SOCIAL SAFETY NETS INCLUSION AND POVERTY REDUCTION AMONG

PEOPLE WITH DISABILITY IN JALINGO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF

TARABA STATE: AN EMPERICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
By
Yahaya Salihu Emeje (PhD) 1, Samuel Mbah Adamu 2, Bawa Edna Pyiki3
1&3
Department of Economics, Taraba State University Jalingo, Nigeria.
2
Department of Economics, Benue State University, Makurdi.
2
Corresponding Author: E-mail: [email protected], Tel: 07033662010
Abstract
The study empirically assessed the impact of social safety nets inclusion on poverty reduction
among people with disabilities in Jalingo local government area of Taraba state. It employed a
survey research design to generate and collect primary data among people with disability using
structured questionnaire. The study initially commenced investigation with a sample size of 352
respondents to ascertain the level of social safety nets inclusion among people with disability in
the study area but later concluded the investigation with the sample size of 105 respondents who
are the actual beneficiaries of social safety nets to ascertain the impact of the social safety nets
on poverty reduction among the beneficiaries in the study area. Statistical and econometrics
techniques such as; frequency distribution, simple percentages, tables, charts multi-variant logit
regression were adopted for the presentation and analysis of the study. The demography
characteristics of the sampled respondents revealed that, majority of the people living with
disability in the study area are male, most of them married; majority of them are between the age
of 21 and 40 years; most of them have attained a minimal level of formal education, have small
family size, unemployed and the major nature of disability in the study area is visual impairment.
The study also revealed that, there is low level of inclusion of the people living with disability in
to social safety nets in Jalingo local government area of Taraba state. It also revealed that,
majority of the respondents benefited from the Sure-P programme than other safety programme
and earned income from the social safety nets and other sources which enable them live above
the poverty line threshold. The logistic regression confirmed that, social safety nets have
significant impact on poverty reduction among people living with disability in Jalingo local
government area of Taraba state. The study further identified; lack of disability specific
infrastructures, access to information, access to opportunities, discrimination of the people with
disability, public transportation barrier, stigmatization and godfatherism as some of the
challenges encountered in accessing social safety nets by people living with disability in the
study area. In line with the findings, the study recommended for periodic sensitization, full
enforcement and strengthen of legal and policy frameworks to ensure clarity, coherence and
integration regarding people with disabilities and involvement of community stakeholders in the
selection of the beneficiaries of the social safety programmes in the area.
KEY WORDS: Social Safety Nets Inclusion, Poverty, Logistic Regression

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 1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of social safety nets, also referred to as social integration or social cohesion,
represents a vision for “a society for all”, in which every individual, each with rights and
responsibilities, has an active role to play (UN 1995, cited in Dugarova, 2015). Social safety nets
has been defined as a process in which those at risk of poverty and social exclusion gain the
opportunities and resources that are needed to fully participate in societal activities (Frazer &
Marlier 2013). In this process, adequate income and employment have been treated as key means
to tackle social exclusion, poverty and inequality. Social safety net has also been seen as a
foundation for shared prosperity that characterizes the process of improving abilities,
opportunities and dignity of the disadvantaged through access to markets, services and spaces
(World Bank 2013).
One billion people, or 15% of the world’s population, experience some form of disability, and
disability prevalence is higher for developing countries. One-fifth of the estimated global total,
or between 110 million and 190 million people, experience significant disabilities (World Bank,
2019). Poverty and disability are believed to operate in a cycle, with the one reinforcing the
other. In low and middle-income countries (LMICs) in particular, conditions associated with
poverty, such as lack of access to healthcare, inadequate water and sanitation, malnutrition and
poor living conditions, increase the risk of disability (Yeo, 2001; Elwan 1999). Even in the
absence of absolute poverty, social inequalities and relative poverty can lead to stress and social
exclusion, which can worsen both mental and physical health and functioning (Wilkinson &
Marmot, 2013). On the other side, disability can lead to exclusion from work, education and
healthcare, as well as high healthcare and other expenses, which can cause or exacerbate poverty
( Trani & Loeb, 2012; Gooding & Marriot, 2009).

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were a major international initiative introduced to

inject funds into countries to improve vital areas such as health care, maternal mortality,
education, and poverty reduction. However, it appears the narrow scope of MDG and its policies
may have resulted in the needs of some groups (e.g., persons with disabilities) being unmet
and/or overlooked. This triggered international debates on the need to have a global agenda that
is broader than MDG, and encompassing various minority groups, including persons with
disabilities (Le Blanc, 2015).

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were developed as a people‐centered initiative

aimed at enabling individuals to explore business opportunities and thus participate in the local
economy (Moore, 2015; United Nations Development Program [UNDP], 2015;Xue, Weng, &
Yu, 2018).The SDG with its 17 goals and 169 targets was an expansion of MDG, which expired
at the end of 2015. The SDG is focused on improving the well‐being of individuals and
maximizing the potential of individuals who have suffered from long‐term and systematic
exclusion (Griggs et al., 2013; Le Blanc, 2015). SDG is developing an inclusive society where
all persons will be able to have sustainable means of livelihood (Moore, 2015; Sustainable
Development Solution Network [SDSN], 2015). Thus, the agenda have set sight on eliminating
poverty and addressing basic human needs through sustainable programs (Moore, 2015). Unlike
MDG, where funds were made available to countries, SDG, countries create programs that will
accommodate broad segments of society (Osborn,Cutter, & Ullah, 2015). Given the context of
limited functional support, it is interesting to consider how Nigeria is responding to the basic
needs of persons with disabilities.

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Fortunately, Goal 1 of the SDGs outlines how poverty should be tackled, which states that this
will occur by; building a resilient population to overcome poverty; Promoting equal rights for
economic participation through education; Committing to improving the livelihood of people
living on less than $2 a day; Providing skills training for their marketability; and developing
appropriate national social protection to improving the living conditions of individuals with
disabilities (UN, 2015).As part of steps towards implementing SDG, it is important that a stock
take of the living conditions of persons with disabilities is carried out in order to understand how
their basic needs are being addressed (SDSN, 2015).

Social safety nets programmes designed to protect the poor and vulnerable from shocks and
contribute to reducing poverty are important elements of Taraba State poverty reduction, growth
and development strategy. Disability inclusive social protection programmes are designed to
alleviate the additional cost of the barriers faced by people with disabilities. However, a pilot
study on physically-challenge people in Taraba state revealed that, people living with disabilities
are faced with discrimination in housing, education, employment, and in access to public
transportation etc. Harsh economic realities prevail, and there is little support outside of
benevolent family caregivers for many forms of disabilities. As a result, PWDs are often
predisposed to dependence on street begging, which further endangers their lives. Public
attitudes and perceptions toward the group are disheartening with strong underlining
superstitious/cultural beliefs that result in discrimination against PWDs.

Nevertheless, the Taraba State government over the years embarked on social safety programme
aimed at alleviating poverty through the ministries of cooperative and poverty alleviation, youth
and sport, women affairs, social and welfare development and in corroboration with National
Directorate of Employment (NDE) and World Bank assistant Programmes such as Community
and Social Development Projects (CSDP), FADAMA I, II, III, Youth Empowerment and Social
Support Operation (YESSO). In addition, several advocacies by civil society groups, religious
institutions and international communities on the need to support PWDs had been carried out.
Despite these intervention programmes and advocacies in the state, it is problematic to state with
certainty the level of inclusion of the people with disabilities in to the social safety nets
programmes, the extent of the income earned through the programmes and the impact of the
social safety programmes on poverty reduction among people with disabilities in the state; hence
the need for the study.

2. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

Conceptual Clarification
The scope of the definition of disability social safety Nets and poverty varies considerably across
international organizations and scholars. Vivian (1994) maintained that in the early 1990s, the
term ‘‘social safety inclusion began to be used more frequently, especially by Bretton Woods’
institutions in connection with structural adjustment programs related to their lending programs.
Developing countries introduced SSNs to mitigate the social impact of structural adjustment
measures on specific low income groups. Rimmerman, (2013) asserted that, social safety nets is
a meta-analysis of the use of social inclusion in disability studies found to mean people living
with disability (PLWD); being accepted and recognised as an individual beyond the disability;
having personal relationships with family, friends and acquaintances; being involved in

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recreation and social activities; having appropriate living accommodation; having employment;
and having appropriate formal and informal support.
Similarly, Brigitte et al. (2014) defined social safety nets as the social protection programmes
designed to alleviate the additional cost of the barriers faced by people with disabilities. Though
the implementation of disability inclusive social protection policies faces a number of problems
as social protection programmes do not reach the vast majority of people with disabilities. They
face physical barriers, communication barriers, attitudinal barriers, and a lack of sensitivity or
awareness. Social protection programmes on their own will not eliminate the vulnerabilities
persons with disabilities face. Therefore complementary programmes are needed to create an
enabling environment for people with disabilities, such as adaptations to the built environment,
inclusive education, rehabilitation and vocational training services, and the enactment and
enforcement of disability legislation.

However, World Bank (1990) defined social safety nets as a system of income insurance to help
people through short-term stress and calamities. It involves implementation of Social safety nets
(SSNs) targeted at those who are potentially able to support themselves through individual
productive effort or through the assets which they own, but are temporarily unable to do so at the
relevant minimal acceptable level. In this sense, the 1990 WDR definition distinguishes ‘‘safety
nets’’ from ‘‘income or cash transfers.’’ Thus, SSNs are defined as programs that assist those
who are temporarily exposed to shocks, such as the unemployed, while income transfers are
meant to assist those who are relatively permanently incapable of participating in the productive
process, such as the elderly and the disabled. A broader definition was adopted in a World Bank
Discussion Paper (1996) which refers social safety nets to encompass all informal family-based
arrangements, all social security programs and poverty-targeted interventions. Other documents
of the World Bank and UNCTAD during the period also defined it to include ‘‘social action
programs,’’ ‘‘social investment funds,’’ and ‘‘emergency social funds’’ targeted at the
vulnerable in the society.
On the other hand, poverty is a plaque which affects people all over the world, though generally
considered as one of the manifestations of underdevelopment. There is hardly a universal way of
defining poverty because it affects many aspects of human conditions. However, the
conventional concept of poverty depicts it as a condition in which people live below a specified
minimum income level and are unable to provide the basic necessities of life needed for an
acceptable standard of living. George (1988) defined poverty as a lack of material goods or
services. Poverty consists of a core of basic necessities as well as a list of other necessities that
change over time and place. People ‘need’ things such as food, clothing, fuel or shelter and
considered being poor because they do not have something they need, or because they lack the
resources to get the things they need.

In the same vein, United Nation (1995) defined poverty as a condition characterized by severe
deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities,
health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to
services. Baratz and Grigsby (1971) refer to poverty as a severe lack of physical and mental
well-being, closely associated with inadequate economic resources and consumption. The factors
which go to make up well-being include ‘welfare’ values, including self-esteem, aspirations, and
stigma and ‘deference’ values, including aspects of status and power. These views stem from

4
apparently opposed positions. George and the United Nation (UN) see poverty as a material and
an ‘absolute’ concept while Baratz and Grigsby view poverty as a ‘relative’ term. But these are
interpretations of the social construction of need, not different definitions of poverty. Both agree
that poverty is a lack of something, and they are largely agreed on what is lacking. The main
disagreement is about the source and foundation of the needs.

In addition, Spicker (1937) generally refers poverty as not just to deprivation, but to deprivation
experienced over a period of time. This means that the duration of circumstances is potentially
important; a person can be homeless because of a natural disaster, but still be able to command
sufficient resources to ensure that needs are met, and met rapidly’. Poverty is defined, then, on
the existence of a pattern of deprivation, rather than by the deprivation itself. Following the
argument about lack of basic security, it would be possible for a poor person to be subject to
multiple deprivations even though that person was not experiencing a specific deprivation at a
particular point of time. This meaning of poverty depends rather on cumulative experience over
time.

Theoretical Framework
The study was anchored the Capability theory developed by the Indian economist and
philosopher Amartya Sen in 1980 and the Basic Needs theory introduced by the International
Labour Organization’s World Employment Conference in 1976 (Jolly, 1976). Capability theory
is as a set of interrelated theses in welfare economics, particularly on the assessment of personal
well-being, poverty, and inequality emphasized on the choice of focus upon the moral
significance of individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value.
The basic needs approach is one of the major approaches to the measurement of absolute poverty
in developing countries. It attempts to define the absolute minimum resources necessary for
long-run term physical well-being, usually in terms of consumption goods. Capability theory
advocate for a person’s capability to function and provided a link between disability, gender
discrimination, poverty and has been found useful in defining disability and formulating
disability policies. The theoretical underpinnings of the capability theory attest to the fact that,
there is capability in disability. Social safety nets geared toward empowering people with
disability can go along away to improve their socio-economic wellbeing and economic
development of state. The basic needs theory on the other hand provided the major approaches to
the measurement of absolute poverty in developing countries. The poverty line is then defined as
the amount of income required to satisfy those needs. The theory further posits that, a traditional
list of immediate basic needs is food, water, shelter, basic education, etc. Thus; the study soughts
to use the theoretical underpinnings of the capability and basic needs theories considering the
strong theoretical links between capabilities of the people with disability which will be provided
through their social safety nets inclusion and can go along way for them meeting their basic
needs and ultimately reducing poverty among them in Taraba state.

Empirical Review
Emmanuel (2018) examined the Path to Inclusive growth in Nigeria to ascertain whether People
with disabilities are carried along. Using purely descriptive and analytical methodology, the
study shows that inclusive growth is the growth that generates employment opportunities and
reduces the depth and severity of the incidence of poverty. However, people with disability have
in many cases been denied of job opportunities in Nigeria. This study argued that the country
cannot have inclusive growth unless disability is made an integral part of her growth.

5
Considering that the economic inclusion of people with disabilities is a cross-cutting issue,
successful results require complementary activities in multiple sectors.

Valerie, Ashley, Jacob and Callie (2017) reviewed social protection and disability at the World
Bank in responds to the lack of available data focused on tracking the inclusion of persons with
disabilities in mainstream poverty reduction efforts. It reports on work by a multidisciplinary
research team in developing and piloting a methodology measuring disability inclusive
investments in the World Bank’s active portfolio. The study focused specifically on the World
Bank’s social protection portfolio, aligned with SDG 1 (End Poverty), and outlines a
methodology for analysing project-level documentation, using key word searches, and codes
aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals to determine the inclusion of persons with
disabilities. Findings indicate that only a small percentage, 5%, of the World Bank’s active social
protection portfolio explicitly include persons with disabilities as target beneficiaries. It goes on
to argue that this dearth in disability inclusive development efforts exposes a vital need to
systematically include the needs of this population in the planning for, provision of, and
assessment of development assistance efforts.

Irteja, Israt, Ali, Delwar, Abdur, Tareq, Mostafizur and Sagirul (2018) assessed Social Safety
Net Programs; it Contribution to Socio-Economic Resilience of Vulnerable Group in
Bangladesh. Primary data were collected through questionnaire survey, focus group discussions,
and case study. Secondary data were collected from different sources including books, journals
and websites related to the study. The study has also investigated how the allowance allocated to
extreme poor widows, elders and disabled people can facilitate their disaster resiliency. It
compares the situation of allowance receivers to the situation when they were not getting the
allowance. The study found that the program has a positive impact on the basic needs like food,
cloth, medicine accessibility of the beneficiaries which make them economically resilient. It also
founds that although the allowance amount is relatively small and insufficient to significantly
contribute to household’s graduation, it often enables recipients to stabilize their earnings.

Oluwatoyin, Romanus and Temiloluwa (2019) examined the feasibility of poverty reduction
programmes through a well-coordinated social protection policy on agriculture. The data for this
study were obtained from international organizations (WDI, ILO, CPIA and UNESCO) covering
a period between 2007 and 2017. The study engaged the Generalised Method of Moments
technique on the selected variables. The results showed that a positive relationship exists
between agriculture value added, employment, inequality and poverty while social protection
and literacy level showed a negative relationship with poverty reduction.

Maxwell, Karen, Darren and Tony (2018) documented the experiences of persons with
disabilities with respect to global efforts towards poverty reduction via SDGs. Face‐to‐face
interviews were conducted with 48 individuals with disabilities (hearing loss n = 11, visual
impairment n = 15, and physical disability n = 22) who were drawn from four districts in the
Northern Region of Ghana. Analysis of the interview data revealed common themes related to
hardship, poverty, limited access to education, and underemployment. The results indicated that
the SDG project engendered little tangible improvement in the lives of persons with disabilities.
The need for concerted efforts to address barriers faced by individuals with disabilities is
discussed extensively.

6
Christopher (2016) evaluated the effectiveness of poverty reduction efforts in Nnewi, especially
in relation to the policy and strategy formulation, implementation, coordination, monitoring,
control and review, sourcing and utilization of resources (both human and material) and
complementarily of programmes. The study also focused on the impact of the past strategies and
programmes on the target poor using the survey approach and chi-square to collect, collate,
analyzed and present data respectively. Its revealed that Poverty Alleviation Strategies in Nnewi
have succeeded in reducing poverty.
It is observed from the literature reviews that, most of the research works reviewed on social
safety net inclusion and poverty reduction are not from Taraba State. In addition, the studies
reviewed only employed descriptive statistical tools such as simple percentages, charts, tables,
chi-square and contents analysis. No doubt that there exist methodological and study area gap.
This study therefore used advance econometric tools of analysis such as Logistic Regression
Model to show clearly the impact of social safety nets inclusion on poverty reduction among
people with in Taraba State.
3. Methodology Issues
Research Design
This study assessed the impact of social safety nets on poverty reduction among people with
disability in Jalingo local government area of Taraba, Nigeria. To achieve this, a survey research
design was adopted to generate and collect primary data among people with disability. Data was
collected on respondents’ demographic characteristics. In addition, information was sought on
respondents’ level of inclusion in to social safety nets, average income, access to food, clothing,
medical care, housing and questions that bordered on the challenges faced by people living with
disabilities on social safety nets inclusion in Jalingo metropolis. The study employed purposive
sampling procedure for the selection of the study area. In the first stage, all the registered people
living with disabilities in Jalingo Metropolis, Taraba State Nigeria were purposively selected
because of its relevant in data keeping and easy accessibility. In the second stage, Krejcie and
Morgan (1970) sampling procedure was employed to determine the sample size of 255 from 868
total numbers of registered persons with disabilities in Jalingo local government (JONAPWD
Jalingo Office, (2020). A random sampling was employed to pick the respondents. Finally,
questionnaire were administered to 255 respondents and retrieved on the spot which ensured
hundred percent of the returned questionnaires. The study employed statistical and econometrics
techniques for the presentation and analysis of the study findings. The statistical tools considered
were; frequency distribution, simple percentages, tables and charts while the econometrics
technique was a multi-variant logit regression to test the hypothesis of the study using the
maximum likelihood estimation technique.
The Empirical Model
Multivariate logit regression model was used for the study. This was considered useful to
analyze the determinants of poverty. In a logit model, the endogenous variable is a dichotomous
or dummy variable, with (1) representing the household (people with disabilities) as poor and (0)
if the household is not poor (Chaudhry, Malik & Hassan, 2009). This approach is in line with
Chaudhry et al, (2009); Hasshmi and Sial (2008); Yusuf, Adesanoye and Awotide (2008).
According to Yusuf, et al (2008), logistic regression is a model in which a dichotomous variable
representing whether or not a household is poor is regressed on a set of supposedly exogenous
explanatory variables.

7
Yusuf, Adesanoye and Awotide (2008), implicitly specified a logit regression model as thus;
p(Y) = E………………………………………………………………………………..……….…1
If Y represents poverty status, Y might be poor (1) or non-poor (0). By this taking logs of both
sides and simplifying equation 1, the log likelihood model is simplified as thus;
LnYi = pi/i-pi = ß0 + !ßk Xki + Ui………………………………..……………..........................2
Where;
LnYi = natural log of P (poverty status)
Xki = A set of independent variables included in the model.
Bk = Parameter estimate
Ui = a random disturbance term.
From the specified model, the model for this study is explicitly specified as thus;
POV = f( X1, X2, X3,X4,X5,X6 )…………………..…………………………………….………...3
Where; POV is poverty status and calculated as;
POV= Average Annual Income of the people with disabilities
Total Number of Days in a Year (365 days)

If the result is less than 1.9 United State dollars a day in accordance to the World Bank (2015)
update on the international poverty line threshold, it means the person with disability is poor in
which, assign (1). If it is more than or equal to 1.9 United State dollars, it means the person with
disability is non-poor, in which case assign (0). It is importance to note that, one US dollar is
assumed to exchange for N 409.13 been the official dollar to naira exchange rate (CBN, 2021).
The independent variables of the model are defined as thus;
X1 = Access to three square meal (0 if respondents have, 1if otherwise)
X2 = Access to clothing (0 if respondents purchase at least 1 new cloth in a year, 1 if others wise)
X3 = Access to improve medical services (0 if respondents visit dispensaries, federal medical
centre or specialist hospital, 1 if otherwise).
X4 = Family members education (0 if family members have access to education, 1 if otherwise)
X5 = House type (0 if Zinc roof with cemented wall and floor, 1 if otherwise)
X6 = Access to loan (0 if respondents have access to loan, 1 if otherwise)
The stochastic model is specified as thus;
POV = ß0 + ß1X1 + ß2X2 + ß3X3 + ß4X4 + ß5X5 + ß6X6 +U ………………………………….4
Where;
ß0 = The intercept
ß1 – ß6 = The Parameters to be estimated
U = Error term.

4. Results and Discussion:

This section presents the results of the Multivariate logit regression model was as specified in
equation 4. However, before the estimations, the study presents and analysed the demography
characteristics of the respondents.

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Demography Characteristics of the Respondents
Table 1: Marital Status Distribution of the Sampled Respondents
Marital Status Number of Respondents Percentages
Single 84 33
Married 148 58
Divorce 15 6
Widow/Widower 8 3
Total 255 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
The results in table 1 show that, majority of the respondents 58% are married, 33% are single,
6% are divorce and 3% widow/widower. The high proportion of married persons living with
disability attests to the fact that most of the people living with disability in Jalingo local
government area of Taraba state have attend the maturity age and may appeared to be
responsible people in the society.

Table 2: Sex Distribution of the Sampled Respondents

Sex Number of Respondents Percentages
Male 174 68
Female 81 32
Total 255 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Table 2 sought to ascertain the sex distribution of the respondents. It reveals that, a total of one
hundred and seventy-four respondents representing 68% of the people living with disability
Taraba state are male while eighty-one respondents representing 32% of the respondents are
female. This is indications that, majority of the people living with disability in Jalingo local
government of Taraba state are male.

Table 3: Age Distribution of the Sampled Respondents

Average Age Number of Respondents Percentages
<20 23 9
21-40 184 72
41-60 40 16
>60 8 3
Total 255 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Table 3 above show that majority of the respondents are within the age bracket of 21-40 years
accounting for 72% followed by those within the age bracket of 41-60 years representing 16%
while those less than 20 and greater than 60 years accounted for 9% and 3% respectively. This is
indications that, majority of the sampled respondents are in their active age. This implies further
that, there exist great prospect of the people living with disability in Jalingo local government
area of Taraba state.

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Table 4: Educational Status Distribution of the Sampled Respondents
Educational Number of Respondents Percentage
Status
Informal 49 19
Primary 30 12
Secondary 90 35
Tertiary 86 34
Total 255 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
The result of table 4 above show that 19% of the respondent had informal education, 12%
primary education, 35% secondary education and 34% had tertiary education. Thus, majority of
the respondents had some level of formal education. The greater percentage of those with formal
education indicates that, most of the people living with disability in Taraba state are literate and
have good potential to learn and manage their business or even employable.
Table 5: Family Size Distribution of the Sampled Respondents
Family Size Number of Respondents Percentage
<6 122 48
7-10 85 33
>10 48 19
Total 255 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Table 5 reveals that, 48% had a family size of between 1 and 6 persons. This is as a result of the
high cases of singles and young married. 33% had a family size of 7-10 members and 19% with
a family size of more than 10 persons. Those with largest family size spend more on food,
education, access to improved medical services hence their poverty will increase.
Table 6: Occupational Distribution of the Sampled Respondents
Occupations Number of Respondents Percentage
Civil Service 5 2
Farming 38 15
Trading 46 18
Artisanship 21 8
Student 10 4
Unemployed 130 51
Retiree 5 2
Total 255 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Table 6 reveals that, 51% of the sampled respondents are unemployed, 18% engaged in trading,
15% are farmers, 8% artisans, 4% students 2% are retiree and civil servants respectively. This is
indications that, majority of the people living with disability in Taraba state are unemployed.
This could be that, they either lack skills, capital for businesses or employers do not hire their
services due to their physical challenges.

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Table7: Nature of Disability of the Sampled Respondents
Nature of Number of Percentage
Disability Respondents
Visual Impairment 120 47
Deaf or Dumb 33 13
Physical Disability 102 40
Total 255 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Table 7 sought to identify the nature of disability of the sample respondents in the study area. It
reveals that 120 respondents representing 47% identified themselves to visual impaired, 33
respondents representing 13% are deaf or dumb while 102 respondents representing 40% are
suffering from one form of physical disability or the other. This is indications majority of the
people living with disability are visually impaired. This attest to why majority of respondents are
not gainfully employed considering the fact that, visual impairment is one most challenging
nature of disability.
Assessment of Social Safety Net Inclusion among People Living with Disability
Table 8: Distribution of Sampled Respondents on Status of Social Safety Nets Inclusion
Status of Number of Respondents Percentage
Inclusion
Beneficiary 105 41
None Beneficiary 150 59
Total 255 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021

Beneficiaries
Non-Beneficiaries

Figure 1: Pie Chart showing the level of Social Safety Nets inclusion among people living
with disability in Jalingo local government area of Taraba State.

Table 8 and figure 1 show the level of social safety nets inclusion among people living with
disability in the study area. Its reveal that; 59% of the respondents have not benefited from any
social safety net programme while 41% of the respondents have benefited from at least one form

11
of social safety nets programme in the study area. This is an indication that, there is low level of
inclusion of the people living with disability in to social safety nets programme in Jalingo local
government area of Taraba state. It is important to note that, only the 41% of the sample
respondents that benefited from social safety nets programmes were considered for further
analysis of the study so as to arrive at unbiased and realistic conclusion.

Table 9: Distribution of Sampled Respondents on Social Safety Nets Programme Benefited

SSN Programme Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
N-Power 3 2.9
Hope Foundation 3 2.9
Sure-P 74 70.5
NDE 8 7.6
CSDP 8 7.6
TY Foundation 5 4.8
World Bank Projects 4 3.7
Total 105 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021

N-Power
Hope Foundation
Sure-P
NDE
CSDP
TY Foundation
World Bank Project

Figure 2: Pie Chart showing Social Safety Nets Programme Benefited by people living with
Disability in Taraba State.

Table 9 and figure 2 indicated that majority of the sampled respondents (70.5%) benefited from
Sure-P social safety net programme of the federal government introduced in the year 2014. The
least Social safety net programmes benefited by the sampled respondents are N-Power; the
federal government safety programme introduced in the year 2016 and Hope afresh foundation;
the safety programme introduced by the wife of the Taraba state governor introduced in the year
2015. This is an indication that, Sure-P programme takes care of the needs of the people living
with disability than any other safety net programme in Jalingo local government area of Taraba
state.

4.3 Assessment of Income Earned by the Beneficiaries of Social Safety Nets

Table 10: Distribution of Sampled Respondents on Income Earned from Social Safety Nets
12
 Income Earned Number of Respondents Percentages (%)
< N10,000 5 4.8
N 10,000-20,000 92 87.6
N 21,000-30,000 8 7.6
Total 105 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Table 10 reveals that, 87.6% of the sample respondents earned N 10,000-20,000 monthly as
income from the activities of the social safety nets programme, 7. 6% earned N 21,000-30,000
while 4.8% of the sampled respondents earned less that N10, 000 monthly. In line with the
World Bank (2015) update on the international poverty line threshold, if income earned is less
than 1.9 United State dollars and above a day, such income earner is poor. This result implies
that, majority of the sampled respondents were living above the poverty line threshold. This is a
clear indication that social safety net is of a great impact on income stream and poverty reduction
among people living with disability in Jalingo local government area of Taraba state.

Table 12: Distribution of Sampled Respondents on Income Earned from other Source(s)
Income Earned Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
< N 10,000 31 29.5
N 10,000-20,000 41 39.1
N 21,000-30,000 18 17.1
> N 30,000 15 14.3
Total 105 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Table 12 reveals that, majority of the sampled respondents representing 39.1% earned N 10,000-
20,000 monthly from other sources aside the income earned from social safety net programme.
29.5% of the sampled respondent less than N 10,000 monthly, 17.1% earned N 21,000-30,000
while 14.3% earned more than N 30,000 monthly from other sources to complement their
income from the social safety nets programmes.

Table 13: Distribution of Sampled Respondents on Access to loan

Access to Loan Number of Respondents Percentages (%)
Yes 82 78
No 23 22
Total 105 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Table 13 sought to ascertain if the sampled respondents have access to loan for investment to
improve their income. Majority of the respondents representing 78% agreed that, they have
access to loan for investment while 22% disagreed that, they do not have access to loan for
investment.

Result of the Logistic Regression Model

The result of the logit regression which estimates the impact of social safety net on poverty
reduction among people living with disability in Jalingo local government area is presented in
table 14.
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Table 14: Logistic Regression Result
Dependents Variable: POV

Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob.

X1 -2.962733 2.124931 1.394272 0.0162

X2 -1.990527 1.982645 1.003976 0.3154
X3 -3.313773 3.629839 0.912926 0.0363
X4 -1.021384 1.554015 -0.657255 0.5110
X5 -1.292804 3.299799 -0.391783 0.6952
X6 1.968545 1.288214 1.528120 0.0125
C -0.575497 2.184094 -2.634921 0.0084

McFadden R-
squared 0.559654 Mean dependent var 0.047619
S.D. dependent var 0.213980 S.E. of regression 0.167763
Akaike info criterion 0.301936 Sum squared resid 2.758153
Schwarz criterion 0.478867 Log likelihood -8.851664
Hannan-Quinn
criter. 0.373632 Deviance 17.70333
Restr. Deviance 40.20326 Restr. log likelihood -20.10163
LR statistic 22.49993 Avg. log likelihood -0.084302
Prob(LR statistic) 0.000982

Obs with Dep=0 100 Total obs 105

Obs with Dep=1 5

Source: E-View 9.0 Output

The result of the logististic regression in table 14 revealed that, all the explanatory variables were
correctly signed except X6 which represents access to loan. In addition, X1, X3, X6 and the
constant variables are statistically significance at 5% level while X2, X4 and X5 are statistically
insignificance. The estimated coefficient of X1(number of meals taken per day), X2 (Access to
clothing), X3 (Access to improve medical services), X4 (Family members access to education)
and X5 (House type) are negative. This implies that, improvement in the number of meals taken
per day, access to clothing, access to improved medical facilities, family member’s access to
education and the type of houses acquired with the earnings from social safety nets have the
probability of reducing poverty among people with disability in the study area.

On the other hand, the estimated coefficient of X6 (Access to loan) is positively signed and
statistically significant at 5% critical level. This implies that access to loan has the probability
increasing poverty among the sampled respondents. This could be that, the loans accessed by the
people living with disability in the study area were not channel to productive ventures to create
more wealth so as to better their economic status and standard of living.
The negative sign of the intercept (C) in the result indicates that, if all the regressors are held
constant, the dependent variable (Z; poverty status of the respondent) would increase by 58%.

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This point to the fact that, social safety nets inclusion reduces poverty level among people living
with disability in Jalingo local government.
The McFadden R- squared of approximately 0.56 implies that, all the explanatory variables
included in the model explained total variations in the dependent variable by 56%. The Pro (LR
statistic) of 0.000982 indicated the reliability of the explanatory variables with regards to the
dependent variable.
More so, diagnostic test result of Andrews and Hasmer-Lemeshow test of predicted risk for
goodness of fit in evaluating binary specification (see appendix 3) shows 5.1233 and 20.1859 for
H-L Statistic and Andrews Statistic respectively. It indicated goodness of fit for the logit or
binary specification of the estimated model at 5% significance level.
Assessment of Disability Challenges in Accessing Social Safety Nets Programmes
This section of the study identified the various challenges that people living with disability
encountered in benefiting from social safety nets in Jalingo local government area of Taraba state
and offered solutions in curtailing the challenges.

Table 15: Distribution of Sampled Respondents on the Challenges Encountered.

Challenges Number of Respondents Percentages (%)
Lack of disability Specific Infrastructures 18 17
Lack of Access to Information 38 36
lack of Access to Opportunity 14 13
Discrimination 20 19
Public Transportation Barrier 8 8
Stigmatization 4 4
Godfatherism 3 3
Total 105 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Table 15 reveals that, 17% of the sampled respondents identified lack of specific infrastructures
for disability as a challenge for disability is accessing social safety nets programme, 36%
respondents recognized lack of access to information as a major challenge affecting accessibility
to social safety nets programme, 13% of the respondents considered lack of access to opportunity
as barrier, 19% of the respondents are of the views that, discrimination of the people living with
disability is a hindrance, 8%, 4% and 3% identified public transportation barrier, stigmatization
and godfatherism respectively as challenges encountered by people living with disability in
accessing social safety net in Jalingo local government area.

Test of Hypothesis
The null hypothesis of the study stated as; Social safety nets have no impact on poverty reduction
among the people with disability in Jalingo local government of Taraba state was tested using the
p-value procedure.

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Decision Rule: Since the prob (LR statistic) 0.000982 (see table 20) is less than the 0.05 critical
value, the study rejects the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative and concludes that, social
safety nets has significant impact on poverty reduction among people living with disability in
Jalingo local government area of Taraba state.

Discussion of findings
The demography characteristics of the sampled respondents reveals that, majority of the people
living with disability in Jalingo local government area of Taraba state are male, most of them
married; majority of them are between the age of 21 and 40 years; most of them have attained a
minimal level of formal education, have small family size, they are mostly unemployed and the
major nature of disability in the study area is visual impairment.
The study also reveals that, there is low level of inclusion of the people living with disability in
to social safety nets programme in Jalingo local government area of Taraba state; as majority of
the sampled respondents have not benefited from any of the social safety nets in the area. This
finding is in conformity with the findings of Emmanuel (2018), Valerie, Ashley, Jacob and
Callie (2017) and Lena (2019) who found that, people with disability have in many cases been
denied of job opportunities in Nigeria, only a small percentage, 5%, of the World Bank’s active
social protection portfolio explicitly include persons with disabilities as target beneficiaries and
few accessed employment‐linked social insurance and other disability‐targeted benefits (e.g.
vocational training, transportation discounts) from Viet Nam respectively.
More so the study reveal that, majority of the respondents benefited from the Sure-P programme
than other safety programme and earned income from the social safety nets and other sources
which enable them live above the poverty line threshold as stipulated by the World Bank. In
view of this, majority of the respondents could afford to meet the standard of 3 meals per day,
acquired at least one new clothe in a year, have access to good health facilities and afforded
zinc houses with cemented walls and floor though mostly on hired bases.
The logistic regression further reveals access to standard meals, clothing, good health facilities,
and decent accommodation having the probability of reducing poverty status of the people living
with disability who had benefited from the social safety net in the study area. This finding
corroborate the findings of Irteja, Israt, Ali, Delwar, Abdur, Tareq, Mostafizur and Sagirul
(2018) who found that social safety programs have a positive impact on the basic needs like
food, cloth, medicine accessibility of the beneficiaries which make them economically resilient.
It is also in line with the findings of Christopher (2016) who revealed that Poverty Alleviation
Strategies in Nnewi have succeeded in reducing poverty in the area.
Furthermore, the study identified; lack of disability specific infrastructures, access to
information, access to opportunities, discrimination of the people with disability, public
transportation barrier, stigmatization and godfatherism as some of the challenges encountered in
accessing social safety nets by people living with disability in Jalingo local government area of
Taraba state. The finding is also in line with Lena (2019) who also identified factors affecting
access to social safety nets among people with disability to included; accessibility of the
application process, disability assessment procedures, awareness and the perceived utility of
programmes, and attitudes on disability and social protection.
Conclusion and Policy Recommendations

16
In line with the findings, the study concludes that, there is low level of inclusion of the people
living with disability into social safety nets in Jalingo local government area of Taraba state. In
addition, based on rejection of the null hypothesis and acceptance of the alternative hypothesis,
the study concludes that social safeties net have impact on reducing poverty among people living
with disability in Jalingo local government area of Taraba State. However, based on the
identified challenges hampering accessibility and implementation of social safety nets in the
study area, people living with disability are not maximally benefiting from social safety nets in
the study area.
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made;
i. Government at all level should ensure full enforcement and strengthen of legal and
policy frameworks to ensure clarity, coherence and integration regarding people with
disabilities.
ii. The association and organizations dealing with people with disabilities' including
JONAPWD, ASCEND, MEND, CDD, PWDAN should periodically organize
programmes for people with disabilities including setting up disabilities' support
groups to increase awareness on social safety nets programmes and their human rights
protection.
iii. Relevant community stakeholders such as religious and traditional leaders should be
involve in the selection process for recruitment of beneficiaries of any social safety
programmes of government, non-governmental organizations and internationals
donors so as to minimize the problem of favouritism and ensure that people with
disability benefit maximally. In addition there should be strict supervision and
monitoring of programmes to ensure proper implementation.
I V . Government at all level should ensure that, public facilities or infrastructures such as
offices, parks, sports, transport and other public facilities are being designed and/or
built to conform to the needs of all members of the community, including those with
disabilities. This will ensure accessibility for people with disabilities and minimize
physical barriers to social safety programmes.
V. Government, NGO’s and international donors should also significantly expand social
safety schemes for disabled, applying a means test to each candidate. Robust
measures should be designed for identifying severe and non-severe disability while
the severe cases are supported with conditional cash transfer (CCT); non-severe cases
are in addition to CCT provided with support in the form of vocational education and
small business schemes to make them more productive in the society.

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