Chapter 5

Routing
MSc. Nguyen Khanh Loi
[email protected]
2/2021
MSc Nguyen Khanh Loi
Content

v Multi-hop communication
v Link characteristics
v Collection Tree Protocol/DCP

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Wireless Ad-hoc Networks

Two types of wireless network:

v Infrastructured (WLAN)
ü the mobile node can move while communicating
ü the base stations are fixed
ü as the node goes out of the range of a base station, it
gets into the range of another base station
v Infrastructureless or ad-hoc
ü the mobile node can move while communicating
ü there are no fixed base stations
ü all the nodes in the network need to act as routers

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Classification of ad-hoc networks

v Single hop – nodes are in their v Multi hop – some nodes are far
reach area and can and cannot communicate directly.
communicate directly The traffic has to be forwarded by
other intermediate nodes.

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Multi-hop network

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Characteristics of an mobile ad-hoc network
(MANET)

v Collection of mobile nodes forming a temporary network

v Network topology changes frequently and unpredictably
v No centralized administration or standard support services
v Each host is an independent router
v Hosts use wireless RF transceivers as network interface
v Number of nodes 10 to 100 or at most 1000
v Nodes/host are powerful and focus on how to keep the mobile
connection; high computation and high power consumption
may be acceptable

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MANET vs WSNs

v WSN nodes have less power, computation and

communication compared to MANET nodes
üMANET protocols require significant amount
of routing data storage and computation
v MANETs have high degree of mobility, while
sensor networks are mostly stationary mostly
stationary
üTopology changes in WSNs due to nodes
dying in the network (due to energy dissipation
or due to lossy links)
v MANET protocols are not being optimized to
cater for duty cycles
v WSNs may be considered a subset of MANET
üRouting in WSNs should not necessarily be
complex as in MANET

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Classical View of Routing

v Connectivity between nodes defines the network

graph.
ü Topology formation
v A Routing algorithm determines the sub-graph that is
used for communication between nodes.
ü Route formation, path selection
v Packets are forwarded from source to destination over
the routing sub-graph
ü At each node in the path, determine the
recipient of the next hop
v The selection at each hop is made based on the
information at hand
ü Sender address, current address, destination
address, information in the packet,
information on the node.
ü Table-driven, source based, algorithmic, …

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 Topology Formation

v Much of the “paper protocols” define connectivity graph with unit

disk model
ü Link(A,B) if dist(A,B) ≤ R
v OK for rough calculations, but not for protocol design R
ü Nearby nodes may not be able to communicate.
ü Far away nodes may be able to communicate.
ü Nodes that communicated in the past may not be able to
communicate in the future.
ü Nodes may have intermittent communication depending on
external factors.
v Connectivity is determined by communication
ü If B receives packet reasonably reliably from A, then A ÞB
ü If A receives packet reasonably reliably from B, then A Ü B
ü And if both are true, A Û B

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Classification of the Routing Protocols

v Link state
ü Nodes shout (send) and listen (receive) to determine neighbor connectivity.
ü Each floods this information throughout (Link State Advertisement) so
every node has a map (Link state data base) of the network.
ü Any node can determine the path or the next hop.
ü management protocol deals with changes in connectivity
ü Classic Example: OSPF
v Distance vector
ü Nodes maintain routing information about “distance” and “direction” to
destinations
ü Choose next hop by comparing the cost of routing through neighbors
ü Cost(dest D, neighbor b) = linkCost(b) + pathCost(b,D)
ü Management propagates routing information
ü Sequence numbers, etc.
ü Classic Example: RIP

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Classification of the Routing Protocols

v Proactive (table driven)

ü Require each node to maintain one or more tables to store routing
information
ü Each node responds to changes in network topology by
propagating updates throughout the network in order to maintain a
consistent network view
ü DSDV, OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing Protocol)
v Reactive protocols (source initiated)
ü Creates routes only when desired by the source node
ü Once a route has been established, it is maintained by a route
maintenance procedure until either the destination becomes
inaccessible along every path from the source or until the route is
no longer desired
ü DSR, AODV (Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector)

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Classification of the Routing Protocols

v Various simulation studies have shown that reactive protocols perform

better in mobile ad hoc networks than proactive ones.
ü However, no single protocol works well in all environments.
ü Which approach achieves a better trade-off depends on the traffic
and mobility patterns.

Proactive Approach Reactive Approach

Route Lower Higher
Latency §A route is kept at all times §A route is never kept
when not used
Routing Higher Lower
Overhead §A frequent dissemination of §Fewer control packets in
topology information is general
required

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Classification of the Routing Protocols

Other classification
vProactive protocols:
ü DSDV, STAR, WRP, ...
vReactive protocols:
ü AODV, DSR, TORA, ...
vHierarchical/Clustering protocols:
ü CGSR, ZRP, CBR, FSR, LANMAR, ...
vPosition aware protocols:
ü GPSR, LAR, GRA, ABR, ...

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Dynamic Source Routing

DSR (Dynamic Source Routing)

v Similar to the source routing in traditional networks
v A node maintains route cache containing the routes it knows
v Includes route discovery on request and route maintenance
when needed
v Reactive routing

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 Dynamic Source Routing
Route discovery
v The source sends a broadcast packet
which contains source address,
destination address, request id and
path.
v If the host receiving this packet,
saw this packet before, discards it.
v Otherwise, it looks up its route
caches to look for a route to
destination. If a route is not found,
it appends its address into the
packet and rebroadcasts it.
v If the route is found, it sends a reply
packet to the source node.
v The route will be eventually found
when the request packet reaches the
destination
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 Dynamic Source Routing

How to send a reply packet?

v If the destination has a route to the
source in its cache, use it
v Else if symmetric links are
supported, use the reverse of the
route record
v Else, if symmetric links are not
supported, the destination initiate
route discovery to source

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Dynamic Source Routing

v Route maintenance
ü Whenever a node transmits a data packet, a route reply or a route error,
it must verify that the next hop correctly receives the packet.
ü If not, the node must send a route error to the node responsible for
generating this route header.
ü The source restarts the route discovery
v Route caching
ü When S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to D, S also learns route [S,E,F] to F
ü When K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for some node D, K
learns route [K,G,C,S] to S if links are bi-directional
ü F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D], F learns route [F,J,D] to
D
ü When E forwards Data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route [E,F,J,D] to D

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Can Speed up Route Discovery

When S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to D, S also learns route [S,E,F] to F

[S,E,F,J,D]
[E,F,J,D]
S E [F,J,D],[F,E,S]
F
B [J,F,E,S]
C [G,C,S] M L
J
A [C,S] G
H D
[K,G,C,S] K
I RREP N
RREQ
Z

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Can Speed up Route Discovery

When K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for some node D, K learns
route [K,G,C,S] to S if links are bi-directional

[S,E,F,J,D]
[E,F,J,D]
S E [F,J,D],[F,E,S]
F
B [J,F,E,S]
C [G,C,S] M L
J
A [C,S] G
H D
[K,G,C,S] K
I RREP N
RREQ
Z

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Can Speed up Route Discovery

When node Z sends a route request for node C, node K sends back a route
reply [Z,K,G,C] to node Z using a locally cached route

[S,E,F,J,D]
[E,F,J,D]
S E [F,J,D],[F,E,S]
F
B [J,F,E,S]
C [G,C,S] M L
J
A [C,S] G
H D
[K,G,C,S] K
I RREP N
RREQ
Z

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Reduce Propagation of Route Requests

Route Replies (RREP) from node K and D limit flooding of RREQ.

[S,E,F,J,D]
[E,F,J,D]
S E [F,J,D],[F,E,S]
F
B [J,F,E,S]
C [G,C,S] M L
J
A [C,S] G
H D [D,K,G,,C]
[K,G,C,S] K
I RREP N
RREQ
Z

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Reduce Propagation of Route Requests

v Advantages
ü Routes are discovered only they are needed
ü Reduces overhead of route maintenance
ü Route caching reduce the cost of route discovery
ü A single route discovery may yield many routes to the destination, due to
intermediate nodes may reply route request from local caches
ü Does not require symmetric links
v Disadvantages
ü Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing: Inefficiency
ü Route request packet may potentially reach all nodes in the network: RREQ
flooding
ü Route requests may collide at the targeted node: Pay so much but get nothing
ü Every node needs to turn on its receiver all the time: No energy saving
ü Increased contention if too many route replies come back: Route Reply Storm
ü An intermediate node may send Route Reply using a stale cached route, thus
polluting other nodes’ caches: Mess up routing and forwarding

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Proactive - Neighbor Communication - Flooding

1 Beacons
1

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Proactive - Data Collection in concept

2
2
2

2
1
2 1

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 The Problems

v Flood causes tremendous contention

ü Many good links missed because of collisions
ü Huge amount of noise
v Many links are not symmetric

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 CTP: Collection Tree Protocol

v Is a protocol that computes routes from

sensor to one or more sinks(base
stations)
v Build and maintains minimum cost
tree(s) with the sink(s) as root
v A distance vector protocol

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 CTP: Routing metric

v ETX (Expected number of transmission): measure each

0
link’s delivery probability with broadcast probes (& Link ETX
measure reverse) 1.9

Pdelivery = Pdata * PACK 1.9

Link ETX = 1 / Pdelivery L-ETX 3.2
Route ETX = S(link ETX)
v CTP uses Expected Transmissions (ETX) as a routing 5.1
metric Pdata
ü ETXroot=0 and ETXnode=ETXparent+ETXlinktoparent 0.6
PACK
ü CTP should choose the route with the lowest ETX 0.7

ü CTP represents ETX as 16-bit fix-point real number L-ETX

? =?
with precision of hundredths

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 Parent Selection

v Minimize transmission costs (ETX - Expected number

of transmission)
v Every node maintains an estimate of the costs of a
route to sink
b
10 e

3
2 1
d
a sink
4
3
2 2 2
e: EXT(e) = 1
f: EXT(f) = 2 3 f
c
d: 2 + EXT(e) < 2 + ETX(f)
b: 10 + EXT(e)
c: 3 + EXT(f)
a: 4 + EXT(d) < 3+ EXT(b) and 2 + EXT(c)

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 Challenges for data collection

v Link dynamics
ü Links can be highly dynamic, particularly in the 2.4 GHz
frequency space
ü Wireless links can change in the order of a few hundred
milliseconds
v Routing inconsistencies
ü Rapid topology change can cause routing inconsistencies and
route loops, cause packet loss in the data plane

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 Routing Inconsistency

v Routing Consistency
ü Next hop should be closer to the destination
X
ü Maintain this consistency criteria on a path
C 3.2
8.1

ni ni+1 nk

v Routing Inconsistency B 4.6

ü Cost does not decrease
ü Route inconsistency can cause routing loops

D A
6.3
5.8
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 Datapath validation

v Datapath validation 3.2 < 4.6?

8.1
ü Cost in the packet X
ü Receiver checks
8.1
v Inconsistency
C 3.2
8.1
ü Larger cost than on the packet
v On Inconsistency
ü Don’t drop the packets 4.6<5.8?
4.6 < 6.3?
ü One beacon interval pause in forwarding
ü Immediately Signal the control plane 4.6
B 4.6

6.3
5.8 < 8.1?
5.8 D A
5.8 6.3 32

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 CTP Data Frame

v P (Routing Pull)
ü Allows nodes to request routing information
ü If P is set the node should transmit a routing frame
v C (Congestion notification)
ü If a node drops a CTP data frame it must set the C bit field on the next data
frame
v THL (Time Has Lived )
ü If a node generates a CTP data frame, it must set THL to 0
ü If a node receives a CTP data frame must increment the THL

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 CTP Data Frame

v ETX (Expected Transmissions)

ü The ETX is the routing metric of the single-hop sender
v Seqno
ü Origin sequence number
v Collect_id
ü Higher-level protocol identifier
v Data
ü The data payload, of zero or more bytes

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 CTP Routing frame

v P (Routing Pull): Same as data frame

v C (Congestion Notification): Same as data frame
v Parent: The node's current parent
v Metric (ETX): The node’s current routing metric value

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 CTP: Architecture

v Link estimator: Responsible for

estimating the single-hop ETX of
communication with single hop
neighbors
v Routing engine: Uses link
estimates to decide which
neighbor is the next hop routing
hop
v Forwarding engine
ü Maintains queue of packets to
send
ü Decides when and if to send
them

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 CTP: Adaptive Beaconing

v Adaptive Beaconing: Routing protocols typically broadcast control packets at

a fixed interval (e.g., every 1 second). This interval poses a basic tradeoff.
v A small interval, i.e., frequent beacons, makes the protocol more responsive to
the changes in the network, but uses more bandwidth and energy. A large
interval uses less bandwidth and energy but can let topological problems persist
for a long time.
v CTP uses adaptive beaconing to break this tradeoff. When the topology is
inconsistent and has problems, it sends beacons faster. Otherwise, it decreases
the beaconing rate exponentially. Thus, CTP can quickly respond to adverse
wireless dynamics while incurring low control overhead in the long term.

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 CTP: Adaptive Beaconing

v In CTP:
ü Start with lowest intervals of 64ms
ü When interval expires double it up to 1 hour
ü Reset to lowest interval when inconsistent
v Reset the interval on three events
ü Receive packet ETX <= self ETX
ü Its routing cost decreases Significantly
ü It receives a packet with P bit set

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CTP: Adaptive Beaconing

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