LWT - Food Science and Technology 154 (2022) 112667

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LWT
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Protein-based functional colloids and their potential applications in food:

A review
Alweera Ashfaq a, Kausar Jahan b, Rayees Ul Islam a, Kaiser Younis a, *
a
Department of Bioengineering, Integral University, Lucknow, U.P, 226026, India
b
Department of Bioscience, Integral University, Lucknow, U.P, 226026, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The development of biopolymer-based functional colloids has potential application in the food sector for the
Functional colloids fabrication of food products to fit in the current and future trends in this field. Protein is one of the most
Hydrogels abundant biopolymers which can be used to synthesize innovative food ingredients due to their functional
Oleogels: molecular conjugates
properties. Various functional colloids such as micro and nano complexes, molecular conjugates, edible films,
Pickering emulsions
hydrogels, oleogels, Pickering emulsions, etc. Can be prepared by proteins and their interactions with other
biopolymers. Functional colloids have several applications such as stabilization of food, targeted delivery of
bioactive compounds, preservation of food by edible coating and replacement of trans fatty acids as well as
controlled solubilization of lipid in gastrointestinal fluids. In this review paper, recent studies on the different
types of protein-based functional colloids and their applications in the food sector have been discussed.

1. Introduction emphasis has been made on utilizing and designing colloidal particles
for the development of food products with modified nutritional and
Food is the most essential part of our life. The consumption pattern of physicochemical properties. In various studies, it has been found that
food has changed adequately in the past few years and became a chal­ food proteins can be effectively used in designing functional colloids
lenge for the food industries to develop novel food products, enriched which has various potential applications in food industries such as in the
with nutrients, full of taste, and cost-effective at the same time. The targeted delivery of bioactive compounds and in the manipulation of
constituents and their interactions determine the chemical, organoleptic food-body interactions to improve the bioavailability of nutrient,
and nutritional properties of foods. The components of food like pro­ digestion and oral perception (McClements, 2017). The gelation and
teins, polysaccharides, fats, water, minerals, and various other compo­ aggregation properties of a protein are analyzed to entrap and protect
nents present in small amounts are responsible for food structure. bioactive compounds from unfavorable storage, processing conditions
Among them, protein is one of the most studied constituents in the and to produce a delivery system at macro, micro, and nanoscale. Food
development of food colloids due to their properties such as dis­ colloids are also designed to develop novel food products to imitate fat
persibility (as colloids), solubility, biodegradability (Martins, Bourbon, and to control satiety. The application of functional colloids in food
Pinheiro, Fasolin, & Vicente, 2018). The functional properties of a requires the use of the food-grade ingredient in the fabrication of
protein depend on the type and sequence of amino acids which can be designer colloids and therefore, the biopolymers (protein, poly­
improved by various physical (high pressure, radiation, ultrasound, saccharides, and lipids) are being explored and modified to match the
lyophilization), chemical (acylation, glycosylation, deamidation, properties of synthetic polymers in designing functional and engineered
cross-linking), and enzymatic methods (oxidases, transglutaminase, colloids.
endopeptidase) (Chen et al., 2021; Liu, Wang, Hu, Cai, & Qin, 2019; This review aims to discuss the advanced colloids developed by the
Quan, Benjakul, Sae-leaw, Balange, & Maqsood, 2019). Food is consid­ interaction of the protein with various biopolymers and their potential
ered a highly complex soft matter that contains macromolecules and application in the food sector.
colloidal structures which influences its stability and structure (McCle­
ments, 2017; van der Sman & van der Goot, 2009). In recent years great

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Younis).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112667
Received 7 August 2021; Received in revised form 25 September 2021; Accepted 18 October 2021
Available online 18 October 2021
0023-6438/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Ashfaq et al. LWT 154 (2022) 112667

2. Functional colloids produced by protein-biopolymer by one or more types of protein and biopolymers using the mechanism of
interactions aggregative and segregative particle formation based on the utilization
of attractive and repulsive forces (Joye et al, 2015).
Protein biopolymer interaction is an area of interest for researchers
to develop novel food structures like nano/microparticles, nanogels,
2.2. Molecular conjugates
films, hydrogels, oleogels, etc. Fig. 1 represents various functional col­
loids, polymers involved in its design and its application. Various
Protein is the most commonly used ingredient in food structuring due
functional colloids, their preparation methods, and futuristic applica­
to its distinct functional properties and high nutritional values. Protein
tions are discussed in Table 1.
from animal sources such as whey protein, gelatin, bovine serum albu­
min, caseinate, ovotransferrin, and plant proteins like soy protein,
2.1. Micro and nanoparticles peanut protein, and corn protein can be combined with polysaccharide
and polyphenols for the preparation of molecular conjugates (Liu, Ma,
Micro and nanoparticles can be produced by the combination of one Gao, & McClements, 2017).
or more types of protein or by the combination of proteins and bio­
polymers mainly polysaccharides (Joye et al, 2015). 2.2.1. Protein-polyphenol conjugates
Protein-polysaccharide-based nanoparticles can be simply produced by Protein polyphenol conjugates have improved antioxidant properties
pH adjustment and heat treatment. Protein-polysaccharide nano com­ due to the presence of polyphenols and thus the intake of food products
plexes lead to more chemical and colloidal protection, compared to rich in these compounds provides prevention to cardiovascular diseases,
these two polymers taken individually. Protein and polysaccharide diabetes mellitus, and cancer (Quan et al., 2019). Conjugation of protein
mixing in an aqueous medium lead to the occurrence of two phenomena: with polyphenols changes its digestibility. Protein polyphenol conju­
repulsive and attractive interactions depending on the charge of both gates have reduced nutritional qualities due to the decreased availability
biopolymers, protein/polysaccharide ratio, charge density, pH, ionic of some amino acids (Czubinski and Dwiecki, 2017) Polyphenols can
strength, molecular weight, and processing conditions such as temper­ remain in the gastrointestinal tract for a longer period due to their po­
ature, pressure, time and shear rate (Ghasemi, Jafari, Assadpour, & tential to form nonsoluble complexes and low absorptivity. These active
Khomeiri, 2017). polyphenols can inhibit the enzymes such as α-amylase, α-glucosidase,
Nanocomplexes of β lactoglobulin (protein) and alginate (poly­ pancreatic lipase, pepsin, and trypsin involved in the digestion of starch,
saccharide) at a concentration of 0.8:0.4% (w/w) were produced by lipids, and protein. The reduced digestion of starch and lipids are
adjusting the pH to 4.25 (Hosseini, Emam-Djomeh, Sabatino, & van der beneficial in designing low-calorie diets while reduced protein digestion
Meeren, 2015). Microgels and nanogels are used in food for the delivery reduces the bioavailability of essential amino acids (CirkovicVelickovic
of bioactive compounds and the stabilization of two immiscible in­ & Stanic-Vucinic, 2018). Protein and polyphenol can bind with both
terfaces in generally foamed and emulsified products (Martins et al., covalent and non-covalent interactions but in the food sector, covalent
2018). Micro and nanoparticles are used in food also to improve the interactions are preferred due to their strong interaction and good sta­
organoleptic and physicochemical properties of products. The protein bility (Liu et al., 2017; You, Luo, & Wu, 2014). Protein phenolic con­
nanoparticles are fabricated to provide protected delivery of bioactive jugates can be synthesized by alkaline method (based on the oxidation of
compounds and lipid nanoparticles provide triglycerides that enhance phenols), free radical grafting method, enzyme-catalyzed method
the availability of bioactive compounds in the gastrointestinal tract (limited applications as compared to alkaline and free radical grafting
(McClements, 2017). Nanoparticles can be formed by (Fig. 2) one type of method, the mechanism is almost similar to that of alkaline method),
protein itself-assembly of flexible protein, thermal denaturation of a and chemical coupling method (Liu, Yong, et al., 2019) Protein type and
globular protein, electrospinning, spray drying and can also be formed phenolic structure are two major factors that affect the interaction of

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the functional colloids, their starting ingredients, and application.

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Table 1
Functional colloids preparation methods and potential applications.
Functional Starting material Preparation methods Properties Potential applications References
colloids

Nanocomplexes β lg: polysaccharide Electrostatic interactions Curcumin incorporation Drug delivery Hosseini et al. (2015)
increased the size from 269 nm to
278 nm; folic acid incorporation
increased the size from 269 nm to
>1 μm; improved encapsulation
for hydrophobic and hydrophilic
bioactive compounds
Whey protein: pectin Electrostatic interactions WPC-Pectin loaded with orange Delivery and controlled Ghasemi et al. (2017)
peel oil have a particle size release of orange peel oil
between 50 and 200 nm
Molecular SPI: tea polyphenol extract Freeze drying the SPI- tea Improved emulsifying capacity Food emulsifier Djuardi et al. (2020)
conjugates polyphenol solution and stability
Casein:Polysaccharide Maillard reaction Improved emulsification and Emulsifier, bioactive (Abd El-Salam &
foaming properties compound encapsulation El-Shibiny, 2020)
Ovotransferrin: catechin Free radical method or Improved antioxidant property Functional food and You et al. (2014)
alkaline method nutraceutical ingredient
Films Soy protein-based film By drying SPI mixture CNCs and PNE improves the Active food packaging Yu et al. (2018)
incorporated with CNC and incorporated with glycerol, mechanical, physical, and
PNE CNCs, and PNE at controlled antimicrobial properties of soy
temperature and humidity protein-based films
SPI: Fish gelatin By drying the SPI: Fish gelatin MKE addition in SPI: Fish gelatin Active packaging, Maryam Adilah,
mixture incorporated with improved its tensile strength and antioxidant films Jamilah, and
glycerol, MKE, soy lecithin oxygen scavenging properties NurHanani (2018)
under controlled temperature
and humidity
Emulsions 0/W emulsions stabilized by Dispersing protein blends in Improved physical stability in Optimization of amino Alonso-Miravalles,
quinoa and lentil protein preheated water followed by unheated emulsions and low acid profile and Zannini, Bez, Arendt, &
blends Ph adjustment; homogenizing viscosity development on heating improvement of thermal O’Mahony (2021)
sunflower oil with protein and colloidal stability of
blend dispersion the plant-based liquid
emulsion
Glycated whey protein By homogenizing the mixture Improved interfacial tension of Delivery of curcumin in Yu et al. (2021)
isolate-chitooligosaccharide of glycated protein-COS with the formed protein/COS solid functional foods.
(COS) based Pickering medium-chain triglyceride. particles, the emulsion
emulsion viscoelasticity increased, and the
free energy decreased, thus
prevents the coalescence of
droplets formed
Whey protein isolate-lactose By homogenizing the mixture Improved thermal stability, and Encapsulation of curcumin Liu, Wang, Hu, Cai, and
and epigallocatechin gallate of whey protein isolate- curcumin retention capacity Qin (2019)
based Pickering emulsion lactose and epigallocatechin
gallate with medium-chain
triglyceride.
Hydrogels WPI: LMP Cold set gelation at low pH Improved stability at a wide range Bioactive compound Wijaya, van der Meeren,
of pH delivery, biomedical and Patel (2017)
applications
Soy protein: soy High-pressure Protect folic acid from heat, light, Delivery of folic acid in Ding and Yao (2013)
polysaccharide homogenization and heating and oxygen under acidic food and beverages
conditions
Oleogels Soy protein and soy protein: Emulsion templated Improved emulsion stability Saturated fat replacement Tavernier et al. (2017)
κ carrageenan
EWP: Xanthan gum Aerogel templated Improved mechanical strength Saturated fat replacement (Jaberi et al., 2020)(
and stability Jaberi et al., 2020)

β lg, β lactoglobulin; WPC, whey protein concentrate; SPI, soy protein isolate; CNC, cellulose nanocrystals; PNE, pine needle extract; WPI, whey protein isolate; LMP,
low methoxy pectin; EWP, egg white protein.

protein polyphenol conjugates (Czubinski & Dwiecki, 2017). Conjugates

prepared from the interaction of soy protein isolate with polyphenols of
green and black tea extract presented improved emulsifying and anti­
oxidant activity (Djuardi, Yuliana, Ogawa, Akazawa, & Suhartono,
2020). Conjugates of egg white protein and tea polyphenol prepared
from traditional and ultrasound-assisted alkaline or free radical method
showed better antioxidant activity than the egg white protein (Jing
et al., 2020). Ovotransferrin on conjugation with catechin which is a
phenolic extract of green tea showed improved antioxidant activity (You
et al., 2014). Protein polyphenol conjugates are used to prepare emul­
sion for nutraceutical delivery, gel (hydrogels and nanoparticles for
site-specific compound release), edible packaging (Liu, Wang, et al.,
2019; Quan et al., 2019).
Fig. 2. Methods used in designing protein-based nanostructures.

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2.2.2. Protein polysaccharide conjugates the combination of protein and polysaccharides can improve the overall
Conjugation of proteins with carbohydrates can improve and modify quality of the film (Patel, 2020). Proteins can also be used to design
the functional properties of the protein. Protein polysaccharide reaction active packaging wherein the interaction of package ingredients with
can be prepared by Maillard reaction by dry heating, wet heating, or food or the environment makes it active (Mihalca et al., 2021). Various
pulsed electric fields through covalent interaction between terminal and antimicrobial agents like essential oils, nanoparticles, bacteriocins,
side chain of the amino group in protein and the reducing end of the acidulants, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid, and antioxidants such as
polysaccharide (Liu et al., 2017; Wijaya, Patel, Setiowati, & van der ascorbic acid, α tocopherols, and ferulic acids are utilized in the for­
Meeren, 2017). Conjugates of sodium caseinate with polysaccharides mation of protein-based active packaging (Chen et al., 2019). The
prepared by Maillard reaction in dry and wet heating conditions have functional and mechanical properties of protein films can be improved
the potential to create new food ingredients of altered functional prop­ by using plasticizers (sugars, glycols, glycerol, sorbitol, xylitol);
erties. Dry heating conditions have an advantage over wet heating cross-linking (by the application of heat, acid-alkaline treatment,
conditions in producing less brownish color conjugates whereas wet enzyme treatment, irradiation, ultrasound, and microwave treatment);
heating conditions are advantageous in proper mixing of reactants and blending with other biopolymers like polysaccharide, lipids, proteins
fast reaction (Abd El-Salam & El-Shibiny, 2020). The (Calva-Estrada, Jiménez-Fernández, & Lugo-Cervantes, 2019). The
protein-polysaccharide conjugates formed by the Maillard reaction can physical and functional properties of films also depend on the sources as
be effectively utilized in the targeted drug and bioactive compounds well as the type of proteins such as proteins obtained from milk protein
delivery, information of edible coating with improved strength and possess unique malleable, colorless, tasteless properties, films prepared
water barrier properties (Nooshkam, Varidi, & Verma, 2020). from whey protein incorporated with almond oil shows good flexibility
Different types of conjugates can be developed depending on the and moisture permeability, films developed from bovine gelatin show
order of reaction such as protein-polysaccharide conjugates with great water repellant properties, zein protein forms adhesive films
exposed reactive groups can be modified by polyphenols, protein poly­ having oxygen scavenging, water repellent, antibacterial properties
phenol conjugates having exposed reactive group can react with poly­ (Mihalca et al., 2021) Biopolymers having different characteristics
saccharides, polyphenol polysaccharide conjugates can be altered by (whey protein isolate: zein) were used to fabricate composite films
protein to form ternary conjugates (Liu et al., 2017). Glycated protein having good heat sealability and solubility in hot water (Tsai & Weng,
and chitooligosaccharide-based Pickering emulsions for curcumin de­ 2019). Kaewprachu, Osako, Benjakul, Tongdeesoontorn, & Rawdkuen,
livery showed good stability and viscoelasticity (Yu et al., 2021). Whey 2016 compared the mechanical, physical, chemical, thermal, and barrier
protein isolate-lactose and epigallocatechin gallate combine through properties of protein-based films and found that the properties of the
hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions to prepare the Picker­ film depend upon the sources of protein. Films developed by field pea
ing emulsion delivery of curcumin (Liu, Wang, et al., 2019). protein isolate showed the highest tensile strength and transparency
which is due to the presence of high molecular weight proteins and
2.2.3. Protein-protein conjugates surface charge. Alkaline pH had improved the transparency and water
Protein-protein interaction refers to the intermolecular and intra­ barrier properties whereas heating improved the tensile strength due to
molecular bonding between protein polypeptides. Protein-protein in­ the protein denaturation and unfolding (Shevkani & Singh, 2015).
teractions are used in the fabrication of various structures ranging from
several nm to a few μm (McManus, Charbonneau, Zaccarelli, & Asherie, 2.4. Foams and emulsions
2016) such as films, emulsion, foam, functional foods, colloids, hydro­
gels, and micelles/vesicles. Self-assembly of proteins comprises more Foams and emulsions can be stabilized by the use of biopolymers in
than one driving force, for example, H-bonding, van der Waals forces, microscale and nanoscale particulate forms. Plant proteins are more
π-π stacking, host-guest, and hydrophobic interactions (Tomadoni, hydrophobic and are therefore used to entrap hydrophobic compounds
Capello, Valencia, & Gutiérrez, 2020). Tsai and Weng (2019)prepared whereas polysaccharides which are hydrophilic by nature stabilize the
whey protein isolate: zein-based composite films which represented colloid by adsorbing at the surface of protein micro and nanoparticles
combined physicochemical properties of both proteins. Proteins have (Dickinson, 2017). The choice of biopolymers and chemical factors such
amphiphilic properties due to which they are widely used in the as pH, time, temperature, pressure, biopolymer ratio, agitation, and
development of hydrogels. Li, Auty, et al. (2019) studied the effect of stirring duration is equally important in the stabilization of emulsions
temperature, calcium chloride, and type of buffer solution on the (Albano, Cavallieri, & Nicoletti, 2019). Food foams can be stabilized by
self-assembly of β-casein pure and β-casein concentrates. They found reducing the tension on the air-water interface with the addition of
that the increase in temperature increases the self-assembly of both surfactants (Wijaya, Patel, et al., 2017). Protein-based Pickering parti­
β-casein products whereas, the addition of calcium chloride increases cles are used to stabilize Pickering emulsions and high internal phase
the thermal aggregation leading to aggregates of more than 500 nm. Pickering emulsions that can be utilized in fabricating nanocomposite
The emulsion has a wide range of applications in the food industry. biodegradable active packaging material, Pickering emulsion-based
Whey protein isolate is enormously used in the preparation of self- foam products, and fat substitutes, respectively (Shi, Feng, Wang, &
assembled emulsions due to their activity in the wide range of isoelec­ Adhikari, 2020). For effective stabilization, the size of the emulsifier
tric point, pH, temperature, and pressure (Tomadoni et al., 2020). Chen should be several folds smaller ranging from nanometers to few micro­
et al. (2018) prepared zein-based self-assembled microencapsulates meters than the emulsifying droplets (Tavernier, Wijaya, van der Mee­
embedded with limonene. They reported that a decrement in the food ren, Dewettinck, & Patel, 2016) Gliadin colloid particles were used by
additive to protein ratio permits the development of food Hu et al. (2016) for Pickering emulsion and Pickering high internal
additive-loaded nanoparticles, thus suggesting that the core: shell ratio phase emulsion. They reported that gliadin colloid particles have the
(w/w) significantly affected the encapsulation. They also found that potential to prepare edible and biocompatible oil in water emulsion
self-assembled products represent the prevention of oxidation controlled having solid fat properties which can be used to replace solid fat.
release of limonene.
2.5. Hydrogels
2.3. Film
Hydrogels are 3-D networks having the capacity to absorb a large
Packaging plays a very important role in increasing the shelf life of amount of water without dissolving in it and can generally be classified
food. Films made up of polysaccharides have good gas barrier properties into i) physical hydrogels which are formed by hydrogen bonds, ionic
and protein films have better strength and oxygen barrier properties so and hydrophobic interactions; ii) chemical hydrogels formed by the

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covalent interactions (Kapoor & Kundu, 2016). Noncovalent bonding acids are produced which can cause cardiovascular diseases so there is a
such as hydrogen bonds, electrostatic bonds, and hydrophobic interac­ need to develop an alternative fat with similar properties and reduced
tion takes place between proteins in the formation of protein-based side effects. Oleogelation is a method used for the conversion of oils into
hydrogels whereas in few cases covalent interactions like disulfide solid fat without increasing the content of saturated fats by immobilizing
bonding may also occur (Klein & Poverenov, 2020). Textural and gela­ the liquid oil in a 3-D network made up of oleogelators (Pehlivanoğlu
tion properties of hydrogels are influenced by various factors such as et al., 2018). In recent years protein has gained much attention in
concentration and type of ions, pH, temperature, ionic strength, and designing structured fat specifically oleogels (Scharfe &Flöter, 2020).
chemical bonding agents used for gelation (Abaee, Mohammadian, & Direct incorporation of protein in the oil phase is challenging as proteins
Jafari, 2017) Smart or intelligent hydrogels are nowadays becoming an are primarily hydrophilic whereas, several direct and indirect methods
area of interest in the field of intended bioactive compounds and drug have been developed (shown in Fig. 4) for the preparation of
delivery as they are structured to tolerate severe body conditions like protein-based oleogels (Feichtinger & Scholten, 2020; Scharfe & Flöter,
temperature and pH (Khan, Ullah, Ullah, & Rehman, 2016). A type of 2020). The emulsion templated method is the most commonly used in­
hydrogel knows as superabsorbent hydrogel can absorb plenty of water direct method of oleogel preparation. Polysaccharides are also used in
so nowadays it is widely used in food packaging. graft polymerization combination with protein to increase the stability of the emulsion. A
technique is used to synthesize superabsorbent hydrogels from proteins combination of soy protein isolate and κ-carrageenan were found more
(Shi, Dumont, & Ly, 2014). Various proteins like soy protein, whey efficient in stabilizing concentrated emulsion in comparison to only soy
protein, gluten, zein, silk protein have been utilized in the formation of protein isolate as reported by (Tavernier, Patel, van der Meeren, &
protein-based hydrogels. Fig. 3 shows different methods of hydrogel Dewettinck, 2017). Aerogel templated technique was used by (Jaberi,
crosslinking. PedramNia, Naji-Tabasi, Elhamirad, & ShafafiZenoozian, 2020) to pre­
In chemical crosslinking of hydrogels, covalent bonds are established pare oleogel using egg white protein and egg white protein-xanthan gum
between functional groups of polymers using enzymatic reactions, combination. They observed egg white protein-xanthan gum-based
chemical interactions, and various chemical agents whereas, in physical aerogels to be more porous and structurally stable as compared to the
crosslinking, no chemical agents are used which eliminates the risk of aerogels made up of egg white protein alone. The effect of oil type on the
the presence of any hazardous group in crosslinking (Khan et al., 2016) preparation of protein-based oleogel was studied by (de Vries, Gomez,
Hydrogels can be used in various industries based on their properties van der Linden, & Scholten, 2017), they reported that gelling properties
such as its rate of swelling, mechanical properties (for food packaging of protein aggregates in oleogel formation depends on particle-particle
and pharmaceutical applications) and biocompatibility (important for and particle solvent interactions (K. Chen & Zhang, 2020). prepared
edible hydrogels)(Ali & Ahmed, 2018). oleogel by aerogel templated technique using protein-polysaccharide
(soy protein: alginates) formed from Maillard interactions. They found
in their study that more polar oil produced weaker gel due to higher
2.6. Oleogels interaction between particle and solvent. Oleogels are mainly used in the
food sector to replace solid vegetable and animal fat to reduce the intake
Solid fats are an important ingredient of many food products to of saturated fatty acids whose excessive consumption can cause adverse
obtain desired organoleptic properties. Different techniques such as health issues such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, obesity, etc.
hydrogenation, fractionation, interesterification, are used to produce
solid fats from vegetable oils but during these mechanisms trans fatty

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of hydrogel cross-linking.

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Fig. 4. Methods of protein-based oleogel preparation.

3. Potential application of functional colloids in food (Patel, 2020).

Functional colloids have various applications in the food sector from

3.2. Development of reduced-fat food products
food structuring to site-specific delivery of bioactive compounds to the
shelf-life extension of fresh food. The properties of protein-based func­
The harmful effect of saturated fats, recent changes in the policy for
tional colloids are sometimes improved by the incorporation of other
the elimination of trans-fatty acid from food products, and the growing
biopolymers with protein to achieve desirable characteristics.
concern of consumers towards healthy, natural, and nutritional food
ingredients are some major driving forces behind the development of
structured lipid that can mimic the functions of solid fat. Most of the
3.1. Delivery of bioactive compounds
baked food products such as cake, cookies, and pastries require solid fat
to obtain desired taste texture, aroma, palatability, and mouthfeel. The
Site-specific delivery and controlled release of bioactive compounds
most recent approach in structuring liquid oils into semisolid organogels
in functional foods have gained much attention in recent years to
is the utilization of biopolymers complexes that have the potential to
improve the bioavailability of the nutritional compounds and shelf life
reduce the intake of fat and control the digestion of lipids. The rheo­
of the food. Functional colloid assisted delivery of bioactive compounds
logical interactions of gels can be altered by changing the type as well as
involves the selection of biocomponents, food matrix, and encapsulation
interactions among polymers and the dispersibility of polymers can be
technique, the bioavailability of targeted compound, packaging mate­
improved by the use of emulsion and foam templated technique (de
rial, organoleptic characteristics, and cost of production. Nano­
Vries, Lopez Gomez, Jansen, van der Linden, & Scholten, 2017). Another
encapsulation is the method to encase bioactive compounds in any
promising strategy to develop reduced-fat and low-calorie products is
physical form within the inert polymer for the controlled release at a
the formation of oil-filled hydrogel in which oil is encapsulated in a
specific site and protection from the external environment (Pateiro
biopolymer mixture (Wijaya, Patel, et al., 2017).
et al., 2021). Protein polysaccharide-based nano compounds are
designed by electrostatic interactions for the delivery of bioactive
compounds in clear beverages at low pH (Hosseini et al., 2015).Protein 3.3. Development of biodegradable films
polysaccharide conjugates have potential applications in micro and
nanoencapsulation (Abd El-Salam & El-Shibiny, 2020). Coacervates, Synthetic polymers used for film formation are generally non-
complexes, or gels formed due to the electrostatic interaction of protein biodegradable and are the cause of environmental pollution. To miti­
and polysaccharides are used in the delivery of bioactive compounds. gate these effects, the search for biodegradable films made up of bio­
But when these coacervates react with themselves, results in coalescence polymers has been increased in the past few years. Films and coating
which limits its usage in encapsulation of bioactive compounds in for­ made up of biopolymers must possess biodegradability, preservation,
tified clear beverages where structural uniformity is required (Hosseini gas, and vapor barrier properties for the effective replacement of syn­
et al., 2015). Protein polyphenols conjugates can be effectively used to thetic polymers in food packaging. Nanocomposite films are produced
carry a variety of hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds by the for­ by the addition of nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, etc. in
mation of an emulsion-based delivery system (Quan et al., 2019) biopolymer-based films to improve their strength, plasticizing, and
Hydrogels prepared from soy and whey globular protein are effective in barrier properties (Calva-Estrada et al., 2019). Protein is one of the best
the intended delivery of nutraceuticals (Abaee et al., 2017). Macronu­ choices for film formation due to its excellent film-forming ability,
trients are considerably studied in the development of enriched and nutritional quality, and biodegradability (Chen et al., 2019). The com­
fortified foods, however; research is required in the field to restructure bination of polyethyleneimine and metal ions with soy protein isolate
these macronutrients for enhancement of functional properties and their improved the mechanical and antibacterial properties of packaging
delivery without compromising with taste and texture of food products material (Li, Ye, et al., 2019). Protein (caseinate and gelatin) based films

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were incorporated with tannins to get active packaging material having understand the digestibility and long-term impacts of these colloids on
antioxidant and antibacterial properties against E. coli and L. innocua the human body.
(Cano, Andres, Chiralt, & González-Martinez, 2020). Nano multilayer
coating methods are effectively used for shelf-life extension of fresh CRediT authorship contribution statement
fruits and vegetables using layer by layer deposition of biopolymers
(Arnon-Rips & Poverenov, 2018). Alweera Ashfaq: The author has written “Functional colloids pro­
duced by protein-biopolymer interactions” portion of manuscript.
3.4. Safety Concerns and Future Prospects Kausar Jahan: The author has written “Introduction and applications of
functional colloids” portion of manuscript. Rayees Ul Islam: The author
There is no doubt that functional colloids have various applications has written “Safety Concerns and Future Prospects “of manuscript.
in designing novel food products with improved organoleptic properties Kaiser Younis: The author has provided the idea and revised the
and health benefits but some risks are also associated with these func­ manuscript.
tional colloids. Long-term consumption of nanomaterials added in foods
directly and in packaging, systems to improve physicochemical prop­
erties can result in toxicity. Even studies need to be done on nano­ Declaration of competing interest
materials obtained from GRAS (Generally recognized as safe) substances
before using them in food products and packaging as the properties of The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
nanoparticles completely differ from their bulk substances. Nano­ interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
materials may cause toxicity by interrupting the metabolism, causing the work reported in this paper.
cytotoxicity by generating reactive oxygen species, accumulating in the
tissues, reduces the activity of microbiota (Patel, 2020).In various Acknowledgments
studies, it is also found that the interaction of the protein with other
polymers such as polyphenols suppresses the activity of some enzymes The authors are grateful to the Integral University Lucknow for
thus, reduces the digestibility of proteins and bioavailability of amino providing the necessary conveniences (IU/R&D/2021-MCN0001293).
acids. Some proteins such as zein, whey, casein, soy may also have
allergic reactions so they also need to be considered while using them in References
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