Chapter 1 - The Scientific Endeavour

Laboratory equipment:
Beaker - to hold/store a liquid * generally, apparatus that holds
Test tube - to hold a liquid something can be used to heat
Test tube rack - to hold/store test tubes or mix them
Glass rod - to stir liquid in a beaker
Dropper - to transfer small amount of liquid
Spatula - to transfer small amount of solid
Bunsen burner - to heat ( ex. water in a beaker )
Tripod & wire gauze - to support beaker when heating ( gauze can spread heat )
Heat-proof mat - to protect the table during heating
Electronic balance - to measure mass; usually in grams
Measuring cylinder - to measure volume of liquid
Metre rule - to measure length
Thermometer - to measure temperature
Stop-watch - to measure time
Retort stand & clamp - to hold an apparatus at a certain height
Safety goggles - to protect our eyes ( during experiment )
Flask - to hold a liquid
Boiling tube - to hold a liquid ( similar to a test tube; for boiling )
Test tube holder - to hold a test tube during heating process
Watch glass - to hold a small amount of solid
Reagent bottle - to store a liquid
Filter Funnel - to transfer liquids into containers; filtering
Gas jar - to collect/ store gas
Bell jar - to separate experiment setup from surroundings
Evaporating dish - evaporation

Glassware
- Used to mix and heat
- Measuring cylinder for accurate volume
- Allows us to make clear observations and follow through the changes ( transparent )

Heating
bunsen burner, tripod, retort stand, clamp, wire gauze, heat proof mat, test tube holder/
tongs/pegs, evaporating dish/beaker/test tube, bosshead, crucible + lid, clay triangle, goggles

1.2
Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. It has both pros and
cons.

Bunsen burner - read and refer to ch.1 slide page 17 - 22

1.5
The Scientific Method
Step 1 : Make observation
- Gather info with 5 senses
Step 2 : Questioning ( analyse and infer )
- Inference is an explanation for an observation
Step 3 : Formulating a hypothesis
Step 4 : Experimenting
Step 5 : Concluding

Variables
Independent : the variable changed
Dependent : what is observed
Controlled : variable that doesn’t change
Control (experiment) : an experiment where all variable factors are kept constant and is used as
a standard of comparison to the experimental component in an experiment.

Chapter 2 - Exploring Diversity of Matter by Its Physical Property

Physical properties (qualities that can be detected by 5 senses/measuring device):

Strength - The strength of a material refers to its ability to support a heavy load without breaking
or tearing.
Hardness - The hardness of a material refers to its ability to withstand scratches.
Density - The density of a material refers to its mass per volume. If same volume, more mass is
denser.
Flexibility - The flexibility of a material refers to its ability to bend without breaking and to return
to its original shape and size; opposite is rigid
Electrical conductivity - The electrical conductivity of a material is a measure of how easily
electricity passes through it.
Thermal conductivity - The thermal conductivity or heat conductivity of a material is a measure
of how easily heat passes through it. (heat conductors/insulators)
Boiling point - temperature at which a liquid boils.
Melting point - the temperature at which an object melts.

Materials:
Metals - elements that can be found in Earth’s crust
● Shiny appearance (some have dull surfaces which can be polished to give the
shiny silvery appearance)
● Range from low to high densities
● Flexible
● Usually have high melting and boiling point
● Ductile – can be bent or drawn into wires
● Malleable – can be bent or molded into shape
● Conduct heat well
 ● Conduct electricity well
● Some may corrode or become worn away gradually by chemical action (e.g.
rusting of iron).

Glass - composed mainly of sand (which is a form of silica), soda ash and lime.
● Transparent
● Inflexible
● High density
● Can be molded or blown into shapes at high temperatures
● High melting point (about 1600 0C)
● Generally brittle (easily broken)
● Does not conduct heat well
● Does not conduct electricity
● Does not corrode

Plastics - made from crude oil

● Flexible
● Low density
● Can be molded or blown into shapes before they solidify
● Tough (not easily broken, although some are brittle)
● Does not conduct heat
● Does not conduct electricity
● Does not corrode

Fibres - made from natural or artificial substances (man-made fibres). Fibres can be spun into
threads and woven into fabrics.
● Flexible
● Low density
● Soft
● Relatively less strong
● Do not conduct heat
● Do not conduct electricity
● Can corrode or rot

Ceramics - materials produced using clay and other non-metals.

● Hard but brittle
● High melting point
● Can be moulded into shapes before fired in kilns or ovens to harden
● Do not conduct heat
● Do not conduct electricity
● Do not corrode

4.4
The properties of materials can help you to choose the right materials to make an object.
Measurements and Units
We often make measurements in our daily lives, either accurately or by estimations. It is
important, however, to use standard units to take accurate measurements.
● Physical quantities are quantities that can be measured.
ex. length, area, volume, mass and time
Measurements are shown in 2 parts = numerical value & unit

S.I. units are the most commonly used system of units in science.
Physical Quantity S.I. Unit Symbol

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Temperature Kelvin K

Time second s

For larger or smaller quantities, prefixes are used.

Prefix Value Symbol
giga One billion G

mega One milion M

kilo One thousand k

deci One tenth 0.1 d

centi One hundredth 0.01 c

milli One thousandth 0.001 m

micro One millionth 0.000001 μ

nano One billionth 0.000 000 001 n

● Length is the distance between two specified points.

● Examples of measurements of length: height, depth, width, thickness and circumference
Instruments to measure length
- Measuring tape, used to measure lengths over 1m, is soft and flexible thus is able to
measure round objects
- External and internal calipers
External calipers can measure the external diameter of a round object.
Internal calipers can measure the internal diameter of a round object.
- Vernier calipers
Vernier calipers are able to measure short lengths and diameters of objects of up to 10 cm.
They are more accurate than the meter rule since the smallest division on the vernier scale is
0.01 cm

Using the vernier calipers

Step 1: Close the jaws of the vernier calipers. Make sure that the zero marking on the vernier
scale is in line with the zero marking on the main scale.
Step 2: Place the object within the jaws of the vernier calipers and clamp it firmly in place.
Step 3: Read the length.
Length to be measured Instrument to use Accuracy of instrument

Between 0 and 10 cm Vernier calipers To the nearest 0.01 cm

10 cm – 100 cm Metre rule To the nearest mm

5 cm and above Measuring tape or To the nearest mm (short lengths)

contractor’s rule To the nearest cm
(very long lengths)

The volume of an object is the amount of space it occupies. The S.I. unit for volume is m3. The
volumes of liquids can be measured using the measuring cylinder, burette or pipette.
Reading the meniscus
In narrow glass cylinders, the
liquid level is curved into a
shape called the meniscus.
Position your eye at the same
level as the bottom of the
meniscus to get the correct
reading and avoid parallax error.
The volume of small irregular solids can be measured by displacement. ( count water level 1,
insert object, count water level 2, water lvl 2 - 1 ) can use measuring cylinder/displacement can.

Balances are used to measure mass.

- Beam balance, uses known masses to measure the mass of an unknown object.
- Electronic balance, measures the mass of an object when the object is placed on the
metal pan and the reading is displayed.

Temperature is a measurement of how hot or cold something is. The S.I. unit for temperature is
Kelvin and is represented by the symbol K. However, for practical reasons, most thermometers
measure temperature on the Celsius scale.
Instruments to measure temperature:
- digital thermometer displays the temperature on a digital display (35.5 ∞ C to 41.1∞C)
- thermocouple can measure temperatures from –200 ∞ C to 1200 ∞ C.
- infrared thermometer allows us to measure temperatures from a distance (–55 ∞ C to
280 ∞ C)
- A laboratory thermometer can measure temperatures between –10 ∞ C to 110 ∞ C.

Chapter 3 - Exploring Diversity of Matter by Its Chemical Composition

All matter in the universe is made up of elements. An element is a substance which cannot be
broken down into two or more simpler substances by chemical methods. Elements can be
classified into two general categories: metals and non-metals.

Metals are malleable (can be beaten into sheets) & ductile (can be drawn into wires without
breaking), while non-metals are brittle (for solids) – can snap or break easily & non-ductile.

Metals
Copper - wires & pipes
● Reddish brown solid
● Good conductor of electricity
● Ductile (easily drawn into wires)
● Corrosion resistant
● Strong
Zinc - used inside batteries to help produce electricity, coins are zinc-plated
● Gray solid
● Prevents rusting of iron
● Good conductor of electricity
● Strong
● Corrosion resistant
Aluminum - cooking foil, drink cans, aircraft bodies
● Silvery shiny solid
● Low density
● Strong and light
● Malleable (can be shaped easily)
 ● Corrosion resistant
Mercury - used in thermometers to measure temp, can also measure pressure
● Silvery liquid
● Does not react easily with other chemicals
● Mercury vapour is fluorescent (gives off light)
● Good conductor of heat
● Expands evenly on heating
Magnesium - used to make milk of magnesia, which is used to relieve acid indigestion
● Grey solid
● Burns with dazzling white light
● Forms alkali to neutralise excess acid in stomach
Iron - cutlery
● Grey solid
● Good conductor of heat and electricity
● Ductile
● Strong
● Magnetic

Non-metals
Iodine - antiseptic in medicine
● Black crystals
● Poisonous
● Antiseptic (prevents wound infection)
Chlorine - bleach ( for clothes )
● Greenish-yellow gas
● Bleaches dyes
● Poisonous
Diamond (Carbon) - diamond drills can help to cut through very hard metals
● Hardest substance known to man
● Can be polished to form a shiny, reflecting, transparent solid
Hydrogen - used to fill weather balloons and blimps.
● Colourless gas
● Gas with lowest density
● Explosive
Carbon (Graphite) - rackets
● Black solid
● Smooth
● Lightweight
● Good conductor of electricity
Nitrogen - fertilizers
● Colourless gas
● Unreactive, does not burn or support combustion
● Low boiling point
Oxygen - used in the flame for welding, 0xygen gas in the tank allows scuba divers to breathe in
water.
● Colourless gas
● Essential for life
● Does not burn but supports combustion

Periodic Table
Scientists have organized the elements into a table called the Periodic Table.
- The periodic table classifies elements into metals & non-metals.
- The names of elements are represented by chemical symbols.
- Elements that are arranged in the same vertical column belong to the same group.
Elements in the same group have the same chemical properties.
- Elements that are arranged in the same horizontal row belong to the same period. As we
move from the left to right along one period, the properties of elements slowly change
from those of metals to those of non-metals. All elements in a period have the same
number of electron shells.
- The elements on the left side of the zigzag line (in red) are grouped as metals, while
those on the right are grouped as non-metals. The elements near this zigzag line are
called metalloids. These elements have properties of both metals and non-metals.
A compound is a substance which is made up of two or more different elements chemically
combined together.
The properties of a compound are often different from its constituent elements.
ex. the compound sodium chloride can be eaten. However, its constituent elements – sodium
and chlorine – are not safe for consumption.
The constituent elements of a compound are always combined in a fixed proportion by mass.
ex. to form water, the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen that combine chemically is always 2:1

How are compounds formed?

- Combination
● Combustion is an example of combination.
● It occurs when elements or compounds burn and combine with oxygen to form one or
more new compounds. (carbon + oxygen = carbon dioxide)
● In other methods of combination, certain elements and/or compounds can combine to
form new compounds when they come into contact with one another. (sodium + water =
sodium hydroxide + hydrogen)
- Decomposition
● Decomposition happens when more complex compounds are heated to be broken down
into simpler compounds. (sugar = water vapour + carbon)
- Heating and passing and electric current can break down a compound into simpler
substances.
- Some compounds can also be broken down into simpler substances when exposed to
light.
ex. CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) compound in styrofoam is broken by sunlight into a harmful
substance that depletes the ozone layer.

A mixture consists of two or more different substances that are mixed but not chemically
combined together.
Properties of mixtures:
● When a mixture is formed, no chemical reaction occurs.
● A mixture has the properties of its constituent substances.
● A mixture can be separated easily by physical methods (i.e. without involving chemical
reaction).
● The components in mixtures are not mixed in any fixed proportion.
Types of mixtures:
- Solid-solid mixtures, Alloys are mixtures of a metal element with other metals or
non-metals. It has properties that are better than those of its constituents.
- Solid-liquid mixtures (calamine lotion, cendol)
- Liquid - liquid mixtures (alcoholic drinks, vinegar)
- Liquid - gas mixtures (foam, soda drinks)
- Gas - gas mixtures (air)

Solutions and suspensions

Solutions (soluble solute + solvent) are mixtures in which soluble particles are completely
dissolved in a liquid or gas.
● Homogeneous (mixture)
● No residue after filtration
● No separation of solute and solvent when left to stand
Suspensions (insoluble substance + solvent) are mixtures in which insoluble particles are
suspended in a liquid or gas.
● Non-homogeneous (heterogeneous mixture)
● Has residue after filtration
● separation of solute and solvent when left to stand

Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in 100g of solvent at a given
temperature.
Factors that affect:
The nature of the solvent
The nature of the solute
Temperature

The rate of dissolving is how fast a substance dissolves in a fixed volume of solvent.
Factors that affect:
Temperature
Rate of stirring
Size of solute particles

Chapter 4 - Exploring Diversity of Matter Using Separation Techniques

Different types of methods are used to separate mixtures.

Separation Methods:
Physical methods
● Magnetic attraction
- Separates magnetic materials from non-magnetic materials
- Used in food processing and salvaging scrap iron and steel
● Filtration
- Separates an insoluble solid from a solid liquid mixture
- Used in vacuum cleaners, coffee makers, water treatment
● Evaporation
- Separates a dissolved (soluble) solid from a solid-liquid mixture
- Used to obtain salt from sea water
● Distillation
- Separates a pure liquid from a solid-liquid or liquid-liquid mixture
- Used to make perfumes and in desalination plants
- 2 types = simple & fractional (has glass beads/obstacles)
- Fractional distillation is used to separate more than two liquids in a mixture of
miscible liquids (homogeneous mix)
 ● Paper chromatography
- Separates small amounts of mixtures using a solvent
- Makes use of the fact that different substances dissolve to different extents in a
mixture (the dye that is more soluble in the solvent travels further)
- Used to separate mixtures of coloured substances such as ink and dyes (to find
the dyes used in ink/food)
- Paper chromatography is also used to identify the contents & number of contents
of a mixture or to test the purity of a liquid. Different substances in the mixture are
separated on the chromatography paper.
- The chromatography paper with the separated components (result) is called a
chromatogram. When there are 2 or more dyes (spots) present in the
chromatogram, the substance is NOT pure. But if only 1 spot, it is pure.

Obtaining drinking water from used water

Microfiltration
● is a type of physical filtration process where a contaminated fluid is passed through a
special pore-sized membrane to separate microorganisms and suspended particles from
the liquid.
● A membrane is used as a filter. This membrane has tiny pores that trap suspended
solids –and most disease-causing microorganisms
● The water obtained from microfiltration contains mainly dissolved salts and molecules
Reverse Osmosis
● Reverse osmosis is used for desalination
● Sea water is pre-treated to remove debris and contaminants
● It is then pumped at high pressure through partially permeable membranes
● This removes all traces of bacteria, viruses, chemicals and dissolved minerals
● Desalination plants remove dissolved salts (or minerals) from seawater to obtain pure
water.
● Distillation is one of the techniques used to carry out desalination, however it is
expensive and requires a lot of energy

Chapter 5 - Understanding Diversity of Organisms

Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth and the essential interdependence of all living things.
The tremendous variety of life on Earth is made possible by complex interactions among all
living things including microorganisms.

1. Diversity of genes
Chihuahuas, beagles, and rottweilers are all the same species —but they're not the same
because there is variety in their genes.
2. Diversity of number of species
For example, monkeys, dragonflies, and meadow beauties are all different species.
3. Variety of ecosystems
An Ecosystem is a self-contained community of microorganisms, animals and plants, that
interact with each other and with their physical environment. Within an ecosystem there can be
many habitats. This is the physical and chemical description of where a creature lives.
Habitats might describe:
- The NAME of the place where the creature lives. (Arctic Canada)
- The DOMINANT VEGETATION of the place where the creature lives. (heather
moorland)
- The TYPE of place where the creature lives. (freshwater ponds & lakes)

Five Kingdoms:
. Kingdom Monera
. Kingdom Protoctista
. Kingdom Fungi
. Kingdom Plantae
. Kingdom Animalia

Because of a large diversity, there is a need for classification.

Classification allows us to:
● group living organisms systematically according to their common characteristics
● recognise relationships between different living organisms
● have an easy reference in identifying living organisms

Kingdom Animalia
Invertebrates (no backbone)
• Without jointed legs
Sponges Stinging-cell animals Flatworms Roundworms

• Large numbers of • Sea animals with • Have flat, ribbon- • Have long, cylindrical
pores present on tentacles and stinging like bodies bodies with pointed
bodies cells • Parasites ends
• many are parasites

• E.g. sponges • E.g. jellyfish • E.g. tapeworms, • E.g. pinworms,

liver flukes ascaris

Segmented worms Molluscs (shelled Spiny-skinned animals

animals)

● Bodies are divided ● Soft bodies may ● Bodies are radially

into segments or be covered by a symmetrical with five-part
parts shell body design
● Found in a variety ● Use muscular ● Found only in oceans
of environments movement ● Move with tube feet

E.g. earthworms, leeches E.g. snails, octopuses E.g. starfish, basket stars
• With jointed legs (arthropods)
With 3 pairs of legs (insects) With four pairs of legs With more than four pairs of
(arachnids) legs

● Bodies are divided into segments or parts

● Bodies are covered with a exoskeleton (a hard substance that keeps the shape of
the animals)

• E.g. butterflies, beetles, • E.g. spiders, scorpions, • E.g. millipedes, centipedes,

termites, houseflies mites, ticks prawns, crabs

Vertebrates (with backbone)

Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

- Cold-blooded - Cold-blooded - Cold-blooded - Warm-blooded - Warm-blooded

- Bodies are often - Bodies are covered - Bodies are - Have beaks and - Bodies are
covered by scales by moist skin with no covered with dry feathers covered with hair
- Breathe using scales skin, and covered - Have wings but - Breathe through
gills
- Live in
- Breathe through with horny scales not all can fly lungs
freshwater or sea lungs - Breathe through - Breathe through - Most give birth
water - Live partly on land lungs lungs to live young
and in water - Live on land - Lay eggs with
shells

• E.g. • E.g. toads, • E.g. monitor • E.g. ducks, • E.g. human

groupers, sea salamanders, frogs lizards, chickens, beings, cats,
dragons, crocodiles, penguins
stingrays tortoises

Kingdom Plantae
Flowering
● Have roots, stems and leaves
● Reproduce by seeds
● Produce seed- bearing fruits
Non-flowering
Mosses and liverworts Ferns Gymnosperms
 ● Have no true roots, stems or ● Have roots, ● Have roots, stems
leaves stems and and leaves
● Reproduce by spores leaves (needle-like)
● Spores are found in ● Reproduce by ● Reproduce by
capsules spores seeds
● Spores are found ● Seeds are not
on the found in
underside of fruits, by in cones
leaves

E.g. Red moss, Leucobryum glaoum, E.g. Stag’s horn fern, E.g. pine, white spruce
Diphyscium foliosum Bird’s nest fern

Dichotomous Key
● Classifies objects or organisms based on observable features
● Splits a group into two contrasting groups each time it branches out
● Can be used to identify organisms

Chapter 6 - Model of Cells - The Basic Unit of Life

What are cells?

● Living organisms are made up of small building units of life called cells.
● Cells come in different shapes and sizes.
● Unicellular organisms are made up of one cell.
● Multicellular organisms, such as human beings, are made of many cells.

A cell is made up of a tiny mass of living matter called protoplasm (the living part of a cell,
including the cytoplasm, nucleus, and other organelles). Organelles are the small parts/special
structures inside the cell. Protoplasm is made up of a nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane.

Animal cell
Nucleus
● Usually the largest structure in the cell
● Spherical in shape
● Responsible for cell reproduction
 ● Controls cell activities including repair of worn-out parts
● Needed for cell to stay alive
● Contains chromosomes which are genetic material
Cell membrane
● A thin membrane surrounding the cell
● Partially permeable – allows only certain substances to pass through
● Serves as a boundary between the cell and the external environment
● Controls substances entering or leaving the cell
Cytoplasm
● Jelly-like substance
● Contains chemicals and other tiny structures that carry out special functions
● Many chemical reactions take place here
Chromosome
● Long thread-like structures found in the nucleus
● Made up of proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
● Presence of genes which contain hereditary materials
● Passed down from parents to their offspring
Vacuoles
● Fluid-filled spaces within the cytoplasm, surrounded by membranes
● Store water and other nutrients needed for the living organism to survive
● The animal cell contains many tiny vacuoles
● Usually small, numerous and temporary in animal cells

Plant cell
Cell wall
● A thick layer surrounding the cell membrane
● Made up of cellulose
● Supports the cell and gives it a regular shape
Nucleus
● Spherical in shape
● Responsible for cell reproduction
● Controls most cell activities including repair of worn-out parts
● Needed for cell to stay alive
● Contains chromosomes which are genetic material
Cytoplasm
● Jelly-like substance
● Contains chemicals and other tiny structures that carry out special functions
● Many chemical reactions take place here
Chloroplast
● Contains the green pigment chlorophyll, which is needed for the plant to absorb energy
from the Sun to make food through photosynthesis
Cell membrane
● A thin membrane surrounding the cell
● Partially permeable – allows only certain substances to pass through
 ● Serves as a boundary between the cell and the external environment
● Controls substances entering or leaving the cell
Vacuole
● Usually a single large space surrounded by a membrane
● Contains a liquid called cell sap. Cell sap is made up of water and dissolved materials
such as sugars and mineral salts.

Division of labor is the breakdown of workload into smaller and more specific tasks for maximum
efficiency. The different parts in an organism are designed specifically to perform different tasks
that allow the organism to function properly.

The main organ systems in a plant are the shoot system and the root system. The shoot system
consists of the part of the plant above the ground. The organs which make up the shoot system
are the leaves, stems, buds and flowers (of flowering plants). The root system consists of the
parts of the plant below the ground such as the main roots and branched roots.

Root hair cells are found on the surface of roots. They are long, which increases their surface
area. This helps the plant to better absorb water and mineral salts from the soil.
Guard cells on leaf surfaces control gaseous exchange between the leaf and the atmosphere.
Epidermal tissue (Epidermis): The epidermal tissue is made up of many closely packed cells
including the guard cells. This tissue helps to reduce water loss. It also enables gaseous
exchange and the absorption of water and nutrients.Epidermal tissue forms the outermost layer
of the leaf.

Nerve cells have specialized extensions called nerve fibers that help to transmit nerve signals to
and from the central nervous system. The red blood cells contain the pigment haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin combines with oxygen which is transported around the body

A human body has many different organs. Each organ has several sets of tissues working
together to allow it to function. These organs work together and make the five main organ
systems in your body – the digestive system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the
skeletal system and the muscular system. Different types of cells have specialized functions.
Cells of the same kind that perform the same job are grouped together to form a tissue. Some
tissues have more than one type of cell. These are called complex tissues. An organ is formed
by several tissues working together to perform a specialized function. Organs with related roles
coordinate to function efficiently. They work together for a specialized purpose to form an organ
system. The different organ systems work together to make up the entire body of an organism.
ex. heart muscle cells - heart muscle tissue - heart - cardiovascular system - body

Chapter 7 - Model of Matter - The Particulate Nature of Matter

Matter is made up of tiny particles that are in constant and random motion. Diffusion is a
process by which particles of matter move from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration. Diffusion also occurs in liquids. However, it takes place more slowly than in
gases. This shows that particles in a liquid move around more slowly than in gases.

Property Solids Liquids Gases

Movement ● Only vibrate ● move over short ● move freely in

about their distances any direction
fixed positions,
unable to move
freely

Attraction ● Strongly ● attracted to one ● weakly

attracted to another attracted to
each other ● packed closely one another
● packed very together ● far apart from
closely one another
together

Arranged in a fixed, ● yes ● no ● no

regular pattern?
Shape & Volume ● Have fixed ● Have no fixed ● Have no fixed
shapes shapes shape
● Have fixed ● Take the shape ● Take the shape
volumes of their of their
containers containers
● Have fixed ● Have no fixed
volumes volume
● Fill up the
space of their
containers
Compressibility ● Cannot be ● Cannot be ● Can be
compressed compressed compressed

Scientists use the particulate model of matter to explain that the three states of matter are
different because of the differences in the movement (motion) and arrangement of the particles.
Matter can exist in the solid, liquid or gaseous state, depending on its temperature and
atmospheric pressure. At a fixed pressure, the temperature of an object will determine its state.

Melting — solid to liquid

● When a solid is strongly heated, the particles gain energy and vibrate more vigorously in
their fixed positions.
● When the particles have enough energy (i.e. reach the melting point), they break free
from one another and move about randomly.
● The particles are no longer held in fixed positions, but they are still close to one another.
Boiling — liquid to gas
 ● When a liquid is heated, the particles gain energy and vibrate and move about more
vigorously.
● When the particles have enough energy (i.e reach the boiling point), they break free from
one another.
● The particles become randomly arranged, very far apart and moving about at great
speeds.
Condensation — gas to liquid
● When a gas is cooled, the particles lose energy and they move about less vigorously
and at lower speeds.
● As the temperature falls, the particles lose more and more energy until they are close
enough to be attracted to one another.
Freezing — liquid to solid
● When a liquid is cooled, the particles lose energy and they move about more slowly.
● As the temperature falls, the particles lose more and more energy until they are close
enough to allow the forces of attraction to make them return to their fixed positions.

Not all substances melt when heated or condense when cooled, iodine directly turns into gas
(sublimation), and water vapor directly turns into frost (deposition).

Not all liquids expand when heated and contract when cooled. Water at 0 degree C expands
when warmed. However at 4 degrees C, water contracts. This water has the greatest density of
1.0 g/cm3 at the temperature of 4 degrees C.

When an object expands or contracts, its volume changes, but the mass doesn’t. This causes a
change in its density. When an object expands, its volume increases, thus its density decreases.
When an object contracts, its volume decreases, thus its density increases.

Points of comparison EVAPORATION BOILING

Speed of the process slow fast

Speed of the particle slow fast

movement

Parts of the matter involved Surfaced of the liquid Throughout the whole
in the process exposed to air matter (liquid)

Temperature(s) where the Non-specific temperatures Specific temperature (at

process can occur (various temperatures) boiling point of matter and
above)

Bubble formation during the no Yes

process
Thermometers are constructed on the principle of thermal expansion, the liquid inside it
expands when heated.

Chapter 8 - Model of Matter - Atoms and Molecules

Matter is made up of atoms.

● An atom is the smallest particle of an element. It is an indivisible part of an element that
has the same functions of that element
● Atoms of an element are all identical.
ex. one silver atom would be identical to any other silver atom.
● One the other hand, atoms of different elements would be different.
● An atom has an average size of about 0.0000000001 m or 1 x 10–10m.
Representation
We can use circles or ball and stick models to show how atoms are arranged in substances.
Each ball represents an atom. Atoms of different elements are represented using different
coloured/sized balls. A smaller atom is represented with a smaller circle than that of a bigger
atom. However, scientists use the chemical symbol of each element to represent its atom since
it’s more convenient.
What are atoms made up of?
● Each atom is made up of even smaller particles.
● These particles are called sub-atomic particles.
● There are 3 types of sub-atomic particles – protons, electrons and neutrons.

Sub-atomic particles Symbol Relative mass Relative charge

Proton p 1 +1 (positive)

Neutron n 1 0 (neutral)

Electron e 1/2000 -1 (negative)

Neutrons and protons have the same mass. An electron is about 2000 times lighter than a
proton. Since an atom contains an equal number of protons and electrons, the atom is
electrically neutral. It has no net charge.

The atomic number or proton number is the number of protons in an atom. The number of
electrons is equal to the number of protons in an atom. The mass number is the total number of
protons and neutrons in an atom.
 Isotopes are variations of existing elements
that do NOT have the same amount of protons
and neutrons. Isotopes differ in atomic mass
than their original atom.

Molecules
● Some atoms share electrons with other atoms by combining to form molecules.
● These atoms have a tendency to combine with other atoms to form molecules rather
than exist alone.
● A molecule is made up of two or more atoms chemically combined together.
● Molecules of elements usually consist of a fixed number of one type of atom chemically
combined together.
● Many non-metallic elements exist as molecules.
● Molecule of elements - fixed number of one (same) type of atom chemically combined
together.
● Molecule of compounds - has atoms of different types combined together (These
molecules contain a fixed number/ratio of different types of atoms chemically combined
together.)
● Diatomic – composed of two atoms
● Triatomic – composed of three atoms
● Polyatomic – composed of three or more atoms

Chemical Formula
● To represent a molecule, we use its chemical formula.
● The chemical formula is a combination of the chemical symbols of the elements present
in the molecule.
● This tells us the type of atoms present in the molecule.
● The small number beside each symbol is called a subscript.
● It tells us the number of atoms of that element present in the molecule.
● No subscript means that there is only one atom of that element present in the molecule.
● Each chemical formula represents a particular substance, just small differences change
the substance.
Ions
● When an atom loses or gains electrons, we say that an ion is formed.
● An ion is an atom that carries a positive or negative charge as a result of having lost or
gained one or more electrons. (not neutral charge like normal atoms)
● Positive ions = atoms that lose electrons
● Negative ions = atoms that gain electrons
● Generally, when atoms react to form compounds:
the atoms of metals tend to lose electrons; and the atoms of non-metals tend to gain electrons.

Chapter 9 - Ray Model of Light

Light is an important source of energy. It enables us to see. The Sun is the most important
source of natural light. Without sunlight, it is impossible for living things to survive on earth. Light
travels at a very high speed. Light travels faster than sound (thunder & lightning in storm). Light
has the fastest speed in the Universe. It travels at 300,000,000 m/s in a vacuum.

Light travels in straight lines. An opaque object does not allow light to pass through it.
When light is blocked by an opaque object, a shadow is formed. Since light travels in straight
lines, shadows have the same shape as the object blocking the light. If light did not travel in
straight lines, it would go round all objects and cast no shadow.

We can trace the path of light from a source by drawing straight lines to join one point to
another.
● Such lines are called light rays.
● A bundle of light rays is known as a beam of light.
● Beams of light can be parallel, divergent or convergent.

Reflection
 ● The bouncing of light rays off a surface is called reflection.
● When light rays hit the surface of another medium, it can be reflected.
● On a smooth surface such as the surface of a mirror, regular reflection takes place.
● A clear and undistorted image can be seen on the surface.
ex. a parallel beam of light stays parallel after regular reflection
● If the surface is rough such as the surface of a sheet of paper, irregular reflection occurs.
● The surface can be seen but no reflected images are seen in it.
ex. when light shines on the paper, no reflected image is formed although light is
reflected. A parallel beam of light hitting a rough surface gets scattered or reflected in an
irregular manner.

Mirrors
Look at yourself in a mirror. What you see is an image of yourself. You can see your image in
the mirror because light rays from your body are regularly reflected by the mirror into your eyes.
Plane mirrors
● The flat mirror is a good reflector of light and is also called a plane mirror.
● Plane mirrors are usually used to check one’s appearance.
● They are also used as a form of decoration to make a room appear more spacious.
● Plane mirrors are used in cars as rear-view or side-view mirrors.
● Characteristics of plane mirror images
- The distance of the image from the mirror is equal to the distance of the object
from the mirror.
- The image and the object are the same size.
- The image is upright.
- The image is laterally inverted. This means the left and right side of the image
are reversed.
- The image is virtual. This means that the image cannot be projected onto a
screen behind the mirror.
Concave mirrors
● These are mirrors with a curved surface that bends inwards.
● When the object is near the concave surface, images formed are virtual and magnified.
Convex mirrors
● Mirrors that bend outwards are called convex mirrors.
● The back of a spoon is an example.
Side-view mirrors of cars are sometimes convex mirrors.
● Convex mirrors cover a wider field of vision, and the images formed are distorted and
smaller.

The position of an object’s image can be shown using light rays. The light rays that bounce off
the mirror into the eye of the observer will appear to have originated from the image from behind
the mirror. To locate the image, we need to draw two or more rays from the top and bottom of
the object. We then trace the rays from the object to the mirror and then to the observer’s eye.
Then we use dashed lines to trace where the reflected rays seem to have come from.
By doing this, we can then identify the position and size of the image and compare it to the
object. (it should have the same size as the object & also the same distance from the mirror as
the object). Since the image appears to be coming from behind the mirror, we know that the
image is virtual.
Refraction
● Light bends when a light ray travels from one medium to another medium of different
density (such as from air to water).
● This bending of light is known as refraction.

● When light travels from air to glass, it gets refracted.

Apparent depth
● Refraction of light causes the coin to appear higher than it really is.
● When viewed from the surface, the depth of the basin of water will always seem less
than what it really is.
● We say the apparent depth is less than the real depth.
● This explains why a pool appears shallower than it is.
Dispersion of white light
● Sunlight appears white, but it is made up of different colors.

Since each color of light travels at a slightly different speed in any medium, each color of light
refracts a different amount. The shorter wavelengths of light travel slower and are bent (deviates
from the original path) more than the longer wavelengths, blue more than the red.
Red = longest wavelength
Violet = shortest wavelength
Colors
● Primary colors are basic colors that cannot be obtained by mixing other colors of light.
● Primary colors of light are red, green and blue.
● Secondary colors of light are colors that are formed by mixing primary colors.
● Secondary colors are cyan, yellow and magenta.
● We can see the colour of an object as it reflects that color into our eyes.
● When white light falls on a green object, the object absorbs all other colors and reflects
only green light.
● An object can only reflect its own color. When a different colored light is shone onto the
object, the object becomes black. However if the object is made up of 2 colors, it can
reflect both its constituent colors respectively.

Extra Experiment
When red light is shone on three balls (blue,red,green), only the red ball will reflect the red light.
The green and blue balls appear black since they can only reflect green and blue light
respectively (primary colors/made up of only one color). But if a red light is shone on the yellow
ball, it appears red. Yellow is a secondary color, which consists of red and green. Thus, a yellow
ball can reflect both red and green light. When both red and green lights are shone on a yellow
ball, it reflects yellow.

Chapter 10 - Transport System in Organisms

Diffusion is the overall movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration.
● Diffusion in living organisms occurs continuously and it does not always take place
across a membrane (e.g. cell membranes).
● Diffusion is important in moving materials in and out of the cells.
● Diffusion through a partially permeable membrane
○ A partially permeable membrane is a membrane that allows some molecules to
pass through but not others. Gases (e.g. oxygen) and smaller molecules (e.g.
sugar) diffuse into the plants cells through the membrane.
○ In humans, gaseous exchange occurs in the lungs by diffusion.
When we breathe in, oxygen enters the air sacs in our lungs.The oxygen concentration is higher
in the air sacs than in the blood surrounding them. Thus, oxygen diffuses out of the air sacs into
the bloodstream. During respiration in the cells, carbon dioxide is produced as waste. Carbon
dioxide is carried in the bloodstream leading to the lungs. It then diffuses out into the air sacs,
and leaves the body when we breathe out.

Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher concentration of water
molecules (higher water potential) to a region of lower concentration of water molecules (lower
water potential) through a partially permeable membrane.

When the concentration in both substances during diffusion or osmosis has become the same,
there will be no more movement of particles. The end result leaves both substances with equal
concentrations.
Cell membrane of both plant and animal cells is partially permeable.
The plant cell wall is made of cellulose. It is permeable.

Osmosis in cells
Animal cells
● Distilled water (purified water, higher concentration)
- Animal cells have elastic membranes. When the water molecules flow in, the
animal cells will swell and eventually burst.
● Concentrated solution (less concentration of water)
- Animal cells will shrivel up as they lose water. Cell shrinks and becomes soft. It is
dehydrated.
Plant cells
● Distilled water (purified water, higher concentration)
- Plant cells have strong, rigid cell walls which prevent the cells from expanding too
much.
- When water molecules flow in, the contents in the cell press the cell wall.
- The water creates a pressure on the cell wall of the plant cell. This is called
turgor pressure and keeps the plant tissues turgid.
- Soft tissues in plants depend on turgor for support. If plants lose too much water,
they will wilt.
- Thus, the cell expands and becomes turgid, but it doesn’t burst.
● Concentrated solution (less concentration of water)
- The vacuoles shrink and the cell contents pull away from the cellulose cell walls.
The plant cells lose turgor pressure and become flaccid.

Nutrients and oxygen need to reach each cell in the body to support the life of the cells. Thus,
we need a transport system to ensure that substances are transported fast enough throughout
the organism.

Absorption at roots
● Water and mineral salts are absorbed by the root hairs from the surrounding soil.
● There are numerous root hairs at the ends of young roots. A root hair is an outgrowth of
a root hair cell. It has a cell membrane, cytoplasm and a large central vacuole. The
vacuole contains cell sap, which contains mainly water and dissolved substances such
as mineral salts. The soil solution consists of water with dissolved mineral salts. It is less
concentrated (higher concentration of water molecules) than the cell sap and the
cytoplasm. As the cell membrane is partially permeable, water enters the root hairs by
osmosis.
 ● The concentration of mineral salts in the root hairs is often higher than in the soil
solution. Thus, mineral salts should diffuse out of the root hairs. However, this does not
occur as the root hairs not only prevent the outflow of the salts, but absorb salts from the
soil solution. This is what we call active transport.

In diffusion & osmosis, no energy is needed, since the particles move from high to low
concentration. However, in active transport, the molecules were to move up the slope (from low
to high con), thus energy is needed.

difference DIFFUSION OSMOSIS ACTIVE TRANSPORT

parameter

presence of with or without a With a membrane with membrane

membrane membrane

energy input No energy is required No energy is Energy is required

required

substances Any molecules Water molecules nutrients, nitrate ions,

transported mineral salts

● Plants have tissues that help to transport dissolved mineral salts.

● These are called vascular bundles.
● The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring around the stem.
● Each vascular bundle consists of two types of tissues – xylem and phloem.
The phloem
The phloem tissues transport manufactured food substances (e.g. sugars) from the leaves to
other parts of the plant. (outer side)
The xylem
The xylem tissue conducts water containing dissolved mineral salts from the root to the leaves.
The xylem consists of long tubes or vessels that pass from the roots to the leaves. (inner side)

Transport system in humans

The circulatory system is a transport system present in humans to supply oxygen and food
quickly to all parts of the body.
The circulatory system in human beings is made up of:
● the heart;
● the blood vessels – the arteries, veins and capillaries; and
● blood – the transport medium.
Blood is a fluid tissue, which is made up of the plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets.
● Plasma
- Plasma is a liquid, containing mainly
water.
- Plasma has many substances dissolved
in it.
- These substances are transported in the
bloodstream from one part of the body to
the other.
- Plasma transports digested food
substances from the small intestines to
other parts of the body.
- It transports carbon dioxide and waste
products formed in cells to the excretory
organs for removal.
- It transports other substances such as enzymes and special chemicals called hormones.
● Red blood cells
- Red blood cells are biconcave and have no nucleus.
- They contain a red pigment called haemoglobin.
- The biconcave shape increases the surface area of the cell.
- This allows the cells to take in oxygen or release oxygen at a fast rate.
- Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body.
● White blood cells and platelets
- The white blood cells and platelets do not help in transporting substances.
- White blood cells fight infections while platelets make blood clot when bleeding occurs.

Chapter 13 - Electrical System

Electricity is a form of energy created by the flow of tiny particles called ‘ELECTRONS’ which
travels through wires. It is used to make electrical appliances work. For electrical appliances to
work, electricity must flow through it. The flow of electricity is called electric current.

Electric Current
● An electric current flows through a path that is set up by an electric circuit.
● It is the rate of flow of electric charge
● It is measured by the amount of electric charge moving per unit time past any point in the
circuit
● The path that the current flows through is known as a circuit
● An electric current can only flow with something to give it a ‘push’
● The ‘push’ can come from a source like a battery or from the socket, which provides
‘main electricity’
Electricity can flow through the motion of tiny particles called ’ELECTRONS’. If a circuit is not
complete then the electrons cannot move across
the gap.

Insert the circuit symbol bulb swi cell wi and

what each does

Series circuit
The electrical components are joined one after another to form a single loop. Electric current
passes through a single path.
Parallel circuit
The electric current is divided into branches. Electrical components (e.g bulbs) are connected to
each branch. Electric current passes through all branches (more than one path) of a parallel
circuit.
Ampere is the S.I unit of current. One ampere of current means that one unit of charge flows in
one second. It is named after André Marie Ampere. We use an ammeter to measure amperes
(current). The terminals of an ammeter are marked with + (positive) and – (negative) signs. The
– (negative) terminal is connected to the negative terminal of the battery cell and the + (Positive)
terminal is connected to the positive terminal of the cell. Ammeters MUST be connected in
series in a circuit.

Potential difference
● The potential difference (or p.d) between any two points is the amount of energy needed
to move one unit of electric charge from one point to another. It is the difference in
electric potential energy between 2 points in a circuit.
● The S.I Unit for potential difference is volt (V).
● The (-) negative terminal of the voltmeter is joined to the negative terminal of the dry cell
and the (+) terminal of the voltmeter is joined to the positive terminal of the voltmeter.
When measuring the voltage of a component, the voltmeter is always connected in
parallel with/across the component.
● Pd causes current to flow in a circuit, because if the electric potential is the same,
nothing will flow, however if there's a difference it will.

Resistance
● An electrical component resists or hinders the flow of electric charges when it is
connected in a circuit. It is the measure of how easy/difficult it is for charges to flow
through components. (low res = easy/high current, high res = difficult/low current)
● In a circuit component, the resistance to the flow of charge is similar to how a narrow
channel resists the flow of water
● The HIGHER the RESISTANCE in a component, the HIGHER the p.d (Potential
Difference) needed to move electric charge through the component.
● The S.I unit for resistance is ohm Ω
We can express Ohm’s Law mathematically using the equation:
Voltage = Current x Resistance
= IR
Potential Difference (Volts V), Current (Amperes A), Resistance (Ohms Ω)

Factors affecting resistance:

● The length L of the material. Longer materials have greater resistance
 Rrrrrr aaaaae
● The cross-sectional area A of the material. Larger areas offer LESS resistance.

● The temperature T of the material. The higher temperatures usually result in higher
resistances.
● The kind of material. Iron has more electrical resistance than a geometrically similar
copper conductor.
Fixed resistor - A type of resistor that the resistance of the circuit cannot be changed unless the
resistor themselves are changed
Variable resistor - We can adjust the amount of resistance easily from low to high by moving a
slider

CURRENT POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE RESISTANCE

The difference in electrical the ratio of the potential

the rate of flow of
potential energy between two difference across it to the
electrical charge
points current flowing through it
I V R

Ammeter Voltmeter Ohmmeter

ampere volt ohm

Effects of an electric current

Chemical effect
When an electric current is passed through a certain liquid, a chemical change can be
observed. This chemical effect is made use of in electrolysis and extraction of metals.
● Electrolysis: Chemical decomposition of an electrolyte by an electrical current
● Electroplating: It is a method of coating metals by immersing an object in a liquid and
then passing an electric current through the liquid. This current carries the metal through
the liquid to deposit on the object. Used in

Magnetic effect
● An iron rod placed inside a coil of wire has increased magnetic field when the current is
switched on
● When the current is switched off, the iron loses its magnetism
● The set-up is known as an electromagnet
● Applications: giant electromagnet (lifting magnetic metals at scrapyard), telephone,
electric motors

Heating effect
● Wire heats up as a current passes through it
● Electrical energy is converted into heat energy
 ● Heat produced depends on the resistance of the wire
● Greater resistance, greater heat
● Heating appliances have coils of wires called heating elements that are made of high
resistance materials such as nichrome (alloy: nickel, iron and chromium)
● Heating elements heat up when current passes through them
● Heat produced is then used for ironing, toasting, cooking and drying

Lighting effect
● Heating effect of a current can also lead to the lighting effect
● In a light bulb, the current first flows in a highly coiled filament. Then it causes the
filament to heat up, therefore glowing and giving out light. The heat generated is so great
that the coiled filament begins to glow and give out light.

Power
● The power of a circuit component tells you how much electrical energy is being
converted per second by the component.
● Power of an electrical component = Energy converted ÷ Time
● The S.I. unit of power is the watt (W). When the rate of energy is converted to one joule
per second, the power is said to be one watt. 15 J energy in 1 sec = 15 W
1 kV = 1000 V
1 kJ = 1000 J
1 kW = 1000 W

● We can calculate the electrical energy by an electrical appliance if we know its power
rating.
● The power rating of an appliance tells us how quickly an appliance converts electrical
energy into other forms of energy
● A device whose power rating is one kilowatt, when used for one hour, has used up a unit
of electrical energy known as the kilowatt-hour (kWh).
Energy = Power x Time
= kW x h
= kWh

We can minimize wastage by:

● Turning off electrical appliances when they are not in use.
● Ensuring that all your electrical appliances are in good working condition.
 ● Using energy efficient electrical appliances (e.g. fluorescent lamps instead of
conventional filament lamps.)

Electrical safety rules

● Do not wet electrical appliances, plugs or sockets.
● Do not touch electrical appliances with wet hands or rinse them under the tap.
● Avoid getting water into the sockets of rice cookers, blenders and coffee makers
and onto the heating coil of toasters and ovens.
● Do not use the appliance until you are sure it is dry.
● Replace old wiring.
● If the electrical wiring is very old, and the insulation is peeling off, the wires inside
might be exposed. This will cause current to flow into anything that comes into
contact with them. Old wiring should be rewired before a fire breaks out.
● Never use electrical gadgets in wet places.
● Electrocution can occur in the bathroom while using gadgets such as hair dryers
and electric shavers.
● Do not place electrical appliances near you while you are taking a bath or
washing up at the sink.
● Disconnect the appliance when cleaning it.
● Call the electrician
● People who work with high voltage electrical equipment must wear rubber shoes.
● The resistance of the shoes is so high that very little current will flow through the
person to the ground. The person will be safe from electrocution.
● Appliances with metal surfaces, such as washing machines, electric kettles, toasters and
ovens are earthed.
● However, appliances which do not have exposed metal surfaces such as plastic
hairdryers and light bulbs, are not earthed.

Safety features in the household electrical systems

Earth wires
Safety by earthing
● In an electric fault (e.g. a short circuit), the earth wire will carry the current safely to the
ground.
● If there is no earth wire, the current may flow through someone and kill him.
● The current may also flow through the walls or furniture and start a fire.
● Neutral (0V) Earth (low electrical resistance, 0V) Live (240V)
What may happen if an iron is not earthed?
● There are two wires going to the iron – live and neutral.
● The live wire to the iron is disconnected and touches the metal casing, making it ‘live’.
● The whole casing is at 240 V now.
● Never touch a ‘live’ appliance. The current can flow through you and kill you!

Fuse
● A fuse is a short thin wire place within an
insulating capsule. The thin wire will melt when a
large current passes through it. (Switches off a large current by melting the wire in it)
● This way, the circuit will be broken up quickly before enough heat can be produced to
burn up the equipment.
 ● Fuses are connected in electric circuits to prevent fires and damage to the circuit due to
short circuits or overloading with high currents.
● A blown fuse needs to be replaced

Circuit breakers
● A circuit breaker is a type of switch.
● It is usually turned on to allow a current to flow.
● When the current in the circuit becomes too large, a trigger mechanism switches it off
and breaks the circuit.
● This shuts off the large current before it can cause any serious damage or start a fire.
 ● Similar to a fuse
● Found in a box called the consumer unit with switches

Our homes have many circuits hidden behind walls. These circuits are intricately connected,
and have to be in good working condition to function perfectly. A short circuit can cause
extensive damage.

Hazards
Electrical fires
● A short circuit occurs when the live wire touches the neutral wire, providing a shorter
path of low resistance for the current to flow through.
● The large current flowing through the wires may cause the wires to overheat and start a
fire.
● Electrical sparks from a short circuit may occur and start a fire when they come into
contact with flammable materials.
● Connecting too many electrical appliances to the same output socket or forgetting to
switch off an appliance may cause overheating of wires. This may cause a fire.
Electric shocks and electrocution
● Electrocution occurs when a person is injured or killed by a large current passing through
the body.
● This can happen if the insulation of the wires has been damaged or if the earth wire of
an appliance is not properly connected.
● When a person touches the live wires, current flows through his body, giving him an
electric shock.

Chapter 14 - Interactions Through the Application of Forces

A force is a push or a pull. The SI unit of force is Newton

Contact force is a force that can cause or change the motion of an object by touching it. It
involves objects touching each other.
- applied force, typical push or pull
- friction, happens when two objects rub against each other, It opposes motion and can
cause heat
- normal force, the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another
stable object. ( table exerts an upward force to support the objects on the table )
- air resistance, is a type of frictional force that acts upon objects in the air. Streamlined
objects causes less air resistance

Friction always works in the direction opposite of the direction the object is moving to. It slows
the object down. The amount of friction depends on the two object’s surface, the
rougher/bumpier it is, the more friction

Reducing friction - lubrication (oil), adding wheels

Non contact force is a force that can exert a push or pull even when the two objects aren’t in
physical contact
- magnetic force, force exerted by magnets on magnetic materials
same poles repel = magnetic force of REPULSION
different poles attract = magnetic force of ATTRACTION
- electrostatic force, attraction or repulsion of particles because of their electric charge (do
not flow through circuit)
similar charges repel (-,- / +,+ ) = electrostatic force of REPULSION
opposite charges attract (-,+) = electrostatic force of ATTRACTION
- gravitational force, force that attracts objects to the earth/ground/planets.
gravity on earth = 10N/kg

Mass vs Weight
Mass is the amount of matter in an object, it always remains the same.
Weight is a force that is proportional to the mass of an object; plus the gravitational pull.
Because it relies (is dependant) on the gravitational pull, weight changes from place to place (as
gravity also changes).

weight/F = mass x gravity

kg x 10N/kg
(in Newtons)

Measuring forces
The spring balance is used to measure the amount of force applied.
1. extension spring balance - counts force as u pull
2. compression spring balance - counts force as u push

Effects of forces
Forces can change the shape and size of an object, make the object start to move/stop, speed
up, slow down, or change direction (also turning effect)

Pressure
Pressure is exerted whenever a force is applied over an area

When same force:

Smaller area produces a higher pressure
Larger area produces a lower pressure (doesn’t sink)

Pressure = force ÷ area

N ÷ m² / Pa

Force = pressure x area

N/m² x m²
 (ans in Newtons)

Chapter 15 - Energy and Work Done

Energy is the ability to do work. Both living and non living things need energy to function
properly.

The work done by a force is equal to the force multiplied by the distance moved in the direction
of the force. It is the amount of energy transferred (the amount of energy being changed from
one form to another as the work is done).

work done = force x distance

(in Joules (J) or Nm)
1 J = 1 N x 1m
1 J = 1 Nm
for work to be done:
- there should be a force acting on the object
- the object should move
- the movement of the object is in the direction of the force

force exerted but object doesn’t move = no work done

when object is carried at constant velocity by a force which acts at right angles to the motion
(force is perpendicular to motion/direction of force is not same with direction of movement,
usually when carrying things while moving) = no work is done

The force that you exert in lifting an object to a certain height above the ground is equal to the
force of gravity acting downwards on the object (weight).

Forms of energy
Potential energy, is stored energy due to a body’s position or condition
● chemical potential, energy stored in fuels such as petrol and food that can be released
through chemical reactions. We have to digest food (chemical reaction) to create the
energy for our body, petrol is burned, to use as energy to move cars.
● gravitational potential energy, energy that an object has because of its position or
location (energy according to an object’s position). When at a higher position, there will
be more gravitational potential energy.
● elastic potential, energy that an object has when it is stretched or compressed
● kinetic energy, energy that a body has due to its motion, movement energy. All moving
objects have kinetic energy.
● heat energy, energy that flows from a region from higher to lower temp. Thus, heat flows
from things that are hot.
● light energy, is the energy that enables us to see. Things that are luminous give out light
energy.
● sound energy, is the energy produced when objects vibrate
 ● electricity/electrical energy, energy that results from the flow of charged particles. It is a
useful form of energy that can be transformed into many other forms of energy.

Law of conservation of energy = energy cannot be destroyed or created but it can be changed
from one form to another. When energy is not lost, we say it is conserved.
ex. chemical potential energy in food becomes thermal and kinetic in our bodies
gravitational potential transforms into kinetic when an object falls

Generation of electricity
● Electrical generators are used to convert kinetic energy to electricity.
● Power stations produce large amounts of electricity needed in homes, schools and
offices.
● In a power station, a series of energy changes occur before electricity is produced.

Generation of electricity-nuclear power stations

● In a nuclear power station, nuclear reactions occur by bombarding radioactive elements
with neutrons.
● This creates large amounts of heat to boil the water into steam to turn turbines.
● Nuclear energy in radioactive elements - Heat - Kinetic energy of steam - Kinetic energy
of turbines - electricity

Energy sources
(definition, energy conversion, uses, impact on environment)

sources definition energy uses impact on

conversion environment

fossil fuel A fossil fuel is a The energy coal, Fossil fuels are
(non-renewable) hydrocarbon-co conversion goes petroleum, Hydrocarbons,they
ntaining material from chemical store energy.
natural gas When
formed energy stored in
hydrocarbons are
underground the fuels, to heat burned in the
from the remains energy as it presence of
of dead plants burns which is oxygen they
and animals that converted to release carbon
humans extract kinetic energy as dioxide into the
and burn as fuel. it drives large atmosphere.
turbines and Carbon dioxide is
finally this is a Greenhouse
converted to Gas and is a
leading cause of
electrical energy.
Global Warming.

biofuel fuel that is In a direct ethanol, Biofuels help in

derived from combustion biodiesel, reducing carbon
biomass—that system, biomass is biogas, extract emission but
is, plant or algae burned in a oil, ferment into research suggests
combustor or that production of
material or furnace to
gas, burn biofuel feedstocks,
animal generate hot gas, particularly food
waste/material. which is fed into a crops like corn and
boiler to generate soy, could
steam, which is increase water
expanded through pollution from
a steam turbine or nutrients,
steam engine to pesticides, and
produce sediment
mechanical or
electrical energy.

geothermal Geothermal heat energy to hot springs, The

energy is heat kinetic energy to geysers, environmental
within the earth. electrical energy fumaroles effects of
It is a renewable geothermal
energy source development
because heat is and power
continuously generation
produced inside include the
the earth. changes in land
use associated
with exploration
and plant
construction,
noise and sight
pollution, the
discharge of
water and
gases, the
 production of
foul odours, and
soil subsidence.

hydroelectric Hydroelectric A hydroelectric impoundment Hydroelectric

energy is a form dam converts facility (dams), energy can have
of renewable the potential diversion facility a large impact
energy that uses energy stored in (series of canals on aquatic
the power of a water reservoir to channel ecosystems like
moving water to behind a dam to flowing river allowing fish and
generate mechanical/kinet water toward the other organisms
electricity. ic energy then generator-poweri to be injured and
the generator ng turbines) killed by turbine
converts it into blades.
electrical energy.

solar Solar energy is Solar solar water Solar energy is an

the radiation technologies heating, solar alternative for
from the Sun convert sunlight cells, solar fossil fuels as it is
capable of (heat and light E) furnaces to a non-polluting,
clean, reliable and
producing heat, into electrical smelt iron, renewable source
causing energy either generate steam of energy. It also
chemical through does not pollute
reactions, or photovoltaic (PV) the air. So, the risk
generating panels or of damage to the
electricity. through mirrors environment is
that concentrate reduced. Solar
solar radiation. energy also does
not require any
fuel to produce
electricity.

wind Wind power or kinetic energy (to sailing, Wind turbines do

wind energy mechanical generating not release
describes the energy) to electricity emissions that can
process by electric energy pollute the air or
water (with rare
which the wind exceptions), and
is used to they do not require
generate water for cooling.
mechanical However, it can
power or possibly reduce
electricity. the habitat of
animals or plants.

Non-renewable energy sources cannot be regenerated (quick) and used again. Fossil fuels are
an example. Fossil fuels can’t be regenerated quickly, and takes millions of years.

Renewable energy resources will not run out because they can easily be regenerated. They are
sources of energy that can be sustained or renewed indefinitely, due to unlimited supplies or
because of new growth. Examples of renewable energy resources are: biofuels, geothermal,
hydroelectric, solar, wind & wave.

Wave energy
 ● Wave farms use the kinetic energy of waves to generate electricity.
● The up-and-down movement of the wave will shift gears to turn turbines to generate
electricity.

Chapter 18 - Chemical Changes

Physical change refers to a change in which the molecules are rearranged but their internal
composition remains the same. It could include a change in: texture, shape, size, color, change
of state, volume, mass, weight, and density. Breaking an egg is a physical change.

Chemical change is a process in which the substance transforms into a new substance, having
different chemical composition. To identify a chemical change look for signs such as color
change, odor, bubbling and fizzing, light production, smoke, and presence of heat.
Reactants - substance present at the start of the reaction
Products - substance formed after / present at end
Condition - factors that are required for the reaction to take place
Arrow - order and direction of the reaction

Mixing Matter (can create chemical reaction or change)

Matter & Heat
Thermal decomposition (heat breaking down) is a process in which a substance is broken down
into two or more simpler substances by the effect of heat. Heat is the condition.

Matter & Oxygen

Oxidation is a process in which a substance reacts with oxygen (has oxygen as a reactant)
● Combustion/burning, refers to the combination of substance with oxygen in the presence
of heat

Complete vs incomplete combustion

 ● Cellular respiration, is the process in which living cells of plants and animals take in
oxygen to release the energy stored in glucose

Matter & Light

● Photosynthesis, process in which green plants make food in the presence of light

respiration and photosynthesis are opposites

● X-rays, silver bromide has interacted with x-ray or light to form new product

Matter & Electricity

● Electrolysis, is the chemical decomposition of substances with the passage of an electric
current

● Electroplating, is the process in which a substance is coated with a metal with the
passage of an electric current

Combination refers to a process in which two or more substances form a new substance
Acids and Alkali
Acids
● Acids have a sour taste.
● Acids turn blue litmus paper red.
● When an acid reacts with a metal, it produces a salt and hydrogen gas.

● When an acid reacts with a carbonate, it produces a salt, carbon dioxide and water.

● Common uses of acids (+ citric acid)

Alkali
● A group of chemicals
● Belong to a larger class of chemicals known as bases
● Are soluble in water
 ● Alkalis are bitter
● Alkalis have a soapy feel.
● Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue.
● Common Alkalis

Neutralization
When acids mix with alkalis, a reaction called neutralization occurs.
Acid + Alkali ------> Salt + Water
Everyday uses of neutralization:
● Face cleansers
● Face toners
● Shampoos
● Conditioners
● Toothpaste
● Insect stings
ex. Acid is formed when bacteria feed on the food particles present on our teeth. This can lead
to tooth decay. To prevent decay, we brush our teeth with toothpaste (contains alkali) regularly.
The alkali in toothpaste reacts with acid on our teeth. The reaction produces harmless products
salt and water. Thus we can say the acid is neutralized by the alkali.

Indicators
An indicator is a substance which changes color depending on whether the solution tested is
acidic or alkaline.
Common indicators:
● Red litmus paper
● Blue litmus paper
● Phenolphthalein
● Universal indicators
The pH scale:
● A scale of colors
● Used in universal indicator and pH paper
● A scale of numbers
● range of values from 0 to 14
● pH 0 indicates high acidity
● pH 14 indicates high alkalinity
● pH 7 indicates a neutral solution
 ● 0-6 = acidic 7= neutral 8-14 = alkaline

Lastly, read and refer to pg 185-191