Levels of Biological Organization

● Biosphere
● Ecosystem
● Community
● Population
● Organ System
● Organs
● Tissues
● Cells
● Organelles
● Molecules

Properties of Life
● Reproduction
● Evolutionary
● Order
● Responding to our Environment
● Growth 7 Development
● Energy Processing
● Regulation
 The Living World
George B. Johnson

How Genes Work

9.1 The Griffith Experiment

• Mendel’s work left a key question unanswered:

- What is a gene?

• The work of Sutton and Morgan established that genes reside on

chromosomes
- But chromosomes contain proteins and DNA
- So which one is the hereditary material

• Several experiments ultimately revealed the nature of the genetic

material

• In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered transformation while working

on streptococcus pneumoniae

The Bacterium Exists in Two Strains

● S
- Forms smooth colonies in a culture dish
- Cells produce a polysaccharide coat and can cause disease

● R
Forms rough colonies in a culture dish
Cells do not produce a polysaccharide coat and are therefore
harmless
 9.2 The Avery and Hershey-Chase Experiments

● Two key experiments that demonstrated conclusively that DNA, and not
protein, is the hereditary material
● Oswald Avery and his coworkers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty
published their results in 1944
● Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase published their results in 1952

The Avery Experiments

● Avery and his colleagues prepared the same mixture of dead S and live R
bacteria as Griffith did
- They then subjected it to various experiments
 ● All of the experiments revealed that the properties of the transforming
principle resembled those of DNA

1. Same chemistry and physical properties as DNA

2. Not affected by lipid and proteins extraction
3. Not destroyed affected by protein- or RNA-digesting enzymes
4. Destroyed by DNA-digesting enzymes

The Hershey-Chase Experiments

Viruses that infect bacteria have a simple structure
● DNA core surrounded by a protein coat

● Hershey and Chase used two different radioactive isotopes to

label the protein and DNA

Incubation of the labeled viruses with host bacteria revealed that only
the DNA entered the cell
● Therefore, DNA is the genetic material
 9.2 The Avery and Hershey-Chase Experiments

● DNA is made up of nucleotides

- Each nucleotide has a central sugar, a phosphate group and an
organic base

● The bases are two main types

Purines - Large bases

Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)

Pyrimidines - Small bases

Cytosine © and Thymine (T)

Erwin Chargaff made key DNA observations that became known as

Chargaff’s rule
 ● Purines = Pyrimidines
● A = T and C = G

Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray diffraction experiments revealed that DNA

had the shape of a coiled spring or helix

In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick deducted that DNA was a
double helix

They came to their conclusion using Tinkertoy models and the research
of Chargaff and Franklin

How the DNA Molecule Replicates

● The two DNA strands are held together by weak hydrogen bonds
between complementary base pairs
- A&T
- C&G

● If the sequence on one strand is - ATACGCAT

● The other’s sequence must be - TATGCGTA
● Each chain is a complementary mirror image of the other
- So either can be used as template to reconstruct the other
 How DNA Copies Itself
● The process of DNA replication can be summarized as suh
- The enzyme helicase first unwinds the double helix
- The enzyme primase puts down a short piece of RNA termed the
primer
- DNA polymerase reads along each naked single strand adding
the complementary nucleotide
 Full Presentation: https://slideplayer.com/slide/5240873/

Answer Key to Worksheets

Worksheet 1
Tissue 1. any of the distinct types of material of which animals or plants are
made, consisting of specialized cells and their products.

Molecule 2. a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest

fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical
reaction.

Population 3. all the inhabitants of a particular town, area, or country

Ecosystem 4. a biological community of interacting organisms and their

physical environment.

Organelles 5. any of the specialized structures within a cell that perform a

specific function (e.g., mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum)

Biosphere 6. the regions of the surface, atmosphere, and hydrosphere of the

earth (or analogous parts of other planets) occupied by living organisms

Organs 7. a group of tissues in a living organism that have been adapted to

perform a specific function. And Organ System is a group of organs that
work together to perform a certain function in an organism’s body.

Cell 8. the basic membrane-bound unit that contains the fundamental

molecules of life and of which all living things are composed.

Community 9. an interacting group of various species in a common location

Organism 10. any individual entity that embodies the properties of life.
Worksheet 2
Directions: Write the letter of your choice which do not belong to the
group, and identify the category of the remaining terms or descriptions
in the space before the number.

Answers

A. Water 1) A. Water B. Grasslands C. Deserts

C. Adenine 2) A. Protein B. Lipids C. Adenine

C. Epidermis 3) A. Deer B. Frog C. Epidermis

C. Ant 4) A. Adenine B. Guanine C. Ant

A. Deer 5) A. Deer B. Kidney C. Heart

B. Soil 6) A. Mitochondria B. Soil C. Chloroplast

A. Nerve cells 7) A. Nerve cells B. Bacteria C. Amoebas

B. ATP 8) A. RNA B. ATP C. DNA

B. Solar Cell 9) A. Prokaryotic B. Solar Cell C. Eukaryotic Cell

cell

A. Sulfur 10) A. Sulfur B. Carbon C. Water

Dioxide

Worksheet 3
1. Cells are the smallest living units of an organism.

All cells have 3 things in common namely 2. Cell Membrane which separates
the inside of the cell from its environment.

3. Cytoplasm which is the jelly-like fluid.

4. DNA which is the cell’s genetic material.

The two categories of cell are 5. Eukaryotic Cell which are said to be
multicellular or complex plants and animals are made up of this type of cell
and 6. Prokaryotic Cell which are called one celled organism like bacteria and
some protist and fungi.

7. Organelle are specialized part of the cell that has a unique job to perform,
it means “little organ”.

8. Nucleus it is the control center of the cell.

9. Mitochondria the powerhouse of the cell.

10. Ribosome the site of protein synthesis.

Worksheet 4
A=Present
B=Not Present
Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell

Cell Parts

Nucleus 1) A. 17) B.

Cell membrane 2) A. 18) A.

DNA 3) A. 19) A.

Cell Wall 4) A. 20) A.

Cytoplasm 5) A. 21) A.

Mitochondria 6) A. 22) B.

Chloroplast 7) A. 23) B.

Smooth endoplasmic 8) A. 24) B.

reticulum

Rough endoplasmic 9) A. 25) B.

reticulum

Centrioles 10) A. 26) B.

Vacuoles 11) A. 27) B.

Ribosomes 12) A. 28) A.

Flagellum 13) A. 29) A.

Peroxisome 14) A. 30) B.

Golgi apparatus 15) A. 31) B.

Nucleoli 16) A. 32) B.

Worksheet 5

Animal Cell Plant Cell

1. Centrioles 6. Chloroplasts

2. Mitochondria 7. Large Central Vacuole

3. Plasma Membrane 8. Mitochondria

4. Small Vacuoles 9. Plasma Membrane

5. 10.

Worksheet 6
P=Present in Plant Cell Only
A=Present in Animal Cell Only
B=Present in Both Plant & Animal Cell
A. Cell Structure Function B.

Cell Wall LELC LAWL Protects and supports plant cells P

Centriole TELOINECR Important in cell division A

Chloroplast POLARCLOHTS Site where photosynthesis occurs P

Cilia LAIIC Aids in moving the cell and A
moving substances along the
surface of the cell

Cytoskeleton ELEKSOYCTNOT A framework for the cell within the B

cytoplasm

Endoplasmic CIMSALPODEN Site of protein synthesis;where B

Reticulum MULUCITER ribosomes attach

Flagellum ULLMEGALF Aids in moving and feeding the cell A

GOlgi IGOLG Modifies and packages proteins B
Apparatus SUTARAPPA for distribution outside the cell

Lysosome SOSEMOLY Contains digestive enzymes for A

Substance breakdown

Mitochondrion NITOCHORMIOND Supplies energy to the rest of the B

cell

Nucleus SEUCLUN Directs the production of proteins B

and cell division

Plasma SAMALP Controls the movement of B

Membrane RENAMEBM substances in and out of the cell

Ribosome SOMEOBIR Produces proteins B

Vacuole OLEUCAV Stores materials temporarily B
Worksheet 8
DNA to DNA will undergo what process 1. Replication to provide the complementary
strand based from the original strand. From DNA to mRNA it will undergo what
process 2. Transcription. From mRNA to tRNA what process will it undergo 3.
Translation.

DNA DNA mRNA tRNA

Worksheet 9
Since genes(DNA) reside in the 1. Nucleus of the cell and polypeptide
synthesis occurs in the 2. Cytoplasm, there must be a go-between the two.
The most likely molecule to fill this role is 3. RNA. The base sequence of DNA
is ATAGCATCC. The sequence of RNA transcribed from this strand is
___________. 5. If the triplet code in DNA is TAG, what is the
anticodon?___________________.