• DECEMBER 2019

Forced Convection Over a

Flat Plate

Forced Convection in External Flows – Lesson 3

 Laminar & Turbulent Flow Regimes
• The boundary layer flow over an infinitely long flat plate has three distinct regions based on the flow behavior:
𝝆∞ 𝑽∞ 𝒙
Flow Regime 𝑹𝒆𝒙 = Flow Characteristics
𝝁
Laminar Flow Regime < 3.5 × 105 - 106 Smooth, highly ordered flow
Flow changes with time, sometimes
Transitional Flow Regime* 3.5 × 105 − 106 < 𝑅𝑒𝑥 < ~3 × 106
laminar sometimes turbulent
Highly irregular random flow
Turbulent Flow Regime 𝑅𝑒𝑥 > ~3 × 106
dominated by chaotic mixing

• The flow over a flat plate transitions from laminar to turbulent

due to the interactions of naturally occurring unsteady flow
structures or small disturbances within the boundary layers. Laminar Transition Turbulent

• The key to understanding and estimating convection is to identify

the flow regime over the flat plate.
𝛿(𝑥)
• We will investigate two thermal conditions:
‐ Flat Plate with Isothermal Wall (constant wall temperature) 𝑉∞
‐ Flat Plate with Constant Heat Flux
*The Re where transition occurs varies based on flow conditions, surface disturbances and flow 𝑥𝑐
x
application. L

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Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer: Blasius Solution (Laminar Flow)
• Blasuis developed a similarity solution based on the observation that the velocity
𝑢 𝑦 𝑉∞
profile 𝑉 remains geometrically similar along the boundary layer. 𝜂 𝑥, 𝑦 ~ =𝑦
∞
𝛿 𝑥 𝜈𝑥
• New independent and dependent variables 𝜂 and 𝑓(𝜂) are defined in terms of
stream function, and these variables are used to reduce the flat plate boundary 𝜓= 𝜈𝑉∞ 𝑥𝑓(𝜂)
layer partial differential equations (PDEs) into a single ordinary differential
equation (ODE). 1
𝑓 ′′′ + 𝑓𝑓 ′′ = 0
• The appropriate boundary conditions are also converted in terms of the similarity 2
variables. 𝑓 𝜂=0 =0
𝑓′ 𝜂 = 0 = 0
• A solution to the ODE is obtained by series expansion or numerical integration 𝑓′ 𝜂 → ∞ = 1
and the Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer profile is obtained.
𝑢 = 𝑉∞ 𝛿(𝑥)
Boundary layer edge Inviscid zone 𝑥
𝛿 𝑥 ~
𝑅𝑒𝑥
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑇∞ 𝜇∞
Viscous zone
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑥
𝑢=0 𝑅𝑒𝑥 =
𝜇∞
𝐿

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Blasius Results (Laminar Flow)

𝛿(𝑥) 5.0
• Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer Thickness: =
𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥

• Wall shear stress is obtained from the velocity gradient at the wall 𝑓 ′′ 0 = 0.332:
𝜕𝑢 𝜇 𝑉∞
𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇 │ = 0.332
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0 𝜈𝑥/𝑉∞

• The friction coefficient 𝐶𝑓 is computed as follows:

𝜏𝑊 0.664
𝐶𝑓 = =
1 2 𝑅𝑒𝑥
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞
2

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Laminar Flow over an Isothermal Flat Plate
• Let us assume a heated flat plate at a constant temperature, 𝑇𝑠 .

• We define the dimensionless temperature, 𝑇 ∗ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠

𝑇∗ = 𝑇∗ = 𝑇 𝜂
𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 Similarity Solution
• The thermal boundary layer equation is transformed into the following ODE. This equation is dependent on
the hydrodynamic conditions, 𝑓 𝜂 .
𝑑 2 𝑇 ∗ 𝑃𝑟 𝑑𝑇 ∗ 𝜈
+ 𝑓 𝜂 =0 𝑃𝑟 =
𝑑𝜂2 2 𝑑𝜂 𝛼
At 𝑦 = 0, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠
• The corresponding boundary conditions are: 𝑇∗ 0 =0 and 𝑇∗ ∞ =1
At 𝑦 = ∞, 𝑇 = 𝑇∞
𝑇∞ 𝛿𝑡 (𝑥)
Thermal Boundary layer edge Inviscid zone

𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑇∞ 𝜇∞ 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦)
Viscous zone
𝑇𝑠

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Thermal Boundary Layer Solution for Higher Prandtl Numbers
• For different values of Prandtl numbers, the ODE is numerically solved.
• For 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.6, Pohlhausen correlated the first derivative of 𝑇 ∗ at 𝜂 = 0 using the following correlation:

𝑑𝑇 ∗ (0) 1
= 0.332𝑃𝑟 3
𝑑𝜂

• Comparing the solutions of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thicknesses, we obtain
𝛿 1
= 𝑃𝑟 3 ⇒ For 𝑃𝑟 ≫ 1, 𝛿 ≫ 𝛿𝑡 Thermal BL is much thinner
𝛿𝑡 compared to the
• The local convective heat transfer coefficient is rewritten in terms of variables 𝑇 ∗ and 𝜂: Hydrodynamic BL for fluids
with Prandtl Numbers
0.5
𝑞 ′′ 𝑠 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 𝜕𝑇 ∗ 0 𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑇 ∗ (0) greater than 1.
ℎ𝑥 = =− 𝑘 =𝑘
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝜕𝑦 𝜈𝑥 𝑑𝜂

• The local Nusselt Number (at any x) is:

ℎ𝑥 𝑥 1 1
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.332𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟 3
2 For 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.6
𝑘

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Average Nusselt Number for Laminar Flow
• The local Nusselt number expressions are obtained assuming an infinite flat plate.

• For the laminar region 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑐 , the average heat transfer coefficient is determined by integrating the local
heat transfer coefficient along the plate.

• For 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.6, the average heat transfer coefficient for laminar flow is:

1
𝑥 𝑥
1 1𝑘 𝑉∞ 2 𝑑𝑥
ℎത 𝑥 = න ℎ𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0.332𝑃𝑟 3 න = 2ℎ𝑥
𝑥 0 𝑥 𝜈 0 𝑥

• The corresponding average Nusselt number for laminar flow over a flat plate is:

ℎത 𝑥 𝑥 1 1
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.644𝑅𝑒𝑥 2 𝑃𝑟 3 = 2𝑁𝑢𝑥 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.6
𝑘

Note: We can replace ‘x’ with ‘L’ if the For Laminar Flow over a Flat Plate, the Average
flow is laminar over the entire flat plate. Nusselt Number is twice the Local Nusselt Number.

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Thermal Boundary Layer Solution for Low Prandtl Number
• For smaller Prandtl numbers (mainly liquid metals), the thermal boundary layer develops faster compared to the
hydrodynamic boundary layer 𝛿𝑡 ≫ 𝛿 .
• In the limiting case 𝑃𝑟 → 0, because of the thin hydrodynamic boundary layer, we assume a uniform velocity 𝑢 =
𝑉∞ throughout the thermal boundary layer. This allows us to set 𝑓 ′ 𝜂 = 1 in the thermal boundary layer
equation.
• Differentiating the thermal boundary layer equation, we obtain:

𝑑2𝑇 ∗ 1
𝑑 𝑑𝜂2 𝑃𝑟
= − 𝑓′ 𝜂
𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝑇 ∗ 2
𝑑𝜂
• The solution of the above equation gives:
1/2
𝑑𝑇 ∗ (0) 𝑃𝑟 ℎ𝑥 𝑥 1 1 1
= 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.565𝑅𝑒𝑥 2 𝑃𝑟 2 = 0.565𝑃𝑒𝑥 2 For 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 0.5
𝑑𝜂 𝜋 𝑘

Peclet Number, 𝑃𝑒𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟

• Even though the above local Nusselt number is for a limiting case of 𝑃𝑟 → 0, the result holds for 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 0.5

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Turbulent Flow Over an Isothermal Flat Plate
• The flow Reynolds number (Re) for turbulence is generally greater than ~3 × 106 .
• Unlike laminar flow, we cannot use similarity variables to obtain the relationships for the turbulent flow regime.
In such cases, we rely on experimental correlations to calculate the local coefficient of friction:
1
−5
𝐶𝑓 = 0.0592𝑅𝑒𝑥

• In this flow regime, the heat transfer is dictated by random fluctuations as opposed to molecular diffusion, and
therefore, the boundary layer growth is not related to the Prandtl number of the fluid.
• The thermal and hydrodynamic boundary layer thicknesses grow at a similar rate and their thickness is obtained
from: 4
1
𝛿 ≈ 𝛿𝑡 = 0.37𝑥𝑅𝑒𝑥 −5 Turbulent boundary layer grows faster 𝛿 ∝ 𝑥 5
1
than laminar boundary layer 𝛿 ∝ 𝑥 2

• The local Nusselt number for turbulent flow is obtained by invoking the Chilton-Colburn analogy and using the
above local coefficient of friction:
4 1
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0296𝑅𝑒𝑥 5 𝑃𝑟 3 0.6 ≲ 𝑃𝑟 ≲ 60

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Mixed Boundary Layer Conditions
• Laminar relations are useful when the flow over the flat plate is either entirely laminar or marginally transitional
quite close to the trailing edge of the plate (in the last ~5% of the plate length).

• If the transitional region occurs reasonably close to the leading edge of the flat plate, using laminar relations for
predicting the convective heat transfer will produce erroneous results. The heat transfer in such cases is affected
by both laminar and turbulent boundary layers.

• If the transition occurs at a length 𝑥𝑐 (laminar region: 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑐 and turbulent region: 𝑥𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝐿), it is useful
to estimate the average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate as:

𝑥𝑐 𝐿
1
ℎത 𝐿 = න ℎ 𝑑𝑥 + න ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0 𝑙𝑎𝑚 𝑥𝑐

• Substituting for the local laminar and turbulent heat transfer coefficients and integrating, we obtain the following
relationship for the average Nusselt number.
4 1 0.6 ≲ 𝑃𝑟 ≲ 60
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.037𝑅𝑒𝐿 5 −𝐴 𝑃𝑟 3
𝑅𝑒𝑥,𝑐 ≲ 𝑅𝑒𝐿 ≲ 108
where, A is a constant estimated from 4 1
the critical Reynolds Number, 𝑅𝑒𝑥,𝑐 𝐴= 0.037𝑅𝑒𝑥,𝑐 5 − 0.664𝑅𝑒𝑥,𝑐 2

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Laminar & Turbulent Flow: Constant Heat Flux
• In certain heating and cooling applications, such as electronics and food processing industries, the wall heat flux
is known. For such applications, the local wall temperature distribution becomes the key variable of interest.
• The local Nusselt number relations for a flat plate with a constant heat flux 𝑞 ′′ 𝑠 are:

1 1
Laminar Flow: 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.453𝑅𝑒𝑥 2 𝑃𝑟 3 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.6

4 1
Turbulent Flow: 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0308𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟 3
5 0.6 ≲ 𝑃𝑟 ≲ 60

• Comparing these with the isothermal relations:

‐ Laminar Flow: The Nusselt number is ~36% higher for the constant heat flux condition.
‐ Turbulent Flow: The Nusselt number is ~4% higher for the constant heat flux condition.
• The wall temperature is determined using the local heat transfer coefficient in the following expression:

𝑞 ′′ 𝑠
𝑇𝑤 𝑥 = 𝑇∞ +
ℎ𝑥

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Summary
• For a flat plate under isothermal conditions,
‐ Laminar flow:
• For high Prandtl numbers (𝑃𝑟 ≫ 1), the hydrodynamic BL is thicker than the thermal BL.
• For low Prandtl numbers 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 0.5 , the thermal BL is thicker than the hydrodynamic BL.
‐ Turbulent Flow:
• The thermal and hydrodynamic BL thickness are nearly equal, and the BL growth is independent of the
Prandtl number.
• Heat transfer is primarily governed by random fluctuations (as opposed to molecular diffusion).

• We discussed relationships for local and average Nusselt numbers relations for flat plates in both
isothermal and uniform heat flux conditions.
• In the transitional regime, it is useful to estimate the average heat transfer coefficient from both
laminar and turbulent relationships.

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