CONTROL SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION

KMM 411E Process Control – Lesson 7b

 In the stirred-tank heating system, a
thermocouple measures the liquid
temperature and converts it to a
millivolt-level electrical signal.

This signal is then amplified to a

voltage level and transmitted to the
electronic controller.

The feedback controller performs

the control calculations and sends
the calculated value as an output
signal to the final control element,
an electrical heater that adjusts the
rate of heat transfer to the liquid.

This example illustrates the three important functions of a feedback control loop:
(1) measurement of the controlled variable (CV),
(2) adjustment of the manipulated variable (MV), and
(3) signal transmission between components.
A controller/process interface
The interconnection between the
process and the controller can be
considered to be an interface (analog or
digital).

The interconnection is required for a

single controller or …

… for a number of controllers in a

computer control system.

In each case, the interface

consists of all
 measurement,
 manipulation, and
 transmission instruments.
 SENSORS, TRANSMITTERS, AND TRANSDUCERS

The operation of complex industrial plants would be difficult without the

measurement and control of critical process variables. Large plants typically
have hundreds or thousands of process variables that are repetitively

measured on-line every few seconds or minutes.

In addition, important product properties are measured in quality control labs
less frequently-e.g., once per hour, once an eight-hour shift, or daily.
Consequently, the design and maintenance of accurate, reliable measurement
systems is a critical aspect of process control.

The lack of a reliable, cost-effective on-line sensor can be a key limitation on

the effectiveness of a process control system.
A physical variable is measured by a sensor which produces a physical
response (e.g., electrical or mechanical) that is related to the value of the
process variable.
In the stirred-tank heating system example, the thermocouple generates a
millivolt electrical signal that increases as the temperature of the liquid
increases.

However, for this temperature measurement to be used in the control

calculations, the millivolt level signal must be converted to an appropriate
voltage or current signal in a standard input range for the controller. This

conversion is done by a transmitter.

In the process control literature, the terms sensor, transmitter, and
sensor-transmitter, are used more or less interchangeably.

It is often necessary to convert an instrumentation signal from one form to

another. A device that performs this conversion is referred to as a

transducer.
One common application is when the controller output signal is a current
signal and the final control element is a pneumatic control valve. The
required conversion is performed by a current-to-pressure (I/P)
transducer. Voltage-to-pressure (E/P) transducers are also quite common.
 Standard Instrumentation Signal Levels
Before 1960, instrumentation in the process industries utilized
pneumatic (air pressure) signals to transmit measurement and control
information almost exclusively.

These devices make use of mechanical force balance elements to

generate signals in the range of 3 to 15 psig, an industry standard.
Since about 1960, electronic instrumentation has become predominant.
The standard signal ranges for analog instruments are 4 to 20 mA and
1 to 5 V, direct current (VDC).
Sensors

The main categories of measurements used in process control are temperature,

pressure, flow rate, liquid level, and composition.
Selection Criteria. The selection of a measurement device should
consider the following factors:

1. Measurement range (span). The required measurement range for the

process variable must lie entirely within the instrument's range of
performance.

2. Performance. Depending on the application, accuracy, repeatability, or

some other measure of performance is appropriate. For closed-loop control,
speed of response is also important.

3. Reliability. Manufacturers provide baseline conditions. Previous

experience with the measurement device is very important.

4. Materials of construction. The instrument may need to withstand high

temperatures, high pressures, and corrosive and abrasive environments. For
some applications, seals or purges may be necessary.
5. Prior use. For the first installation of a specific measurement device at a
site, training of maintenance personnel and purchases of spare parts might
be necessary.

6. Potential for releasing process materials to the environment. Preventing

exposure to fugitive emissions for maintenance personnel is important
when the process fluid is corrosive or toxic. Sterility in bioprocesses must
be maintained.

7. Electrical classification. If the sensor is not inherently compatible with

possible exposure to hazards, suitable enclosures must be purchased and
included in the installation costs.

8. Invasive or non-invasive. The insertion of a probe (invasive) can cause

fouling, which leads to inaccurate measurements. Probe location must be
selected carefully to ensure measurement accuracy and minimize fouling.
 Static and Dynamic Characteristics

The output signal from a sensor-transmitter (or transmitter) must be

compatible with the input range of the controller that receives the signal.
Transmitters are generally designed to be direct-acting; that is, the output
signal increases as the measured variable increases.

In addition, most commercial transmitters have an adjustable input range.

For example, a temperature transmitter might be adjusted so that the input
range of a platinum resistance element (the sensor) is 50-150°C.
In this case, the following correspondence is obtained:
This instrument has a lower limit, or zero, of 50C and
a range, or span, of 150C - 50C = 100C.
Note that the transmitter is designed for a specific type of sensor; hence,
the zero and span of the overall sensor/transmitter are adjustable.

The relation between temperature and the transmitted (measured) signal is

linear. If the sensor power supply fails, the transmitter output signal has a value
of 0 mA, which would move the controller output and final control element to
their minimum or maximum values.
If this action could lead to an unsafe condition, the transmitter output signal
could be inverted to give the highest value in the operating range.

A linear instrument calibration

showing its zero and span.
For this temperature transmitter, the relation between the output and input is

The gain of the measurement element Km is 0.16 mA/C.

For any linear instrument
For a nonlinear instrument, the gain at an operating point is the tangent to the
characteristic input-output relation at the operating point.

Note that the gain changes

whenever the operating
point changes; hence, it is
preferable to utilize
instruments that exhibit
nearly linear behavior.

Gain of a nonlinear transmitter as a function of operating point

 Dynamic Characteristics of Sensor-Transmitters

Many sensor-transmitters respond quickly and have measurement

dynamics that are negligible compared to slower process dynamics.

For other applications where measurement dynamics are not negligible,

significant dynamic errors can occur, that is, large differences between the
true values and the measured values for transient conditions.

For example, a bare thermocouple will have a rapid response to a changing

fluid temperature. But a thermocouple placed in a protective thermowell
with a large mass and large specific heat, can have a significant
measurement time constant.

Thermowell
Many sensor-transmitters have overdamped dynamics and exhibit
monotonic responses to a step change in the variable being measured.
Thus, it is reasonable to model this type of measurement dynamics as a

first-order transfer function between the actual value y and the

measured value ym :

where Km is the gain and τm is the measurement time constant.

For the temperature transmitter example, the units of Km are mA/C.
Significant measurement dynamics can occur due to a poor sensor
location or a long sampling line.

For example, if a pH sensor for a continuous neutralization process is

located in the exit line, a long distance from the process vessel, a
significant time delay can arise due to the distance-velocity lag.

Time delays can also result when an on-line composition measurement

requires a long sample line because an expensive analyzer in a protected
environment is located a long distance from the sample location near the
process unit. This common situation can produce a significant distance-
velocity lag.
 FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

Every process control loop contains a final control element (or

actuator), the device that enables a process variable to be manipulated.

For most chemical and petroleum processes, the final control elements
(usually control valves) adjust the flow rates of materials-solid, liquid,
and gas feeds and products-and, indirectly, the rates of energy transfer to
and from the process.
The electrical resistance heater in previous example is the final control
element. In this case, the controller output, a voltage signal, cannot be
applied directly to the terminals of the heater, because the controller is
not designed to supply the electrical energy requirements of the heater.

Hence, a transducer must be placed between the controller and the heater.
 Control Valves

There are many different ways to manipulate the flows of material and energy
into or out of a process; for example, the speed of a
 pump drive,
 screw conveyer, or
 blower can be varied.

However, a simple and widely used method of

accomplishing this result with fluids is to use a
control valve.
The control valve components include the valve body, trim, seat, and actuator.

The valve body contains an orifice that allows for the flow of liquids and/or gases.

The trim modulates the flow rate and can be a plug, ball, disk, or gate.

The seat consists of protective material (typically metal or soft polymer) inserted
around the orifice to provide a tight shutoff and to increase the life of the valve
when corrosive or solid materials pass through it.
Control valves are either linear (rising stem) or rotary in design.

Linear valves are usually globe valves that open and close the valve by
moving a plug vertically away from the orifice and seat. This movement
changes the cross-sectional area available for fluid flow.
Rotary valves are closed by a 90° turn of the closing element (also called
quarter-turn valves); these valves are used for both on-off and flow
modulating control valves.
The actuator provides the force for opening and closing the valve. Rotary
valves are more compact, less expensive, and easier to maintain.

The primary types of quarter-turn valves are the plug valve, the butterfly
valve, the ball valve, and the rotary globe valve.

plug valve butterfly valve ball valve globe valve

Control valves typically utilize some type of mechanical driver to move the “valve
plug” into and out of its “seat”, thus opening or closing the area for fluid flow.

The mechanical driver can be either

(1) a DC motor or a stepping motor that screws the valve stem in and out in much the
same way as a hand valve would be operated or
(2) a pneumatically operated diaphragm device that moves the stem vertically
against the opposing force of a fixed spring, called a rising stem valve.

Stepping motor
Motor drivers are used for very large valves and with some electronic
controllers. The stepping motor is particularly useful for control valves using
digital control, because the valve rotates a small fraction of a turn (2 or 3°)
for each pulse it receives from the controller.

Stepping motor

Modern control valves using digital valve controllers

 Despite the growing use of motor-driven valves, most control
applications utilize pneumatically driven control valves of the rising
stem type shown in figure below.

As the pneumatic controller output signal increases, increased pressure on the

diaphragm compresses the spring, thus pulling the stem out and opening the
valve further. This type of control valve is referred to as air-to-open (A-O).
By reversing either the plug/seat or the spring/air inlet orientation, the
valve becomes air-to-close (A-C).

For example, if the spring is located below the diaphragm and the air
inlet is placed above the diaphragm, an air-to-close valve results.
Normally, the choice of A-O or A-C valve is based on safety
considerations.

We choose the way the valve should operate (full flow or no flow)
based on the desired response in an emergency situation.

Hence, A-C and A-0 valves often are referred to as fail-open (FO) and
fail-close (FC), respectively.
EXAMPLE
Pneumatic control valves are to be specified for the applications listed
below. State whether an A-O or A-C valve should be specified for the
following manipulated variables, and give reason(s):

(a) Steam pressure in a reactor heating coil.

(b) Flow rate of reactants into a polymerization reactor.
(c) Flow of effluent from a wastewater treatment holding tank into a river.
(d) Flow of cooling water to a distillation condenser.

SOLUTION
(a) A-O (fail-close) to make sure that a transmitter failure will not cause
the reactor to overheat, which is usually more serious than having it
operate at too low a temperature.

(b) A-O (fail-close) to prevent the reactor from being flooded with
excessive reactants.
(c) Flow of effluent from a wastewater treatment holding tank into a river.
A-O (fail-close) to prevent excessive and perhaps untreated waste from
entering the stream.

(d) Flow of cooling water to a distillation condenser.

A-C (fail-open) to ensure that overhead vapor is completely condensed
before it reaches the receiver.
 Control Valve Dynamics

Control valve dynamics tend to be relatively fast compared to the dynamics

of the process itself.

For purposes of control system analysis using transfer functions, the

dynamic behavior of the control valve (and valve positioner) can be
approximated by a first-order transfer function Gv(s) between the
manipulated variable u(t) and the signal to the control valve p(t),

where τv << τp and τp is the largest process time constant.

 Specifying and Sizing Control Valves

Control valves are specified by first considering both properties of the

process fluid and the desired flow characteristics in order to choose the
valve body material and type.

Then the desired characteristics for the actuator are considered. The
choice of construction material depends on the corrosive properties of the
process fluid at operating conditions.

Commercial valves made of brass, carbon steel, and stainless steel can be
ordered off the shelf, at least in smaller sizes. For large valves and more
exotic materials of construction, special orders usually are required.
A design equation used for sizing control valves relates valve lift l to the

actual flow rate q by means of the valve coefficient Cv , the proportionality

factor that depends predominantly on valve size or capacity:

Here
q is the flow rate,
f(l) is the valve characteristic,
ΔPv is the pressure drop across the valve, and
gs is the specific gravity of the fluid.

This relation is valid for non-flashing liquids.

Specification of the valve size is dependent on the valve characteristic f . Three
control valve characteristics are mainly used. For a fixed pressure drop across

the valve, the valve characteristic f(0 ≤ f ≤ 1) is related to the lift l (0 ≤ l ≤ 1)

that is, the extent of valve opening, by one of the following relations:

where R is a valve design parameter

that is usually in the range 20 to 50.

The figure illustrates these three

flow/lift characteristics.

Inherent control valve characteristics

The quick-opening valve is referred to as a square root valve (valves with
quicker-opening characteristics are available).

The equal percentage valve is given that name because the slope of the f vs. l
curve, df/dl, is proportional to f , leading to an equal percentage change in
flow for a particular change in l, anywhere in the range.
 Guideline. In general, a control valve should be sized so that it takes
approximately one-quarter to one-third of the total pressure drop in the line
at the design flow rate.

Example: A control valve with linear characteristics is placed in series

with a heat exchanger, both supplied by a pump with a constant discharge
pressure at 40 psi (although its discharge flow rate varies).
If the heat exchanger has already been sized to give a 30-psi pressure drop
(ΔPhe) for a 200-gal/min flow of liquid (specific gravity equal to one), then
the valve will take a 10-psi drop (ΔPv)·

A control valve placed in series with a pump and a heat exchanger. Pump discharge pressure is constant
The linear control valve is sized so that it is half open (f = l = 0.5) at these
conditions. Hence

which, using manufacturers' data books, would require a 4-in control valve.
The rangeability of a control valve is defined as the ratio of maximum to
minimum input signal level.
For control valves, rangeability explains the need to operate the valve
within the range 0.05 ≤ f ≤ 0.95 or a rangeability of 0.95/0.05 = 19.

For the case where the flow is reduced to 25% of design, (50 gal/min) the
heat exchanger pressure drop will be reduced approximately to 1.9 psi
[30 x (0.25)2], leaving the control valve to supply the remaining 38.1 psi.

The valve operating value of f, is (50/127) 38.1 or 0.06; hence, the valve
is barely open.
Some general guidelines for valve characteristic selection are as follows:

1) If the pump characteristic (discharge pressure vs. flow rate) is fairly

flat and system frictional losses are quite small over the entire operating
region, choose a linear valve. However, this situation occurs infrequently,
because it results from an overdesigned process (pump and piping
capacity too large).
2. To select an equal percentage valve;
a) Plot the pump characteristic curve and ΔPs , the system pressure drop
curve without the valve, as shown in figure. The difference between these
two curves is ΔPv . The pump should be sized so that ΔPv /ΔPs is 25 to
33% at the design flow rate qd .
b) Calculate the valve's rated Cv , the value that yields at least 100% of
qd with the available pressure drop at that higher flow rate.

c) Compute q as a function of l using following equation:

A plot of the valve characteristic (q vs l) should be reasonably linear in

the operating region of interest (at least around the design flow rate). If it
is not suitably linear, adjust the rated Cv and repeat.
EXAMPLE

A pump supplies a constant head of 40 psi over the entire flow rate range of
interest. The heat exchanger pressure drop is 30 psig at 200 gal/min (qd) and
can be assumed to be proportional to q2. Select the rated Cv of the valve and
plot the installed characteristic for the following cases:

(a) A linear valve that is half open at the design flow rate.
(b) An equal percentage valve (R = 50) that is sized to be completely open
at 110% of the design flow rate.
(c) Same as in (b), except with a Cv that is 20% higher than calculated.
(d) Same as in (b), except with a Cv that is 20% lower than calculated.
SOLUTION

First we write an expression for the pressure drop across the heat exchanger

Since the pump head is constant at 40 psi, the pressure drop available for the
control valve is
 Pump characteristic and system pressure drop

Note that in all four design cases ΔPv / ΔPs = 10/30 = 33% at qd .
 (a) First calculate the rated Cv :

For a linear characteristic valve, the relation between l and q :

Using this equation and values of ΔPv , the installed valve characteristic
curve can be plotted.
(b) From equations

q=200 x 1.1 = 220 gal/min ΔPv = 3.7 psi.

The rated Cv at 110% of qd can be calculated.

 Use a value of Cv = 115. For the equal percentage valve:

or

Substituting Cv = 115, R =50, and values of q and ΔPv yields the installed characteristic
curve in figure
(c) Cv = 1.2(115) = 138
(d) Cv = 0.8(115) = 92

Using the installed characteristics in the figure, note that the maximum flow
rate that could be achieved in this system (negligible pressure drop across the
valve) would have a pressure drop of 40 psi across the heat exchanger:

From these results we conclude that an

equal percentage valve with Cv ≈115
would give a reasonably linear installed
characteristic over a large range of
flows and have sufficient capacity to
accommodate flows as high as 110% of
the design flow rate.