Data transmission/Transmission modes

• The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission
mode.
• The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
• Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media provide
the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.

• The data that is transmitted over the network can flow using one of three modes:
• simplex,
• half-duplex
• full-duplex.
Simplex: it is a single one-way transmission. In a simplex transmission mode, the communication
between sender and receiver occurs only in one direction. That means only the sender can transmit
the data, and receiver can only receive the data. The receiver cannot transmit any information back
to the sender.

1
The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the
listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a
keyboard can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only
be used to display the data on the screen.
Advantage of Simplex mode:
▪ In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a
time.
Disadvantage of Simplex mode:
▪ Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication
between devices.

2
Half-Duplex:
In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can
transmit and receive the data as well.
Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one
direction at a time.
In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any
error occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one
party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and
first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound
which cannot be understood.
3
Advantage of Half-duplex mode:
In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data
and also can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication
channel during the transmission of data.
Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:
In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then
another has to wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the
right time.

4
Full-Duplex:
In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data
flow in both the directions.
Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic
moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the
opposite direction.
The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between
devices.
The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone
network. When two people are communicating with each other by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
5
Advantage of Full-duplex mode:
Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.
Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:
If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the
capacity of the communication channel is divided into two parts.

6
 Network Topology
A network topology is the layout of the interconnections of the nodes of
a computer network.
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network
arrangement, connecting various nodes through lines of connection.
There are two types of topology:
▪ Physical
▪ Logical topology.

7
Physical topology is the schematic description of a network
arrangement, connecting various nodes through lines of connection.
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a
network.
Physical topology refers to the physical organization of a network.
BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network
device is connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints,
then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Network Backbone

8
The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or
directly connected to the backbone cable.
When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network will
receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks.The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as
compared to other topologies.
The backbone cable is considered as a "single path" through which the
message is broadcast to all the stations. A backbone is a component of
the computer network infrastructure that connects multiple networks
and provides a conduit for data to flow between them.
9
The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two
alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send
the messages simultaneously.

CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect

the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting
the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid
the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If
busy, then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique
effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on
"recovery after the collision". collision is a condition that occurs when two
or more computers on a network try to transmit signals at the same time.

10
Advantages of Bus topology:
▪ Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the
cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of
installation is low.
▪ Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used
in bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
▪ Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the
installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and
hardware components are easily available.
▪ Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other
nodes.

11
▪ Easy to implement and extend
▪ Typically the cheapest topology to implement
▪ Used in small Network
▪ It is easy to understand
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
▪ Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
▪ Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable
faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
▪ Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
▪ Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
▪ Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are
used to regenerate the signal

12
▪ Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
▪ Limited cable length and number of stations
▪ A cable break can disable the entire network; no redundancy
▪ Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
▪ Performance degrades as additional computers are added

13
Ring Topology
Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing
Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from
one node to another node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

14
15
Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from
one node to another node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

16
Advantages of Ring topology:

▪ Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the

network without bringing the network down.
▪ Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available.
▪ Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.
Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
▪ Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication
system is not dependent on the single host computer.
▪ Growth of system has minimal impact on performance
▪ All stations have equal access
▪ Cheap to install and expand

17
Disadvantages of Ring topology:

• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to

determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the
overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of
nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.
• Most expensive topology

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Star Topology
• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node
is connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical
star topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network
implementation

19
20
Advantages of Star topology

• Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to bus

topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology,
all the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator
has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
• Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
• Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore
failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
• Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
• Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the
hub.
• Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
• High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the
most popular Star topology networks.
• Easy to monitor

21
Disadvantages of Star topology

• A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down,

then all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with
each other.
• Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant
amount of routing is required(more expensive to wire a building for
networking).

22
Tree topology or Hierarchical topology
Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star
topology.
A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all
other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

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Advantages of Tree topology
▪ Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to
provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances
without being attenuated.
▪ Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
▪ Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into
segments known as star networks which can be easily managed and
maintained.
▪ Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
▪ Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire
network.
▪ Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

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Disadvantages of Tree topology
▪ Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it
becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
▪ High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very
costly.
▪ Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in
main bus cable will damage the overall network.
▪ Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes
difficult to reconfigure.
▪ Central hub fails, network fails
▪ Heavily cabled

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Mesh topology
▪ Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
▪ There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
▪ It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
▪ The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
▪ Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
▪ Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
▪ Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.
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27
Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
▪ Fully connected mesh topology
▪ Partially connected mesh topology
Partially mesh topology
Partially mesh topology is the type of network topology in which some
of the nodes of the network are connected to more than one other
node in the network with a point-to-point link.
In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are connected
to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

28
• This makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy
that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without
the expense and complexity required for a connection between every
node in the network.
• Note: In most practical networks that are based upon the partially
connected mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between
nodes in the network takes the shortest path between nodes, except
in the case of a failure or break in one of the links, in which case the
data takes an alternative path to the destination. This requires that
the nodes of the network possess some type of logical 'routing'
algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time.

29
Full Mesh Topology
In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
Full mesh is very expensive to implement but yields the greatest
amount of redundancy, so in the event that one of those nodes fails,
network traffic can be directed to any of the other nodes. Full mesh is
usually reserved for backbone networks.

30
Advantages of Mesh topology:
▪ Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected
computers.
▪ Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

▪ Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the

communication between other devices.
▪ It is robust
▪ Provides security and Privacy
▪ Each connection can carry its own data load

31
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
▪ Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices
such as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
▪ Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very
difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored
carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
▪ Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that
reduces the efficiency of the network.

32
Hybrid Topology
• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes
to transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined together is
termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected
with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if
there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus
topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

33
34
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
▪ Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
▪ Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
▪ Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according
to the requirements of the organization.
▪ Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in
such a way that the strength of the network is maximized and
weakness of the network is minimized.

35
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
▪ Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the
design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network.
▪ Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive
as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
▪ Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

36
Logical Topology
A type of topology that gives a virtual representation of all the nodes
connected in the network.
The logical topology is the way that the signals proceed on the network
media or the way that the data passes through the network from one
device to the next device without regard to the physical
interconnection of the devices. In other words, it defines the way a
network transfers frames from one node to the next. Represents how
data travels through communication lines.
The most common logical topologies are:
▪ Ethernet
▪ Token Ring
▪ Fiber Distributed Data Interface(FDDI)

37
Ethernet
▪ Ethernet is the traditional technology for connecting devices in a
wired local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN). It
enables devices to communicate with each other via a protocol,
which is a set of rules or common network language.
▪ Ethernet describes how network devices format and transmit data so
other devices on the same LAN or campus network can recognize,
receive and process the information. An Ethernet cable is the
physical, encased wiring over which the data travels.

38
History of Ethernet
At the beginning of the 1970s, Ethernet was developed over several years from ALOHAnet from the
University of Hawaii. Then, a test was performed, which was peaked with a scientific paper in 1976,
and published by Metcalfe together with David Boggs. Late in 1977, a patent on this technology was
filed by Xerox Corporation.

The Ethernet as a standard was established by companies Xerox, Intel, and Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC); first, these companies were combined to improve Ethernet in 1979, then
published the first standard in 1980. Other technologies, including CSMA/CD protocol, were also
developed with the help of this process, which later became known as IEEE 802.3. This process also
led to creating a token bus (802.4) and token ring (802.5).

In 1983, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE) technology became standard, and
before 802.11, 802.3 was born. Many modern PCs started to include Ethernet cards on the
motherboard, as due to the invention of single-chip Ethernet controllers, the Ethernet card became
very inexpensive. Consequently, the use of Ethernet networks in the workplace began by some
small companies but still used with the help of telephone-based four-wire lines.

Until the early 1990s, creating the Ethernet connection through twisted pair and fiber optic cables
was not established. That led to the development of the 100 MB/s standard in 1995.

39
Advantages of Ethernet
▪ Relatively low cost;
▪ Backward compatibility;
▪ Generally resistant to noise;
▪ Good data transfer quality;
▪ Speed;
▪ Reliability; and
▪ Data security, as common firewalls can be used.

40
Disadvantages of Ethernet
▪ Intended for smaller, shorter distance networks;
▪ Limited mobility;
▪ Use of longer cables can create crosstalk;
▪ Doesn't work well with real-time or interactive applications;
▪ Speeds decrease with increased traffic;
▪ Receivers don't acknowledge the reception of data packets;
▪ Troubleshooting is hard when trying to trace which specific cable or
node is causing the issue.

41
Types of Ethernet Networks
• An Ethernet device with CAT5/CAT6 copper cables is connected to a fiber optic
cable through fiber optic media converters. The distance covered by the network
is significantly increased by this extension for fiber optic cable. There are some
kinds of Ethernet networks, which are discussed below:

▪ Fast Ethernet: This type of Ethernet is usually supported by a twisted pair or CAT5
cable, which has the potential to transfer or receive data at around100 Mbps.
They function at 100Base and 10/100Base Ethernet on the fiber side of the link if
any device such as a camera, laptop, or other is connected to a network. The fiber
optic cable and twisted pair cable are used by fast Ethernet to create
communication. The 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, and 100BASE-T4 are the three
categories of Fast Ethernet.
▪ Gigabit Ethernet: This type of Ethernet network is an upgrade from Fast Ethernet,
which uses fiber optic cable and twisted pair cable to create communication. It
can transfer data at a rate of 1000 Mbps or 1Gbps. In modern times, gigabit
Ethernet is more common. This network type also uses CAT5e or other advanced
cables, which can transfer data at a rate of 10 Gbps.

42
Ethernet standards
There are different standards of Ethernet, which are discussed below with additional
information about each of them.
▪ Ethernet II / DIX / 802.3
A studied edition of Ethernet, Ethernet II, also called as DIX. The DIX stands for Digital,
Intel, and Xerox. And, 802.3, which is rewritten by Digital Equipment Corp, Xerox, and Intel.
▪ Fast Ethernet / 100BASE-T / 802.3u
Fast Ethernet (100BASE-T or 802.3u) is a communications protocol, which is usually
supported by a twisted pair or CAT5 cable. The 100BASE-T standards have two types. The
100BASE-T is the first standard that makes use of CSMA/CD.
Three different kinds of cable technologies are available with 100BASE-T.
❑100BASE-T4: It is utilized for a network that requires a low-quality twisted-pair on a 100-
Mbps Ethernet.
❑100BASE-TX: It makes use of two-wire data grade twisted-pair wire, developed by ANSI
100BASE-TX, which is also called 100BASE-TX and 100BASE-X.
❑100BASE-FX: It uses 2 stands of fiber cable and developed by ANSI.

43
100
The number 100 represents the frequency in MHz (Mega HertZ) for which this cable is
made. In this case it is 100 MHz. The greater the MHz, the greater speeds the cable can
handle. If you try to use this type of cable for greater frequencies (and, therefore, speeds)
it will either not work or become extremely unreliable. The 100 MHz speed translates to
100Mbit per second, which in theory means 12 Mbps. In practice though, you wouldn't get
more than 4 Mbps.
BASE
The word "Base" refers to Baseband. Baseband is the type of communication used by
Ethernet and it means that when a computer is transmitting, it uses all the available
bandwith, whereas Broadband (cable modems) shares the bandwidth available. This is the
reason cable modem users notice a slowdown in speed when they are connected on a busy
node, or when their neighbor is downloading all the time at maximum speed! Of course
with Ethernet you will notice a slowdown in speed but it will be smaller in comparison to
broadband.
TX/T4/FX
The "T" refers to "Twisted Pair" physical medium that carries the signal. This shows the
structure of the cable and tells us it contains pairs which are twisted. For example, UTP has
twisted pairs and this is the cable used in such cases. The 100Base-T is used sometimes to
refer to the 100Base-TX cable specification. For more information, see the "UTP -
Unshielded Twisted Pair" page where you can find information on pinouts for the cables.
All 100MB rated cables, except the 100Base-FX, use CAT5 cable. 44
Baseband:
A signaling technology that sends digital signals over a single frequency as discrete
electrical pulses. is a single, fixed signal that uses the entire available bandwidth
and uses the transmission medium as a single-channel device meaning only one
station can transmit at a time, and all stations must transmit and receive the same
types of signals

Broadband:
Broadband is used to describe a type of data transmission in which a single medium
can carry several channels at once.sends data in the form of analog signals,
allowing signals to be sent at multiple frequencies simultaneously. This broadband
transmission is unidirectional. In other words, the data is only transmitted in one
direction at the same time. As a result, it may send or receive data but not perform
both operations at the same time.

45
100BASE-TX
The TX (sometimes referred as "T" only) means it's a CAT5 UTP straight
through cable using two of the four available pairs and supports speeds up to
100 Mb. Maximum length is 100 meters and minimum length between
nodes is 2.5 meters.

100BASE-T4
The T4 means it's a CAT5 UTP straight through cable using all four available
pairs and supports speeds up to 100 Mb. Maximum length is 100 meters and
minimum length between nodes is 2.5 meters.

100BASE-FX
The FX means it's a two strand fiber cable and supports speeds up to 100
Mbs.

46
▪ Gigabit Ethernet / 1000BASE-T / 802.3z / 802.ab
Gigabit Ethernet has the potential to transmit data up to 1 Gbps, which
makes use of all four copper wires in category 5, which is also called
1000BASE-T or 802.3z / 802.3ab.10 Gigabit Ethernet / 802.3ae
▪ 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GE or 10 GbE or 10 GigE) is a new standard
that defines only full-duplex point-to-point links. It supports up to 10
Gb/s transmissions that were published in 2002, which is also known
as 802.3ae. The hubs, CSMA/CD, and half-duplex operation do not
exist in 10 GbE.
▪ Switch Ethernet: This network type requires a switch or hub. Instead
of twisted pair cables, it uses normal network cables. The network
switches are used to transfer data from one device to another
without interrupting any other devices in the network.

47
Token Ring
A token-ring network is a local area network (LAN) topology that sends
data in one direction throughout a specified number of locations by
using a token.
The token is the symbol of authority for control of the transmission
line. This token allows any sending station in the network (ring) to send
data when the token arrives at that location.
A token-ring is a communication protocol in a local area network (LAN)
where all stations are connected in a ring topology and pass one or
more tokens for channel acquisition. A token is a special frame of 3
bytes that circulates along the ring of stations. A station can send data
frames only if it holds a token. The tokens are released on successful
receipt of the data frame.

48
Token Passing Mechanism in Token Ring
If a station has a frame to transmit when it receives a token, it sends
the frame and then passes the token to the next station; otherwise it
simply passes the token to the next station. Passing the token means
receiving the token from the preceding station and transmitting to the
successor station. The data flow is unidirectional in the direction of the
token passing. In order that tokens are not circulated infinitely, they are
removed from the network once their purpose is completed.

49
Benefits of Token Ring
▪ Packet collision is reduced and the flow of data is managed in only one direction i.e. in the
circular.
▪ High-speed data transfer between workstations.
▪ Easier maintenance of the network.
▪ Server is not needed to control the connectivity between every workstation.
▪ Workstations can be added to the network when required, which does not affect the
performance of the network.
▪ The high-speed network is provided in a uni-directional network.
▪ Can work efficiently in a longer distanced network.
▪ Though nodes are increased in a ring topology, performance will be better than bus topology.
▪ It is the robust network as the ring topology manage the high number of nodes.
▪ Handles huge traffic communication.
▪ Fault in data transfer can be easily identified in the network through cable connectivity.
▪ Compatible in cost when compared to other network topologies.

50
Drawbacks Of Token Ring

• If one workstation slows down also, the entire network will get collapsed.
• The transfer of data must pass on each network’s workstation. It can make slower than
other topology.
• A small or single disturbance in the network can cause failure in the whole network.
• Hardware will be needed to connect between workstations in the network.
• Hardware will be needed to connect between workstations in the network.
• Expensive will be more when hubs, switches or Ethernet cards are used or introduced to
increase efficiency.
• As the topology is uni-directional, the data i.e. token should pass the entire network – it
should cross through all the nodes.
• Though the addition of nodes increases performance, it is difficult to add a node to the
existing network and may cause the issue.
• During heavy load condition, ring topology can be slower than Ethernet networks.

51
FDDI
• FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a network standard that uses fiber optic
connections in a local area network (LAN) that can extend in range up to 200
kilometers (124 miles).
• The FDDI convention is based on the token ring protocol. A FDDI network
contains two token rings: a primary ring and a secondary ring that is used as a
redundant backup. The primary ring offers up to 100 megabits per second (Mbps)
capacity, while the secondary ring can also be used to carry data, increasing
capacity to 200 Mbps. One ring will operate in a clockwise direction and the other
in a counterclockwise direction. The single ring can extend the maximum distance
of 200 km (124 miles); a dual ring can extend 100 km (62 miles). Users can
connect thousands of devices to a single FDDI network.
• In a token network, only the device with the token may transmit. The use of a
timed token ensures the maximum wait time for each device to be able to
transmit. Depending on the network latency requirements, users can configure
FDDI as synchronous with guaranteed timings for latency-sensitive networks or as
asynchronous, which does not rely on strict token timings.
52
Types of optical Fiber Optic
❑Single-Mode Fibers: Used for long-distance transmission of signals.
❑Multimode Fibers: Used for short-distance transmission of signals.
FDDI supports four different types of cable:
• Multimode fiber optic cable: This type of cable can be used over a
maximum of 2000 meters and uses LED as a light source.
• Single mode fiber optic cable: This can be used over a maximum of
10,000metres or more and uses lasers as a light source. Single mode cable is
thinner at the core than multimode, but it provides higher bandwidth
because of the way the light impulse travels through the cable.
• Unshielded twisted-pair copper wiring: This cable contains eight wires, and
as the next category, can be used over distances up to 30 meters.
• Shielded twisted-pair copper wiring: This is a shielded cable that contains
two pairs of twisted wires, with each pair also shielded.

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How FDDI Works?
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is usually implemented as a dual token-passing ring within a
ring topology (for campus networks) or star topology (within a building). The dual ring consists of a
primary and secondary ring. The primary ring carries data. The counter-rotating secondary ring can
carry data in the opposite direction, but is more commonly reserved as a backup in case the primary
ring goes down. This provides FDDI with the degree of fault tolerance necessary for network
backbones. In the event of a failure on the primary ring, FDDI automatically reconfigures itself to
use the secondary ring as shown in the illustration. Faults can be located and repaired using a fault
isolation technique called beaconing. However, the secondary ring can also be configured for
carrying data, extending the maximum potential bandwidth to 200 Mbps.

Stations connect to one (or both) rings using a media interface connector (MIC). Its two fiber ports
can be either male or female, depending on the implementation. There are two different FDDI
implementations, depending on whether stations are attached to one or both rings:
▪ Single-attached stations (Class B stations): Connect to either the primary or secondary ring using
M ports. Single-attached FDDI uses only the primary ring and is not as commonly deployed for
network backbones as dual-attached FDDI. Single-attached stations are used primarily to connect
Ethernet LANs or individual servers to FDDI backbones.
▪ Dual-attached stations (Class A stations): Connect to both rings. The A port is the point at which
the primary ring enters and the secondary ring leaves; the B port is the reverse. M ports provide
attachment points for single-attached stations. Dual-attached FDDI uses both rings, with the
secondary ring serving as a backup for the primary. Dual-attached FDDI is used primarily for
network backbones that require fault tolerance. Single-attached stations can be connected to
dual-attached FDDI backbones using a dual-attached device called a concentrator or multiplexer. 54
There are two types of traffic in FDDI
▪ Synchronous FDDI: It means that the traffic is delay sensitive, used to
send voice or video. Whenever a node receives a token, it is allowed
to send synchronous data without regard to whether the token is
early or late.
▪ Asynchronous FDDI: It is used only when the token is early.

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Characteristics of FDDI
• FDDI gives 100 Mbps of information throughput.
• FDDI incorporates two interfaces.
• It is utilized to associate the equipment to the ring over long distances.
• FDDI could be a LAN with Station Management.
• Allows all stations to have broken even with the sum of time to transmit information.
• FDDI uses optical fiber as its physical medium.
• It operates in the physical and medium access control (MAC layer) of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) network model.
• It provides high data rate of 100 Mbps and can support thousands of users.
• It is used in LANs up to 200 kilometers for long distance voice and multimedia
communication.
• It uses ring based token passing mechanism and is derived from IEEE 802.4 token bus
standard.
• It contains two token rings, a primary ring for data and token transmission and a
secondary ring that provides backup if the primary ring fails.
• FDDI technology can also be used as a backbone for a wide area network (WAN).

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Advantages of FDDI
• Fiber optic cables transmit signals over more noteworthy separations
of approximately 200 km.
• It is conceivable to supply the need to the work stations associated
within the chain. Consequently, based on the prerequisite a few
stations are bypassed to supply speedier benefit to the rest.
• FDDI employments different tokens to make strides organize speed.
• It offers a higher transmission capacity (up to 250 Gbps). Thus, it can
handle information rates up to 100 Mbps.
• It offers tall security because it is troublesome to spy on the fiber-
optic link.
• Fiber optic cable does not break as effectively as other sorts of cables.

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Disadvantages of FDDI
• FDDI is complex. Thus establishment and support require an
incredible bargain of expertise.
• FDDI is expensive. Typically since fiber optic cable, connectors and
concentrators are exceptionally costly.

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