: In general, the vertex of the triangle taken to be

A
origin O can be relabelled with a different letter
(e.g. C).
Given any triangle ABC in general, the three 2
medians of the triangle intersect one another at a R N
G
common point, which is known as the centroid of
the triangle.
1
The centroid is located at two thirds the distance B C
from each vertex to the midpoint of the opposite M
side.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

6 Vectors in the Cartesian Coordinate System

6.1 Vectors in Two Dimensions (Recap from O Level Math)

x
Let i be the unit direction vector in the direction of the positive x-axis and
j be the unit direction vector in the direction of the positive y-axis.

The position vector of a point A with coordinates  4,3 is written as OA .

By using triangle law of addition, OA  4i  3j .
  4 
For convenience, we can also write OA    .
 3

Using Pythagoras Theorem, OA  4  32  5 .
2

  x 
In general, the position vector of a point P with coordinates  x, y  is OP    and
 y

OP  x 2  y 2 .

1 0
 Remark: i    and j    .
0 1

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

6.2 Vectors in Three Dimensions (3-D)

We can extend the previous results to three dimensions.

Let i be the unit direction vector in the direction of the positive x-axis,
j be the unit direction vector in the direction of the positive y-axis and
k be the unit direction vector in the direction of the positive z-axis.

The three axes are mutually perpendicular to one another.

In general, the position vector of a point P with coordinates  x, y, z  is

 x 
  
OP  xi  yj  zk   y  and OP  x 2  y 2  z 2 .
z
 
For example, if point A has coordinates  4, 3, 5 ,
 4 

then OA  4i  3 j  5k   3  and OA  42  32  52  5 2 .
5
 

Proof for understanding


In the diagram below, using triangle law of addition, OR  xi  yj .
  
Similarly, OP  OR  RP .
 
RP is parallel to the z-axis, hence RP  zk .

x

 OP   xi  yj  zk  xi  yj  zk   y  .
z
 
 2
Using the Pythagoras’s theorem on right-angled OAR , OR  x 2  y 2 .
 2  2  2
Using the Pythagoras’s theorem on right-angled ORP , OP  OR  RP   x 2  y 2   z 2 .

 z - axis
 OP  x 2  y 2  z 2 .
C (0, 0, z)
z

P(x, y, z)

r
k
j y
i y - axis
O B (0, y, 0)

x
A (x, 0, 0) R(x, y, 0)
x - axis
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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

 Remarks:
1 0 0
 ,   and  
1. i   0 j  1 k  0 .
 0 0 1 z
     

2. The direction of the positive z-axis is determined

by the right-hand rule as illustrated. If you curl the k
fingers of your right hand around the z-axis in the O
i y
direction of a 90 anticlockwise rotation from the j
positive x-axis to the positive y-axis, then your x
thumb points in the positive direction of the z-axis.

6.3 Some Results

Given two points A  x1 , y1 , z1  and B  x2 , y2 , z2  .

 x1 
  
(i) OA  x1i  y1 j  z1k   y1  .
z 
 1

(ii) OA  x1  y1  z1 .
2 2 2

  x1 
 OA 1  .
(iii) Unit vector in direction of OA is   y
2  1
OA x1  y1  z1  
2 2

 z1 
 x1   kx1 
    
(iv) kOA  k  y1    ky1  , k   .
 z   kz 
 1  1
 x1   x2   x1  x2
      
(v) OA  OB   y1    y2    y1  y 2 .
z  z  
 1  2  z1  z 2
 x1   x2   x1  x2 
       
(vi) OA  OB   x1i  y1 j  z1k    x2 i  y2 j  z2 k    y1    y2    y1  y2  .
z  z  z z 
 1  2  1 2 

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

Worked Example 9: A point A has coordinates 1,2,3 . Find


(i) OA ,

(ii) OA ,

(iii) the unit direction vector in direction of OA and

(iv) a vector of magnitude 4 units in the direction of OA .
Solution:
1
  
(i) OA  i  2 j  3k   2 
    
 3

(ii) OA  12  22  32  14

  1 1

OA 1   14  
(iii) Unit direction vector in direction of OA    2  2
OA 14   14  
 3  
  3

 1 1
  14    2 14  
(iv) A vector of magnitude 4 units in the direction vector of OA  4aˆ  4   2  7  2
  14  3    3
    

Worked Example 10: Given 4 points A 1, 2, 2 , B  4, 5, 7  , C  7, 8, 12  and D 1, 2, 4 .

(i) Show that A , B and C are collinear.
(ii) Show that A , B and D are not collinear.
Solution:
 4  1 3
  
(i) AB  OB  OA   5    2    3 
 7   2  5
     
 7  1  6   3
           
AC  OC  OA   8    2    6   2  3   2 AB
 12   2   10  5
       
 
Since AC  2 AB , A, B and C are collinear.

1 1  0
        
(ii) AD  OD  OA   2    2    0 
 4  2  2
     
 
Since AD  k AB, for all k   \ 0 , A, B and D are not collinear.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

 Self-Practice:
 1  1 5


       
For the points A, B, C and D with position vectors OA   4  , OB   5  , OC   7  and
 3   2  0
     
 2

 
OD   1  , evaluate the following,
1
 
   
(i) AB (ii) BC (iii) 2 AB (iv) DB .

Hence or otherwise, determine

(v) if A, B and C are collinear,
(vi) the shape of OABD.
Answers:
2 4 4  1 
(i)  1  (ii)  2  (iii)  2  (iv)  4 
1 2 2  3 
       
(v) Yes (vi) Parallelogram

Worked Example 11: Given the line segment AB , where A and B have coordinates (3, 1, 2) and
(2, 3, 5) respectively, find the coordinates of the point P which lies on.
(i) (Self-Directed Learning) AB with the ratio AP : PB  2 : 3 .
(ii) AB produced with the ratio AP : PB  2 :1 .
Solution:
(i) (Self-Directed Learning)
A 2 P 3 B Problem Solving Tip: Heuristic:
Draw a diagram.

O
By the Ratio Theorem,

 Coordinates of P is .

A 1 B 1 P
(ii) Problem Solving Tip: Heuristic:
Draw a diagram.

O
By the Mid-point Theorem,

 Coordinates of P is . Page | 20
 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

7 Scalar Product (or Dot Product)

So far we have dealt with vector operations such as vector addition, subtraction, and scalar
multiplication of vectors. Is there such a concept as the multiplication of two vectors? There are
actually two types of product between two vectors –– the scalar product and the vector product.

7.1 Definition of Scalar Product

The scalar product of two vectors a and b is defined as

a  b  a b cos

where  is the angle between a and b , and 0    180 .

The scalar (or dot) product takes any two vectors and generates a scalar quantity (a number).
Online Resource: https://tube.geogebra.org/material/simple/id/261171

 Remark: The angle,  , between two vectors is taken to be the angle formed when both
vectors are joined so that they diverge from (or converge to) the same point.

e.g. a a b
or a
b
b

e.g. b
a a
a or
b
b

7.2 Properties of Scalar Product

Given three non-zero vectors a , b and c .

Properties Proof for Understanding (Self-Directed Learning)
2 2
(i) aa  a a  a  a a cos 0  a

(ii) a  b  a b if and only if Let the angle between a and b be  .

a and b are parallel to each ab  a b
other. a b cos  a b
cos  1
  0 or π
Therefore a and b are parallel to each other.
Conversely, if a and b are parallel to each other,
the angle between them is either 0 or π . cos0  1
and cos π  1 . Hence

a  b  a b cos0  a b or a  b  a b cos π   a b .

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)
Properties Proof for Understanding (Self-Directed Learning)
(iii) a  b  0 if and only if Let the angle between a and b be  .
a and b are perpendicular to ab  0
each other. a b cos  0
cos   0
π

2
Conversely, if a and b are perpendicular to each
π
other, the angle between them is .
2
π
a  b  a b cos  0
2

(iv) Let the angle between vectors a a  b  a b cos

and b be  .
cos  0 if and only if  is acute
a  b  0 if and only if  is acute Since 
 cos   0 if and only if  is obtuse
a  b  0 if and only if  is obtuse
a  b  0 if and only if  is acute
hence 
a  b  0 if and only if  is obtuse

(v) ab  ba a  b  a b cos 

(Commutative Law of Scalar
b  a  b a cos 
Product)
a b  b a

(vi) a   kb   k  a  b    ka   b a   kb   a kb cos
(Associative Law)  k a b cos  k  a  b 
 ka b cos   ka   b

(vii) a   b  c   a  b  a  c The proof requires length of projection which will be

covered in Section 7.4.2.
(Distributive Law of Scalar
Product over Addition of Vectors) The proof is available at
http://www.citycollegiate.com/vectorXIi.htm

 Remarks: 1. Since i, j and k are unit vectors, i  i  j  j  k  k  1 . k

j
2. Since i, j and k are mutually perpendicular to each other,
i  j  jk  k i  0 . i

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

7.3 Scalar product in Three-Dimensional Space with Cartesian Coordinates

 a1   b1 
Given two vectors in column form a   a2  and b   b2  .
 
a  b 
 3  3
In Cartesian form, they are expressed as a  a1i  a2 j  a3k and b  b1i  b2 j  b3k . Then

a  b   a1i  a2 j  a3k    b1i  b2 j  b3k 

 a1i   b1i  b2 j  b3k   a2 j   b1i  b2 j  b3k   a3k   b1i  b2 j  b3k  , using the Distributive property
 a1b1i  i  a1b2 i  j  a1b3i  k  a2b1 j  i  a2 b2 j  j  a2b3 j  k  a3b1k  i  a3b2k  j  a3b3k  k
 a1b1 1  0  0  0  a2 b2 1  0  0  0  a3b3 1
 a1b1  a2b2  a3b3
 a1   b1 
Therefore, given two vectors a   a2  and b   b2  ,
 
a  b 
 3  3
a  b  a1b1  a2 b2  a3b3

Hence a  b  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3  a b cos

1 2
Worked Example 12: Given a   2  and b   3  , find  3a  b    2a  b  .
 
1  1 
   
Solution:

Method : (Self-Directed Learning)

  1   2    1   2 
 3a  b    2a  b   3  2    3     2  2    3  
   
  1   1    1   1 
1  4
   
  3  7 
 4  1 
   
 1 4    3  7    4  1
 29

Method : Using Distributive Law

 3a  b    2a  b   6a  a  3a  b  2b  a  b  b
           
2 2
 6 a a b  b
   
1  2 
2 2 2    
 1   1 

 6 1  2  1    2    3   22  32   1
2

   
 36  1 2    2  3  1  1    14
 36  7  14
 29 Page | 23
 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

 Self-Practice:
If a  i  4 j  k , b  i  j  3k , c  2i  j  5k , find
(i) a  c (ii)  2a  3b   c
Answers:
(i) 11 (ii) − 20

Worked Example 13: (Self-Directed Learning)

1 0
If a   t  and b   1  are perpendicular, find the value of t .
 
 2 2
   
Solution:
Since a  b , a b  0
   
1 0
   
 t  1  0
 2  2
   
t40
t  4

Worked Example 14: [2003/NYJC/I/2]

π
The angle between two non-zero vectors a and b is radians, and the
3
angle between the vectors b and a  b is a right angle. Show that a  2 b .
Solution:
a  b  a b cos  Alternative Method (Using trigo)
   
  b
 a b cos cos  
  3 3 a
1 
 a b  a  2 b (proved)
2    
Question: If shorter solution exists,
why bother to use a longer method?
Also b   a  b  , b   a  b   0
     
ba  bb  0
   2
a b  b  0
  
2
a b  b
  
1 2
 a b  b ,
2   
2
a b 2b .
  
Since b is a non-zero vector, b  0
 
 a  2 b  shown  .
 

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

7.4 Applications of Scalar Product

7.4.1 Angle between Two Vectors

Recall that the scalar product between two vectors a and b is a  b  a b cos , where  is
the angle between vectors a and b . (Refer to Section 7.1). This equation can be rearranged
to make  the subject.
a  b  a b cos
ab
cos  
a b

 a b 
  cos 1  
a b 

 Remark: If cos   0 ,  would be obtuse.

Worked Example 15: (Self-Directed Learning)

1 1
Find the angle between the vectors a   2  and b   3  .
2  4 
   
Solution:

Let the angle between the two vectors be  .

ab  a b cos 
   
1  1  1 1
       
 2 3    2  3  cos 
 2   4   2  4 
       
1  6  8  9  26 cos 
1
cos  
3 26
  93.748 or 1.6362 rad

 Self-Practice:
Calculate the angle between a and b if
(i) a  2i  3j  6k , b  i  j (ii) a  2i  4 j  5k , b  i  3 j  8k

Answers:
(i) 1.67 rad (3 s.f) or 95.8° (1 d.p) (ii) 1.02 rad (3 s.f) or 58.7° (1 d.p)

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

Worked Example 16: The 3 points A , B and C have position vectors i  2 j  3k , i  j  k and
2i  3 j  2k respectively. Find the angle ABC to the nearest 0.1 .

Problem Solving Tip:

Heuristic: Drawing a diagram would be helpful.

A
Solution:

B C

 1   1  0   0
           
BA  OA  OB   2    1   1  & BA   1   02  12  22  5
 3   1  2   2
       
 2  1  1  1
           
BC   2   12  22   3  14
2
BC  OC  OB   3    1    2  &
 2   1   3   3 
       

   

ˆ
BA  BC  BA BC cos ABC
 0  1 
    ˆ
 1    2   5 14 cos ABC
 2   3 
   
ˆ
2  6  5 14 cos ABC
ˆ  4
cos ABC
70
ABC  118.6 1d.p 
ˆ

 Self-Practice: Which of the following is/are correct ?

   
(1) PQ  QR  PQ QR cos PQR ˆ
   
(2) BA  BC  BA BC cos ABC ˆ
   
(3) KM  NM  KM NM cos KMN ˆ

Answer: (2) and (3) only

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

7.4.2 Length of Projection and Component of a Vector in a Given Direction

Let a and b be two non-parallel vectors as shown on the diagram below.
R

(i) The scalar PQ is known as the length of projection of a on b .

PQ  a  b

(ii) The vector PQ is known as the projection of a on b (Component of a parallel to b ).



 
PQ  a  b b

(iii) QR is known as component of a perpendicular to b .

  
 
QR  PR  PQ  a  a  b b

Proof:
Let angle QPR be  .

Case : Angle between a and b is acute.

PQ R
 cos 
PR
PQ  PR cos 

 a cos  (since PR  a)
 a b cos  (since b  1, it will not affect the equation) P

 a  b

 PQ b
Since PQ and b are in the same direction, i.e. they have the same unit vector,   .
PQ b

PQ b
 
PQ b
  b
PQ  PQ
b

 
 a  b b

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

Case : Angle between a and b is obtuse.

PQ
 cos  π   
PR
PQ   PR cos (since cos  π      cos  )

  a cos (since PR  a)
  a b cos (since b  1, it will not affect the equation)

 a  b b


Since PQ and b are in the opposite direction, their unit vectors are also in opposite direction,

PQ b
   .
PQ b
  b
PQ   PQ
b


  a  b
b
b

 
 a  b b

Combining the two cases: PQ  a  b and PQ  a  b b  
By triangle law of addition,
  
PR  PQ  QR

 
a  a  b b  QR

 
QR  a  a  b b

In summary,
Length of projection of a on b  a  b (a scalar)

Projection of a on b  
 a  b b (a vector)
(Component of a parallel to b)

Component of a perpendicular to b  
 a  a  b b (a vector)

 Remark:
It was mentioned, under the remarks of Section 2.8, that :
Any vector b that is in same direction as vector a can be written as b aˆ .
If the angle between vectors a and b is acute, then the projection vector points in the same direction
as a and it is b  aˆ aˆ . If the angle is obtuse, then the projection vector points in the opposite direction
to a and it would be  b  aˆ aˆ .

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)
1  2
Worked Example 17: Given two vectors a   2  and vector b   1  . Find the
 
 2  2
   
(i) length of projection of a on b .
(ii) projection of a on b and
(iii) component of a perpendicular to b .

Solution:

(i) Length of projection of a on b  a  b

    (iii)
1  2
  1   (ii)
  2  1
 2 2 1  2
2 2 2
 2
   
1
 224
3
8

3
(ii)
 
 
Projection of a on b  a  b b
  
  2 
8  1  
   1 
3 3 
  2  
 2
8 
 1
9 
 2
(iii)

 
Component of a perpendicular to b  a  a  b b
    
1  2
  8 
  2   1
 2 9  2
   
 7 
1 
  10 
9 
 2

 Self-Practice:
 1  2
Find the length of projection of the vector a   2  on the vector b   1  .
 
 2  2
   
4
Answer:
3

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

8 Vector Product (or Cross Product)

8.1 Definition of Vector Product

While the scalar product of two vectors produces a scalar, the vector product of two vectors
produces a vector.

The vector (or cross) product of two vectors a and b is

defined as ab

a  b   a b sin   n
where  is the angle between a and b and n  is the unit
a
vector that is perpendicular to both vectors a and b , in
accordance with the right-hand rule.

If the fingers of your right hand curl in the direction of a
rotation (through an angle less than 180 ) from a to b, then
b
your thumb would point in the direction of a  b or n .

 Remarks: 1. a  b produces a vector that is perpendicular to a and b .

2. If a or b is a zero vector, then a  b  0 .

8.2 Properties of Vector Product

Given three non-zero vectors a , b and c .

Properties Proof for Understanding (Self-Directed Learning)

(i) a  b  a b sin  a  b   a b sin   n

a  b  a b sin  n

There is no need to put for sin since

sin   0, for   0, π .
a  b  a b sin  , since n  1

(ii) a and b are parallel If a and b are parallel, the angle  between them is
if and only if a  b  0 either 0 or π .
Since sin0  sin π  0 , a  b   a b  0   n  0 .
In particular, a  a  0
Conversely, if a  b  0 , then a b sin  n  0 .

Since a , b , n̂ are non-zero vectors,

sin  0 , i.e.   0 or π .
a and b are parallel.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

Properties Proof for Understanding (Self-Directed Learning)

(iii) a  b  a b if and only if a  b If a and b are perpendicular to each other, the angle
π
between them is
2
π
a  b  a b sin  a b
2
Conversely, if a  b  a b , then
ab  a b
a b sin   a b
π
sin   1 , 
2

(iv) a  b    b  a Let  be the angle between vectors a and b , and n̂ be

(Anti-commutative property of the unit vector such that
Vector Product)
ab a  b  a b sin  n .
b  a  b a sin  ( n ), using the right-hand rule
  a b sin  n
a
 a  b
  a  b    b  a

b
ba

(v) k  a  b    ka   b  a   kb  k  a  b   k a b sin  n
(Associative Law)  ka b sin  n   ka   b
 a kb sin  n  a   kb 

(vi) a   b  c  a  b  a  c Proof omitted.

b  c  a  b  a  c  a
(Distributive Law of Vector
Product over Addition of Vectors)

Worked Example 18: Given that a  b  c  a , a  0 , and non-parallel vectors b and c, show that a is
parallel to b  c .
Solution:
a  b  ca
   
a  b  c  a   0
    
a  b     a  c  0
      a / /  b  c
a  b  a  c  0   
    
a  b  c  0 Hence a is parallel to b  c (shown).
       Page | 31
 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

 Remarks: 1. Since i is parallel with itself, i  i  0 . So are j and k.

i.e. i  i  j  j  k  k  0 . k
j
2. Since i, j and k are unit vectors mutually perpendicular
to each other as shown, i
i jk , j k  i , k i  j
j  i  k , k  j  i and i  k   j

8.3 Vector product in Three-Dimensional Space with Cartesian Coordinates

 a1   b1 
   
Given two vectors in column form a   a2  and b   b2  .
a  b 
 3  3
Similarly, the Cartesian form is expressed as a  a1i  a2 j  a3k and b  b1i  b2 j  b3k .
Then
a  b   a1i  a2 j  a3k    b1i  b2 j  b3k 
 a1b1i  i  a1b2 i  j  a1b3i  k  a2 b1 j  i  a2 b2 j  j  a2b3 j  k  a3b1k  i  a3b2 k  j  a3b3k  k
using the Distributive property

 
    

 a1b1  0   a1b2  k   a1b3  j  a2b1  k   a2b2  0   a2b3  i   a3b1 j  a3b2   i   a3b3  0 
  
  a2b3  a3b2  i   a1b3  a3b1  j   a1b2  a2b1  k
 a2b3  a3b2 
 
    a1b3  a3b1  
 ab a b 
 1 2 2 1 

 a1   b1   a1   b1   a2 b3  a3b2 
         
Given two vectors a   a2  and b   b2  , a  b   a2    b2    a3b1  a1b3  [In MF 26]
a  b   a  b   a b  a b 
 3  3  3  3  1 2 2 1 

 a2b3  a3b2 
  
Hence a  b   a b sin   n     a1b3  a3b1  
 ab a b 
 1 2 2 1 

Online Resource: https://tube.geogebra.org/material/simple/id/1391655

 2  2
   
Worked Example 19: Find a vector perpendicular to a   1  and b   1  .
1  4
   
Solution:
 2   2   1  4   1  1   3 
       
 1    1      2  4   1  2      6 
 1  4    
      2  1  1  2    0 

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

 Self-Practice: Find the vector product of the following pairs of vectors:

1  5
(i)  1  and  4 
  (ii) 2i  4 j  4k and i  j  k
7  2
   
 30   8 
Answers: (i)  33  (ii)  6 
 9   2 
   

8.4 Applications of Vector Product

8.4.1 Area of Triangle

Consider any triangle ABC.

1
Area of ABC   AB  AC  sin 
2
1  
 AB AC sin 
2
1    
 AB AC sin  n (where n is the unit vector perpendicular to both AB and AC )
2
1  
 AB  AC
2
1  
Area of triangle ABC  AB  AC
2

1   1  

 Remark: Area of triangle ABC can also be found using BA  BC or CA  CB .
2 2

8.4.2 Area of Parallelogram

Consider any parallelogram ABCD, which could

be divided into two equal-sized triangles.

 1     

Area of parallelogram ABCD  2  Area of triangle ABD   2  AB  AD   AB  AD
2 
 
Area of parallelogram ABCD  AB  AD

 Remark: Geometrically, the magnitude of the cross product of two vectors is the area of
the parallelogram formed between them.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

Worked Example 20: A parallelogram ABCD has 3 of its vertices at points A  2, 1, 0  ,

B  2,  3, 0 and D  0, 2, 4 . Find the area of the parallelogram and the
area of the triangle ABD .
Solution:

 2   2   4 
      
AB   3    1    4 
 0  0  0 
     
 0   2   2 
      
AD   2    1    1 
 4  0  4 
     
 
Area of parallelogram ABCD  AB  AD
 4   2 
   
  4    1 
0 4
   
 1   2   1   2 
       
 4  1    1   4  1    1 
0  4  0  4 
       
 4
 
 4  4   4 41 units 2
 3
 
1 
 
Area of triangle ABD  AB  AD
2
 2 41units2

Worked Example 21: A triangle has its vertices at the points with position vectors a , b and c as
1
shown. Show that the area of the triangle is a  b  b  c  c  a .
2
Solution:
1  
Area of the triangle  AB  AC C
2
1
  b  a   c  a 
2    
1
  b  c   b  a   a  c  a  a 
2         A
1 B
  b  c    a  b     c  a   0
2       
1
  b  c  a  b   c  a 
2      
O
1
 a  b  bc  ca  shown 
2      

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

8.4.3 Relationship between Scalar Product, Vector Product and the Right-Angled Triangle

Let a and b be two non-parallel vectors as shown on the diagram below.

From Section 7.4.2, PQ  a  b

We can show that QR  a  b .

Proof for Understanding

QR
 sin 
PR

QR  a sin  (since PR  a)
QR  a b sin  n (since b  1 and n  1)

QR  a bˆ sin  nˆ

QR  a  b

In a more general form,

We will be using these results in the later sections on vectors.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2023 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: VECTORS (BASIC)

ENRICHMENT

Applications of Vectors

The topic of vectors in three dimensions has many applications in the field of physics appended below
are some of these applications.

1. Particle Motion in Three-Dimensional Space

Newtonian mechanics is covered in both the H1 and H2 Physics syllabuses. For simplicity,
only motions such as those with constant velocity or those with constant acceleration are dealt
with. In real life however, we could observe more complex motions, such
as that of a boomerang involving change of velocity and/or acceleration in
multiple directions.
An example of a particle undergoing projectile motion with constant
downward acceleration in three-dimensional space, is illustrated in the
following website (refer to the QR code / link).
Link : http://zonalandeducation.com/mstm/physics/mechanics/curvedMotion/projectileMotion/3dAnimation/proj10.html

2. Collisions
Dynamics is covered in both the H1 and H2 Physics syllabuses. For simplicity, only collisions
between particles constrained to moving along a straight line, which is one-dimensional, are
considered. In real life nonetheless, more complex motions such as those
involving the hitting of baseballs with baseball bats and those in which
multiple collisions between a set of billiard balls in a game of billiards
could occur.
An example of collision between two balls of equal volume and mass is
discussed in the following website (refer to the QR code / link).
Link : https://www.atmos.illinois.edu/courses/atmos100/userdocs/3Dcollisions.html

3. Work Done by a Force

Work and Energy are covered in both the H1 and H2 Physics (A)
syllabuses. The concept of work done by a force pulling an object at
an angle to the object’s motion, defined as the product of the object’s
displacement and the component of the force along the displacement
made, is also the scalar product between the force vector and
displacement vector. Further details are discussed in the following
websites (refer to the respective QR codes / links).
(B)
Links:
(A) http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/physics/phynet/mechanics/energy/MathWork.html
(B) http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/physics/phynet/mechanics/energy/vectors_and_work.htm

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