International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015 87

Effects of the Digital Game-

Development Approach on
Elementary School Students’
Learning Motivation,
Problem Solving, and
Learning Achievement
Hui-Chun Chu, Department of Computer Science and Information Management, Soochow
University, Taipei, Taiwan
Chun-Ming Hung, Director of Academic Affairs, Tainan Municipal Haidong Elementary
School, Tainan, Taiwan

ABSTRACT
In this study, the game-based development approach is proposed for improving the learning motivation,
problem solving skills, and learning achievement of students. An experiment was conducted on a learning
activity of an elementary school science course to evaluate the performance of the proposed approach. A total
of 59 sixth graders from two classes of the elementary school participated in the experiment. One class of 30
students was selected as the experimental group, and the other class of 29 students was the control group.
From the experimental results, it was found that the proposed game development-based learning approach
could effectively promote the students’ problem-solving skills. However, the students’ learning achievement
and motivations were quite different from our expectations. A discussion of the experimental group interview
data is provided and suggestions made.

Keywords: Digital Games, Kodu, Learning Achievements, Problem-Solving, Science Learning Motives

1. INTRODUCTION Aleson-Carbonell, 2012; Hwang & Wu, 2012).

Liu and Lin (2009) pointed out the key role of
With the emergence of cloud learning and digital games in living, learning, and education.
digital technology, digital game-based learn- Dempsey, Rasmussen and Lucassen (1994)
ing has become an important research topic considered that games present the functions of
in education (Becker, 2007; Guillén-Nieto & instructing, entertaining, exploring new skills,

DOI: 10.4018/ijdet.2015010105

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88 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015

promoting self-esteem, practicing skills, and assist pupils in developing their thinking skills
changing attitudes, making their application (Hwang, Wu, & Chen, 2012; Seonju, 2002).
valuable in education. It appears that the ap- Bourgonjon, Grove, Smet, Looy, Soetaert, and
plication of digital games to learning is likely Valcke (2013) investigated the factors that influ-
to become an educational trend. ence the acceptance of commercial video games
Jonnavithula and Kinshunk (2005) consid- as learning tools in order to understand teach-
ered that games could assist learners in learning ers’ perceptions and beliefs in the secondary
and enhancing interest and that game-based school classroom. Moreover, researchers have
learning could promote motivation (Chamil- mentioned that actively exploring and acquiring
lard, 2006; Huang, Huang, & Tschopp, 2010; knowledge in situations is practical and could
Pivec, 2007). Huang, Tseng, Weng and Ho be referred to other situations. For this reason,
(2008) discovered that games with educational the provision of abundant learning situations
meaning allow students to learn while play- allows practical exploration by learners through
ing, enhance their learning interest, and let observation and action, thus leading to further
them happily learn the required knowledge. acquisition of problem-solving skills (Hwang,
Hung, Hwang, and Huang (2012) developed a Kuo, Chen, & Ho, 2014; Young, 1993).
project-based digital storytelling approach to Prensky (2001) has indicated that an
enhance students’ science learning motivation, educational computer game is a game that
problem-solving competence, and learning includes instructional objectives in games for
achievement. Accordingly, applying digital providing interactive learning among learners
games to instruction could promote learning and triggering intrinsic learning incentive. Much
interest, motivation, and achievement. research has indeed indicated that computer
On the other hand, researchers have pointed games could enhance learning achievement
out the potential effectiveness of engaging stu- (Ebner & Holzinger, 2007; Garris, Ahlers, &
dents in designing or developing digital games Driskell, 2002; Hwang, Wu, & Chen, 2012;
(Robertson & Howells, 2008). For example, Hwang, Yang, & Wang, 2013) and learning
Hong and Liu (2003) indicated that the process motivation (Burguillo, 2010; Dickey, 2010;
of designing games is highly related to the Ke & Grabowski, 2006; Liu & Chu, 2010;
cognitive process of problem solving; that is, McFarlance, Sparrowhawk, & Heald, 2002;
students are likely to construct their knowledge Papastergiou, 2009; Rosas et al., 2003). Hwang,
via involvement in game development. Wu, and Chen (2012) proposed an online game
As a consequence, this study utilizes game approach and found that this approach not
development software, which is suitable for only significantly promoted the students’ flow
elementary pupils to develop digital games experience, learning attitudes, learning interest
according to the learning contents provided by and degree of technology acceptance, but also
the teacher. It aimed to understand whether the improved their learning achievements in the
game development-based learning approach web-based problem-solving activity. Hung,
could enhance the students’ learning motiva- Hwang, and Huang (2012) reported that a
tion, problem-solving skills, and learning project-based digital storytelling approach was
achievement. helpful in effectively enhancing the students’
science learning motivation, problem-solving
competence, and learning achievement. How-
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ever, some research has also found that digital
games do not necessarily promote learning
Many researchers have considered that appro-
achievement (Kuo, 2007; O’Leary, Diepenhorst,
priate materials or instruction allow children to
& Churley-Strom, 2005). From 68 studies on
learn happily while playing games (Hwang, &
digital game-based learning, Randel, Morris,
Wu, 2012; Norman, 1981). Compared to other
Wetzel and Whitehall (1992) discovered that
modes of learning, games are considered more
38 (56%) of them did not present significant
acceptable and accessible to children and could

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 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015 89

differences, and merely 22 (32%) resulted in interests and habits. Eck (2006) regarded that
better performance. Alsagoff (2005) also argued learners would generate cognitive imbalance,
the difficulty of ensuring the effect of games assimilation, and adaptation in games so as to
on learning achievement. Besides, the past construct personal cognition, and Hwang, Wu
research on games has mostly focused on learn- and Chen (2007) indicated that a favorable
ing motivation (Hoffman & Nadelson, 2010; instructional system requires the integration
Hwang, Wu, & Chen, 2012; Huang, Huang, & of information technology and instructional
Tschopp, 2010; Warren, Dondlinger, & Barab, strategies. Digital game-based learning should
2008). The effects of digital game-based learn- therefore take learning strategies and learning
ing on learning achievement and transformation theories into account (Charsky & Ressler, 2011;
of learning knowledge therefore still require Chuang & Chen, 2009; Wang & Chen, 2010).
further discussion. Cheng and Chen (2008) indicated that
Warren, Dondlinger, McLeod, and Bigenho learners could operate activities independently
(2012) integrated game elements, PBL methods or with a group in an interactive game-based
and 3-D communication tools in a web-based learning environment, where the learning effect
learning environment for teaching the students could be promoted by peer communication and
an introductory computing course. The results experience feedback. Tuzun, Meryen, Kara-
of their study showed that the students en- kus, Inal and Kızılkaya (2009) mentioned that
hanced their technology skills, improved their digital games could enhance students’ learning
understanding of the role that interpersonal motivation and independent learning capability.
communications play in learning and in career Some researchers have further indicated that
success, their sense of the usefulness of access- the digital game-based learning approach is
ing resources, and their willingness to explore helpful to students in terms of improving their
and experiment in such a learning environment. learning achievements (Yien, Hung, Hwang, &
Several researchers have indicated that Lin, 2011) as well as enhancing their learning
situated learning could be presented in games attitudes toward science (Hwang, Sung, Hung,
so that learners could construct real knowledge Yang, & Huang, 2012).
in virtual situations (Eck, 2006; Oblinger, On the other hand, educators have indicated
2004; Pivec, 2007; Sung & Hwang, 2013). the importance of engaging students in project-
Tennyson and Jorczak (2008) discovered that based learning tasks to help them construct
situation-oriented digital learning environments knowledge and improve their problem-solving
could arouse learning interest, while Hwang, competence (Oblinger, 2004; Verhoeven,
Wu, and Chen (2012) proposed that problem- Schnotz, & Paas, 2009; van Aalst, 2009).
solving situations should be provided in games Consequently, researchers have suggested
in order to enhance learning and build personal conducting knowledge-constructing activities
learning experiences in natural science courses. in elementary schools (Segers & Verhoeven,
This study proposed a competitive board game 2009), including engaging students in digital
for conducting web-based problem-solving game development activities (Robertson &
activities. Each location of the game board Howells, 2008).
corresponds to a gaming task, which could be
a web-based information-searching question
or a mini-game. Accordingly, learners could 3. METHODS
construct personal knowledge and solve prob-
A quasi-experimental with nonequivalent-
lems in situated learning environments. Hsiao
control group design was applied in this study.
(2007) found that learners were likely to feel
The independent variables were the different
involved and invest in role playing in digital
modes of learning, and the dependent variables
games, while Huh (2008) mentioned that game-
were the students’ achievement on a science test,
based learning should correspond to learners’

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90 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015

their problem-solving process, problem-solving five-point Likert scale. The Cronbach’s α val-
affect, intrinsic incentive, extrinsic motivation, ues of the two dimensions were 0.86 and 0.86,
and work value. The experimental group learned showing good reliability of the scale.
with the game development approach, while the The learning motivation scale was proposed
control group learned by playing a digital game. by Pintrich (1991). It included four questions
for intrinsic incentive, four for extrinsic motiva-
3.1. Participants tion, and six for work value. The Cronbach’s α
values of the three dimensions were 0.74, 0.62
The participants were 59 sixth graders in two and 0.9, presenting acceptable reliability.
classes of an elementary school. One class was The game development tool, Kodu, is free
the experimental group, and the other was the and programmable software, which is suitable
control group. A total of 30 students (18 males for elementary level students. The games de-
and 12 females) were in the experimental group, veloped with Kodu can be executed on an Xbox
and 29 students (18 males and 11 females) were or a PC. Learners are able to design the geog-
in the control group. All of the students were raphy, world, and figures as well as control the
taught by the same teacher. movement, voice, and vision of the characters.
3.2. Research Tools 3.3. Learning Tasks
The research tools of this study included a The course unit “Knowing rocks in nature”
pre-test for evaluating the prior knowledge of was selected for conducting the learning activi-
the students before participating in the learn- ties. The students needed to learn the features,
ing activity and a post-test developed based compositions and usage of the target rocks,
on the instructional objectives of the learning such as igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and
activity. Two experienced teachers were invited metamorphic rocks.
to inspect the test content, question purposes, The activity period was 90 minutes. Both
question meanings, number of questions, and the experimental group and the control group
wording corresponding to the evaluation of had identical learning contents and the same
science. The pre-test was developed to test instructor leading the learning. The experi-
the students’ prior knowledge of learning the mental group was asked to develop a digital
course unit “Knowing rocks in nature.” The game based on the learning content, while the
pre-test consisted of 16 true-false questions, control group played a digital game to learn
20 multiple-choice questions, and 3 short an- the content. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the
swer questions with a total score of 100. The learning scenarios of the experimental group
post-test was developed to test the students’ students who were developing digital games
knowledge of what they had learned from the using Kudo. Figure 3 and Figure 4 depict two
learning activity such as the features of rocks, games developed by the students.
the composition and usage of the target rocks,
such as igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and 3.4. Procedure
metamorphic rocks. The post-test consisted
of 20 multiple-choice questions with a total Before the experiment, the experimental group
score of 100. The Cronbach’s alpha values of was taught the operation of Kodu. Following
the pre-test and post-test were 0.842 and 0.823, that, both groups took the pre-test, and com-
respectively. pleted the problem-solving skills and learn-
The problem-solving scale was revised ing motivation scales. Based on the identical
from the scale proposed by Pan (2001). It contents, the experimental group (30 students)
consisted of fifteen questions for the problem- learned with the game development approach,
solving skills dimension and fifteen for the and the control group (29 students) played
problem-solving affect dimension, based on a an educational computer game. The time for

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 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015 91

Figure 1. A student applying Kodu to design a game about the composition of rocks

Figure 2. A student applying Kodu to design a game about the composition of rocks

conducting the learning activity was 90 minutes group students also took part in an interview,
for both groups. After the learning activity, the as shown in Figure 5.
students completed the problem-solving skills
and the learning motivation scales, and took
the post-test. In addition, the experimental

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92 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015

Figure 3. Geography designed by student a

Figure 4. Geography designed by student b

4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT in terms of improving the problem-solving skills

of the students. The mean values and standard
4.1. Problem-Solving Performance- deviations of the pre-questionnaire scores were
Problem-Solving Skills 3.64 and 0.50 for the experimental group, and
3.51 and 0.65 for the control group. The t-test
The first aim of this study was to examine the ef- result (t=0.87, p >.05) shows that there was no
fectiveness of the game development approach significant difference between the two groups;

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 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015 93

Figure 5. Procedure of conducting the experiment

consequently, it is evident that the two groups of Table 2 shows the ANCOVA result for the
students had equivalent problem-solving skills post-test scores by excluding the effects of the
before the learning activity, as shown in Table 1. pre-test scores for problem-solving skills. The
Before conducting ANCOVA, the Levene’s result achieved a significant level with F = 6.34
test was applied to test the homogeneity of vari- (p<.05). The adjusted mean of the experimental
ance to investigate whether the data satisfied group was 3.76, while that of the control group
the criterion of normal distribution. By analyz- was 3.50, showing that the former outperformed
ing the interaction between the independent the latter. That is, the game development ap-
variables of problem-solving skills and the proach could effectively enhance the students’
covariance, it was found that the interaction problem-solving skills.
did not reach a significant level with F=0.71
(p>.05), implying that analysis of covariance
could be performed.

Table 1. T-test result of the pre-questionnaire scores on students’ problem-solving skills

Variable Group N Mean S.D. T

Pre-questionnaire Experimental group 30 3.64 0.50 0.87
Control group 29 3.51 0.65
p>.05

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94 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015

4.2. Problem-Solving Performance- 4.3. Learning Achievement

Problem-Solving Affect
Table 5 shows the t-test result of the pre-test
The second aim of this study was to examine scores. The mean values and standard deviations
the effectiveness of the game development of the pre-test scores were 81.13 and 10.65 for
approach in terms of improving the students’ the experimental group, and 80.69 and 12.68
problem-solving affect. The mean values and for the control group. The t-test result (t=0.15,
standard deviations of the pre-questionnaire p>.05) shows that there was no significant dif-
scores were 3.89 and 0.55 for the experimental ference between the two groups; consequently,
group, and 3.71 and 0.63 for the control group. it is evident that the two groups of students had
The t-test result (t=1.18, p >.05) shows that equivalent prior knowledge before the learning
there was no significant difference between the activity.
two groups; consequently, it is evident that the Table 6 shows the ANCOVA result. It was
two groups of students had equivalent problem- found that F=6.12 and p<.05, achieving signifi-
solving affect before the learning activity, as cance after excluding the effects of the pre-test
shown in Table 3. scores. It is surprising to find that the adjusted
Table 4 shows the ANCOVA results for the mean of the experimental group was 56.00,
problem-solving affect ratings. It was found while that of the control group was 71.03, imply-
that they did not achieve significance with F ing that just playing the educational computer
=1.11 (p>.05) after excluding the effects of the game was more helpful to the students in terms
pre-questionnaire ratings.

Table 2. ANCOVA result of the post-questionnaire scores for students’ problem-solving skills

Variable Group N Mean S.D. Adjusted Std.Error. F

Mean
Post-questionnaire Experimental group 30 3.81 0.55 3.76 .07 6.34*
Control group 29 3.44 0.69 3.50 .07
*p<.05

Table 3. T-test result of the pre-questionnaire scores for students’ problem-solving affect

Variable Group N Mean S.D. T

Pre-questionnaire Experimental group 30 3.89 0.55 1.18
Control group 29 3.71 0.63
p>.05

Table 4. The ANCOVA results of the post-questionnaire scores for students’ problem-solving skills

Adjusted Std.Error.
Variable Group N Mean S.D. F
Mean
Post-questionnaire Experimental group 30 3.47 0.94 3.41 .13 1.11
Control group 29 3.53 0.66 3.60 .13
p>.05

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 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015 95

Table 5. T-test result of the pre-test scores

Variable Group N Mean S.D. T

Pre-test Experimental group 30 81.13 10.65 0.15
Control group 29 80.69 12.68
p>.05

of improving their learning achievements than In Table 8, the descriptive data and the
learning with the game development approach. analysis of covariance results of the post-
questionnaire for intrinsic incentive, extrinsic
4.4. Learning Motivation motivation and work value are displayed. In the
and Work Value intrinsic incentive scale, the variance F=8.02
(p<.01) achieved significance after excluding
Table 7 shows the t-test results of the intrinsic the effects of the pre-test scores on the post-
incentive ratings, the extrinsic motivation and questionnaire scores. The “intrinsic incentive
the work value of the students. The mean val- scale” post-questionnaire scores present re-
ues and standard deviations of the “intrinsic markable differences between the two groups.
incentive” pre-questionnaire scores were 3.23 The adjusted average of the experimental group
and 0.78 for the experimental group, and 3.34 was 2.64, while that of the control group was
and 0.88 for the control group. The t-test re- 3.28. This also shows that the game development
sult (t=-0.52, p >.05) shows that there was no approach had negative effects on the students’
significant difference between the two groups. intrinsic incentive.
For “extrinsic motivation,” the mean values and After using the pre-test scores of the “ex-
standard deviations of the pre-questionnaire trinsic motivation” scale as the covariance,
scores were 3.23 and 0.74 for the experimental Analysis of Covariance showed that the interac-
group, and 3.17 and 0.94 for the control group. tion between the independent variables in the
The t-test result (t=-0.52, p>.05) shows that “extrinsic motivation” scale and the covariance,
there was no significant difference between F=1.79 (p>.05), did not achieve significance.
the two groups. The mean values and standard Analysis of covariance could therefore be
deviations of the work value pre-questionnaire carried out. The variance F =11.75 (p<.01)
scores were 3.45 and 0.84 for the experimental achieved significance after excluding the effects
group, and 3.36 and 0.90 for the control group. of the pre-test scores on the post-questionnaire
The t-test result (t=-0.41, p>.05) shows that scores in the “extrinsic motivation” scale. The
once again there was no significant difference post-questionnaire scores therefore exhibit
between the two groups. Therefore, the three significant differences between the two groups
questionnaire results show that the two groups of students. The adjusted average of the ex-
of students had equivalent intrinsic incentive, perimental group was 2.59, while that of the
extrinsic motivation and work value before the control group was 3.30. Similarly, the game
learning activity, as shown in Table 7.

Table 6. ANCOVA results of the post-test scores

Variable Group N Mean S.D. Adjusted Mean Std.Error. F

Post-test Experimental group 30 56.00 23.54 55.97 4.28 6.12*
Control group 29 71.03 23.04 71.07 4.35
*p<.05

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96 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015

Table 7. T-test results of the pre-questionnaire ratings of intrinsic incentive, extrinsic motivation
and work value

Pre-Questionnaire
Group N Mean S.D. t
Variable
Experimental group 30 3.23 0.78 -0.52
Intrinsic incentive
Control group 29 3.34 0.88
Experimental group 30 3.23 0.74 0.24
Extrinsic motivation
Control group 29 3.17 0.94
Experimental group 30 3.45 0.84 0.41
Work value
Control group 29 3.36 0.90

Table 8. The descriptive data and analysis of covariance results of the post-questionnaire for
intrinsic incentive, extrinsic motivation and work value

Post-Questionnaire Adjusted Std.

Group N Mean S.D. F
Variable Mean Error
Intrinsic incentive Experimental group 30 2.63 1.03 2.64 0.16 8.02**
Control group 29 3.29 0.70 3.28 0.16
Extrinsic motivation Experimental group 30 2.59 0.92 2.59 0.15 11.75**
Control group 29 3.29 0.66 3.30 0.15
Work value Experimental group 30 2.69 1.08 2.68 0.17 7.17**
Control group 29 3.29 0.73 3.31 0.17
**p<.01

development approach negatively affected the the game development approach decreased the
students’ extrinsic motivation. students’ perception of work value.
The third scale is “work value.” After using
the pre-test scores in the work value scale as 4.5. Interviews
the covariance, analysis of covariance displayed
that the interaction between the independent After the instructional activities, 26 students
variables in the “work value” scale and the from the experimental group were randomly
covariance, F=0.01 (p>.05), did not achieve selected to take part in one-on-one interviews.
significance. Analysis of covariance could Each interview took on average 8 minutes.
therefore be performed. According to the students’ opinions, four ad-
In this scale, the variance F =7.17 (p<.01) vantages and three drawbacks were proposed
achieved significance after excluding the effects for the game development learning strategies,
of the pre-test scores on the post-questionnaire as discussed below.
scores in the “work value” scale. The post-
4.5.1. Advantages
questionnaire scores therefore present remark-
able differences between the two groups. The With regard to learning motivation, fifteen stu-
adjusted average of the experimental group was dents liked learning with the game development
2.68, while that of the control group was 3.31. method. The following comments illustrate the
The experimental result therefore shows that students’ attitudes regarding the motivational

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 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015 97

aspect of the activity: “Such instruction was not knowledge” (A5, A6, A18, A19 & A28), “Such
stressful so I could learn easily” (A1 & A14), “I learning was helpful” (A11, A13, A20 & A26),
could actively learn and carefully understand the “I realized that there were so many different
designed geography” (A3), “Designing games kinds of rocks, and I hope to understand more
allowed me to be familiar with science” (A7), with such learning” (A24), “There was a lot to
“Such game development made me like learn- learn. With the game development, I gradually
ing” (A9), “It allowed me to actively learn with absorbed the knowledge” (A14), “It could enrich
computer functions” (A4), “I felt that I could my knowledge” (A9), and “Dynamic learning
increase my knowledge with such instruction. made it easier to absorb knowledge than static
I really liked it” (A7), “Such instruction was learning” (A22).
interesting, and we loved it” (A6, A17 & A27), With regard to creativity, 6 students thought
“Such a relaxing way of learning made me like that the game development method enabled
the course more” (A19, A25 & A26), and “We them to learn programming and develop creativ-
preferred such instruction, which meant we ity. For instance, they made comments such as:
could learn more” (A20 & A29). “I learned how to design games so I will design
Regarding problem-solving, 13 students more games for others with the software” (A22),
believed that the game development method “Such a method allowed us to learn program-
allowed them to learn problem-solving via ming functions” (A23), “The software allows
developing the games. The students’ comments people to develop creativity” (A14), “Such a tool
included: “We learned to solve problems and made the game development process very ef-
knew more about rocks. We hope to have a ficient” (A19), “Such game development could
chance to do it again” (A1, A10 & A18), “Such help me experience various design methods”
learning allowed me to learn more knowledge (A20), and “Such game development is like
and problem-solving methods” (A25 & A26), “I breaking through barriers which allowed me
could design games, find solutions for problems, to absorb knowledge” (A1).
and deal with answers at the same time” (A17),
“It could help me solve problems and increase 4.5.2. Drawbacks
my interest in computers” (A4), “It could in-
crease my knowledge so that I could rapidly However, in contrast to the positive comments
respond to problems” (A5 & A7), “Such games about the game development process, there
could help me solve problems” (A14 & A16), “I was also some negative feedback. Regarding
could find solutions in the game development the curriculum design, 7 students considered
process” (A24), and “Such instruction helped the course contents with game development as
me a lot with my problem-solving, as I had difficult. For example, the following comments
different experiences which would allow me to were made: “Such a game development course
flexibly apply knowledge to problem-solving did not attract me at all” (A19), “[I was] not
in the future” (A25). in favor of the design topic” (A29), “Design-
In terms of learning achievement, 18 stu- ing games for rocks was too difficult” (A16),
dents revealed that they felt a sense of achieve- “Such learning was interesting, but difficult”
ment and absorbed new knowledge with the (A22), “The design course was a bit difficult.
game development method. For example, they I wish the teacher had just had us play games”
commented: “Game development was interest- (A27), “Design was difficult” (A28), and “Such
ing and I had a lot of fun and got a sense of a design course was hard” (A23).
achievement from it” (A10 & A28), “It could With regard to time control, 4 students
help me know about rocks and their characteris- agreed that the game development was fun;
tics” (A2), “Such learning allowed me to learn however, they could not fully design the game
a lot of new knowledge” (A4 & A15), “Such in the restricted time. For example, comments
learning was relaxing and I could absorb new included: “The game was great, but the time

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98 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015

was hard to control” (A18), “The game was content. Although their problem-solving skills
interesting, but the time was insufficient” (A16), were improved, their learning achievements
“I could not keep up with the schedule in the were not as good as expected. The lack of time
restricted time” (A28), and “It was a pity that to complete their learning tasks could also be
I could not complete the work because of time, the reason for them to show lower motivations
although I could absorb abundant knowledge” since their mental pressure could be much higher
(A24). than that of those students who just played
Due to the software’s English interface, games rather than developing them. This find-
2 students were concerned about the learning ing confirms the results of the research carried
load. For instance, A27 mentioned, “I liked the out by Sampayo-Vargas, Cope, He, and Byrne
program, but it was inconvenient to read Eng- (2013). They found that students who used an
lish,” while A16 indicated that, “The English adaptive difficulty adjustment game showed
interface increased the load.” no statistically significant difference than those
who learned with the incremental difficulty
adjustment game and the written activity with
5. CONCLUSION AND regard to motivation because of limited time.
SUGGESTIONS Moreover, from the results of the online game
approach combined with problem-solving
In this study, a game development approach
activities proposed by Hwang, Wu, and Chen
was proposed. An experiment on the “Know-
(2012), it can be found that using a combination
ing rocks in nature” unit of an elementary
of a board game interface, a learning manage-
school natural science course showed that the
ment mechanism, a gaming mechanism, and a
proposed approach could improve the students’
link to a search engine (i.e., Google search) is
problem-solving skills. Choi and Baek (2011)
an efficient model for improving students’ learn-
inferred that students’ intrinsic motivations
ing of problem-solving abilities. The learning
are promoted in online game-based learning
model could be a drawback because we did not
environments and that students are highly en-
integrate web-based learning activities.
gaged in the tasks. However, the students who
Accordingly, four suggestions are proposed
learned with the game development approach in
for further implementation of game develop-
this study showed significantly worse learning
ment learning approaches: (1) Although the
achievement and lower learning motivations
operation of the software was instructed before
than those who learned with the conventional
the experiment, the time allowed for designing
digital game-based learning approach. As the
the game was insufficient for the experimental
flow experience while players play games
group. It is suggested that time be taken into
is able to encourage and support students to
account in further research; (2) The students
face more complicated and greater challenges
appeared to have strong interest in game devel-
(Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988),
opment. However, when introducing it into the
it can be further inferred that these surprising
curriculum design, their motivation was reduced
results could be due to the higher challenges
as they lacked interest in using educational
of developing games than playing games.
software. Therefore, it is suggested that teach-
Usually it takes time to develop a game. The
ers introduce the game development software
students need to interpret the learning content
with better instructional strategies, such as
and organize the content before adding it to the
presenting previous works developed by other
game. Moreover, they need to design gaming
students, or providing an online peer-discussion
characters, scenarios and stories. Therefore,
forum; (3) Kodu is visualized design software
it is inferred that the students who learned
suitable for higher grade elementary school
with the game development approach did not
students. Nevertheless, the English interface
have enough time to comprehend the learning
became an additional load for the students. As

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 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015 99

a result, design software with an interface in Cheng, Y. M., & Chen, P. F. (2008). Building an
the native language of the students is regarded Online Game-Based Learning System for Elementary
School. The International Conference on Intelligent
as more suitable; and (4) Instructional activity
Information Hiding and Multimedia Signal Process-
design is considered as the key in implementing ing, Harbin, China, August 15-17. doi:10.1109/
game development-based learning activities. IIH-MSP.2008.328
Consequently, instructional activities should
Chuang, T. Y., & Chen, W. F. (2009). Effect of
be planned in advance. computer-based video games on children: An experi-
mental study. Journal of Educational Technology &
Society, 12(2), 1–10.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Dempsey, J. V., Rasmussen, K., & Lucassen. B.,
This study is supported in part by the National (1994). Instructional gaming: implication for tech-
Science Council of the Republic of China under nology. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. EJ368345).
contract numbers NSC 101-2628-S-031 -001
-MY2, NSC 102-2511-S-031 -001. Dickey, M. D. (2010). Murder on Grimm Isle: The
impact of game narrative design in an educational
game-based learning environment. British Journal
of Educational Technology. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
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102 International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 13(1), 87-102, January-March 2015

Hui-Chun Chu is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer Science and
Information Management at Soochow University, Taiwan. Dr. Chu received her Ph.D. degree from
that department in July, 2009. Her research interests include mobile and ubiquitous learning,
Game-based learning, information technology-applied instructions, and knowledge engineering
in education. Dr. Chu has published nearly 80 academic papers, including 36 academic journal
papers in such professional journals as Computers & Education, British Journal of Educational
Technology, Educational Technology & Society and Electronic Library among others. She cur-
rently serves as the guest co-editor of International Journal of Distance Education Technologies,
and Interactive Learning Environments (SSCI).

Chun-Ming Hung is the Director of Academic Affairs in the Tainan Municipal Haidong Elementary
School, Tainan, Taiwan. His research interests include mobile and ubiquitous learning, digital
game-based learning and web-based learning.

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