PCK 1 – Reviewer - Intended to deal holistically with learners.

- Intended to deal holistically with learners. Syntonic – for the first listed “positive” disposition in each crisis.
- 14 principles are divided into;
Metacognition – refers to the process of thinking about your own 1. Cognitive and Metacognitive Dystonic – for the listed “negative” disposition.
thinking. 2. Motivational and Affective
3. Developmental and Social Malignancy – it involves too much of the positive and too much of
- On how to deal on our personal 4. Individual differences factors influencing learners the negative aspects of the task.
- Process how to handle situation and learning.
- Personal awareness Maladaptation – is not quite as bad and involves too much of the
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors positive and too little of the negative.
Meta – self Cognition – process of your brain
1. Nature of the Learning Process – the learning of a Mutuality – reflects the effect of generation on each other,
- Involves the ability to reflect on and control your own complex subject matter is most effective when it is an especially among families, and particularly between parents and
mental processes in order to enhance learning, problem- intentional process of constructing meaning from info children and grandchildren.
solving, and decision-making. and experience.
Generativity – actually a named disposition with one of the crisis
Metacognition was coined by John Flavell stage (Generativity vs Stagnation, stage seven), reflects the
2. Goals of the Learning Process – the successful learner,
significant relationship between adults and the best interest of
- (1979,1987) metacognition consists of both over time and with support and instructional guidance,
children.
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive can create meaningful coherent representations of
experience. knowledge. 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

2 main components of Metacognition Stage 1: (Infancy) Trust vs Mistrust

Lev Vygotsky – a Russian psychologist best known for his
1. Metacognitive Knowledge – knowing about what you sociocultural theory. - The goal is to develop trust without completely
know. eliminating the capacity of mistrust.
2. Metacognitive Regulation – refers to the process of - Vygotsky made several fundamental contributions that
planning, monitoring, and evaluating your cognitive remain relevant today. Maladaptation: Sensory Maladjustment – overly trusting,
abilities. gullible, would not believe anyone will harm them.
Social Interaction – social interaction is essential for cognitive
Person Variables – includes how one views himself as a learner development. Children learn by talking, playing, and working Malignancy: Withdrawal – characterized by depression,
and thinker. together with more experienced people. paranoia, and possibly psychosis.

Task Variables – it is about knowing what exactly needs to be Zone of Proximal Development – refers to the range of tasks that a Virtue: Hope – strong believe that even when things are not going
accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort child can perform with a help of someone more knowledgeable. well, they will work out well in the end.
it will demand from you. Learning occurs when children are challenged to perform tasks just
beyond their current level of activity.
Strategy Variable – involves awareness of the strategy you are
using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is Cultural Tools – culture plays a critical role in cognitive Stage 2: (Early Childhood) Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt
effective. development. He believed that tools such as language, books, and
computers shape the way we think and learn. - In this stage, Erickson believes that child may develop a
sense of doubt and shame manifested in feelings of
 Meta Attention – is the awareness of specific strategies
Scaffolding – refers to the support that more knowledgeable worthless and incompetence.
so that you can keep your attention focused on the
topic. individuals provide to children as they learn. By providing just
enough support to enable children to complete task as their own, Maladaptation: Impulsive – a sort of shameless willfulness that
 Meta-memory – awareness of memory strategies that leads you to jump into things without proper consideration of
work the best of you. scaffolding helps children develop new skills and knowledge.
abilities.
LCP – Learner-centered psychological Collaborative Learning – learning is a collaborative process, and
that children benefit from working together with others. Malignancy: Compulsive – feels as if their entire being rides on
Collaborative learning allows children to share ideas, learn from everything they do and everything must be done perfectly.
 Performance/participation
 Practice one another, and develop social skills.
Virtue: Will power or Determination – “can do” in their motto.
 Modern
Erik Erikson Psychosocial Theory of Development
 Cognitive/thinking Stage 3: (Early Childhood) Initiative vs Guilt
 Thinking/interactive - The theory is basis for broad complex discussion and
- Refers to this as the time for developing a sense of
 Strategy/unique analysis of personality and behavior, and also
initiative or a positive attitude of personal
facilitating personal development of self and others.
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles accomplishment.
Maladaptation: Ruthlessness – to be heartless of unfeeling, - In this stage, the individual’s productivity is gauged by - The neighborhood, parent’s places of employment,
“without mercy”; if extreme, “sociopathy” his contributions to his family and society. parent’s friends, and the media are a few examples of
exosystems.
Malignancy: Inhibition – will not try things because “nothing Maladaptation: Over Extension – no longer allow time to do for
ventured, nothing loss”, or nothing to feel guilty about. themselves, for the rest and relaxation, no longer contributes well. Macrosystems – defined as the values, traditions, and sociocultural
characteristics of the broad cultural components that influence a
Virtue: Purpose – even better word or virtue is courage. Malignancy: Rejectivity developing child’s identity, values and perceptions

Stage 4: (School-Age) Industry vs Inferiority Virtue: Care - Prime examples of the macrosystem is the culture that
the child’s absorbs.
- When a children come to believe that they cannot Stage 8: (Late Adulthood) Ego Integrity vs Despair
achieve according to their school, family, or peers, or Chronosystems – encompasses the concept of time.
their sense of mastery will give away to personal - A person comes to terms with temporal limits of his
inferiority. life. It is the fulfillment and culmination. It is the - It looks at experiences a child encounters throughout
achievement of a sense of integrity resulting their development in childhood and how it affects their
Maladaptation: Virtuosity – not allowed to be children and identification of mankind. lives.
pushed to competence without allowing development of broad
interest; kids without a life. Maladaptation: Presumption – persons “presumes” ego integrity Lawrence Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development
without facing difficulties of old age.
Malignancy: Inertia – inferiority complexes Principle
Malignancy: Disdain – contempt of life, one’s own or anyone’s Post- Conventional
Virtue: Competency (Adulthood)
Virtue: Wisdom
Stage 5: (Adolescence) Identity vs Role Confusion Social Contract Moral Reasoning Based
Sigmund Freud ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO on Personal Ethics
- characterized by an identity-formation crisis. The
question is “Who I am and What Can I Do when I ID – driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate
become an adult?” confronts the adolescent. gratification of all desires, wants, and needs.

Maladaptation: Fanaticism – believes his way is the only way. EGO – develops from the ID and ensures that the impulses of the Law and Order Morality
ID can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. Conventional
Malignancy: Repudiation – to repudiate is to reject.
SUPEREGO – is the part of the personality that holds all of the (8-13 years old)
Virtue: Fidelity – means loyalty, the ability to live by societies internalized morals and standards that we acquire from our parents, Good Boy Attitude
Moral Reasoning Based on
standards despite their imperfections and incompleteness and family, and society at large.
External Ethics
inconsistencies.
Bronfenbrenner Bio-Ecological Theory
Stage 6: (Young Adulthood) Intimacy vs Isolation
- Bronfenbrenner saw the process of human development
- In this stage the individual develops a warm and as being shaped by the interaction between an Self-Interest
Pre-Conventional
intimate relationship with another person. If such sense individual and their environment.
of intimacy is not acquired during this time of life, a - Both the environment and biology influence the child (3-7 years old)
sense of isolation develop instead. development. Avoiding Punishment
Moral Reasoning Based on
Maladaptation: Promiscuity – referring particularly to the Microsystem – influential level of the ecological systems theory. Reward and Punishment
tendency to become intimate to freely, too easily, and without any
depth to our intimacy. - Most immediate environmental setting containing the
developing child, such as family and school.
Malignancy: Exclusion – refers to the tendency to isolate oneself - How these group or individuals interact with the Avoiding Punishment – individuals make decisions based on the
from love, friendship, and community, to develop certain children will affect how they develop. fear of punishment rather than a deeper understanding of right and
hatefulness in compensation for one’s loneliness. wrong.
Mesosystem – encompasses the interactions between the child’s
Virtue: Love – means being able to put aside differences and microsystems, such as the interaction between the child’s parents Self-Interest – the individual will act from a belief that is may be
antagonisms through “mutuality of devotion” and teachers or between school peers and siblings. okay to do something “wrong” if there is “something in it for me”

Stage 7: (Middle Adulthood) Generativity vs Stagnation Exosystem – it includes additional formal and informal social Good Boy Attitude focused on the living up to social expectations
structures that don’t directly affect children but have an indirect and roles.
impact on them.
Law and Order Morality – the individual believes that rules and
laws maintain social order that is worth preserving.

Social Contact – the individual acts with an understanding the

laws are created by people coming together for the common good,
and these same people can change these laws if new demands or
conditions arise.

Principle – principle is marked by a growing realization that

individuals are separate entities from society, and that the
individual’s own perspective may take precedence over society’s
view; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own
principles.
Individual Differences
Sigmund Freud Psychosexual Stages of Developmental
Theory (Student Diversity)

Oral Stage – occurring from birth until approximately 18

months Factors that Bring about Student Diversity
- During the oral stage, a baby’s libido, or In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are in
innate pleasure-seeking energy is focused on some ways different from them. This diversity also comes from other
- the mouth. factors like the following:
Anal Stage – happens between the ages of 18 months and 3 years. 1. Socioeconomic Status – the millionaires’ different lifestyle
differs from that of the middle-income or lower-income group.
- During the anal stage, the libido becomes focused on
2. Thinking/Learning Style: some of you learn better by seeing
the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from
something; others by just listening; and still others by
defecating.
manipulating something.
Phallic Stage – spans ages 3 to 6 years old 3. Exceptionalities – in class, there may be one who has difficulty
in spoken language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.
- Focusing on their genitals.
- In this stage, children become increasingly aware of How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment
their bodies, exhibiting a heightened in their own
Student Diversity Contributes to Cognitive Development – the
genitals and those of the opposite sex.
opportunity to gain access to the perspectives of peers and to learn from
Latency Stage – age range from 6 to Puberty Erogenous Zone: other students, rather than the instructor only, may be especially important
Sexual Feeling are inactive. for promoting cognitive development of learners.

- The stage begins around the time that children enter Student Diversity Prepares Learners for their role as responsible
into school and become more concerned with peer member of society – Suzzane Morse stresses one competency that has
relationship, hobbies, and other interests. strong implications for instructional strategies that capitalize on diversity:
- Possible for children to become fixated or “stuck” in “The capacity to imagine situations or problems from all perspectives and
this phase. to appreciate all aspects of diversity”.

Genital Stage – this is when individual begins to have strong Student Diversity can Promote Harmony – when student diversity is
sexual interest in the opposite sex. integrated into classroom teaching and learning process, it can become a
vehicle from promoting harmonious race relations. Diverse students can be
Student Diversity: Individual Differences encouraged to interact and collaborate.

“Everyone is Unique” as a facilitator of learning, the teacher is

tasked to consider the individual differences among the students in
planning for effective instruction.

Individual
Differences
Benefits of Diversity Classroom Strategies
Factors
in the Classroom for Student Diversity
Some Tips on Student Diversity “Talkers” – they are the one who prefer to talk and to discuss. Intrapersonal (Self-smart) – learning through feelings, values and
attitudes.
1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners – benefit much from hands on
experiences. approach, actively exploring the physical world around them. They Interpersonal (People Smart) – learning through interaction with
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities that may find it hard to sit still for long periods. others.
promote students’ multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness. Global – Analytic Continuum - This intelligence promotes collaboration and working
3. Aside highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity cooperatively with others.
that transcend group differences, Analytic – analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step
4. Communicate high expectations to student from all processes of learning. They are the “tree seers”. Naturalist (Nature Smart) – learning through classification,
subgroups. categories and hierarchies.
Global – global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate
to see the whole pattern rather than particle elements. They are the It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about
student diversity in learning style.
“forest seers”. thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences in planning
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concept in order
activities to help their students learn effectively.
to provide multiple contexts that are relevant to students Left Brain/Right Brain Continuum
from diverse backgrounds. Learners with Exceptionalities
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning Both sides of the brain can reason but through different strategies
styles by allowing them personal choice and decision- in an individual, one side may be more dominant than the other. Persons with exceptionalities are persons who are different from
making opportunities concerning what they will learn the normal to average.
and how will learn it. - The left brain is regarded analytic in approach
8. Diversity methods of assessing and evaluating student - Right brain is described as holistic or global Disability - measurable impairment or limitation that interferes
learning. with a person’s ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn.
9. Purposely, from small-discussion groups of students A successive processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step
from diverse backgrounds. You can form groups of sequential format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental condition
students with different learning styles, different cultural understanding of a skill. (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). ■ 1987 Philippine Constitution,
background, etc. Article XIV, Sec. 2, uses the word “disabled” in paragraph (5)
A simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with
Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences with the general concept and then going on to specifics. training.

- Learning/Thinking styles refer to the preferred way an Multiple Intelligences (MI) – defines intelligence as “an ability or Handicap - a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or
individual processes of information. set of abilities that allow a person to solve a problem or fashion a impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the
- They describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, product that is valued in one or more cultures” handicap) is often dependent on the adjustment made by both the
remembering, or problem-solving. person and his environment.
His most current research indicates that there are 9 distinct forms
Visual Learner – these learners must see their teachers’ reaction of intelligence. The 9 kinds are: CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES
and facial expressions to fully understand the content of the lesson.
Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) – learning visually and There are different ways of presenting categories of
Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into: organizing ideas spatially. exceptionalities. special education practitioners would have
varying terms and categories.
Visual-iconic – those who prefer this form of input are more - The ability to “see” things in one’s mind in planning to
interested in visual imaginary such as film, graphic displays, or create a product or solve a problem. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: ADHD is manifested in
pictures in order to solidify meaning. either or both of these:
Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) – learning through the spoken and
Visual-symbolic – those who prefer this form of input feel written word. (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention
comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical
Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) – learning (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
formulae or the written word.
through reasoning and problem solving.
Auditory Learners – they learn best through verbal lectures, Speech and Communication Disorders. There is difficulty in
Bodily/Kinesthetic Smart – learning through interaction with one’s spoken language including voice disorders, inability to produce the
discussions, taking things though, and listening to what others have
environment. sound correctly... stuttering, and difficulty in spoken language
to say.
comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance.
- Domain of “overly active” learners
Two Categories of Auditory Learners
Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties.
Musical (Music Smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms and
“Listeners” – this is the most common type. ‘Listeners’ most
music. Autism. Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of
likely do well in school. Out of school too, remember things said
to them and make information of their own. impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive
behaviors, and limited interest. Individuals with autism usually The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and ◦ Thorndike‘s theory on connectionism states that learning takes
have an intense need for routine and unpredictable environments. measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and
through conditioning and reinforcement (reward and punishment). response is formed. He came up with three primary laws:
✓ Mental Retardation. Mental retardation refers to significant
sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior. There is Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov ◦ Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov, a ◦ The Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection
difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical between stimulus and response is strengthened when the
themselves appropriately in social situations. conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the
experiment involves meat, a dog, and a bell. stimulus and response is weakened when the consequence is
✓ Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of negative
emotional states like depression and aggression over a considerable - Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus)
amount of time that they notably disturbed learning and caused no response from the dog. Placing the food ◦ Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-
performance. (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice
salivation (unconditioned response). makes perfect” seems to be associated with this.
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairment - During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds
before the dog was presented with food. Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner
✓ Physical and health impairments. This involves physical or - After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger it will be the bond
medical conditions (usually long-term) including one or more of stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and
these: response). This is classical conditioning. is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person.

(1) limited energy and strength, Pavlov also had the following findings: Stimulus Generalization. Principles derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism
Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell it will
(2) reduce mental alertness and/or salivate at other similar sounds. 1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of
effect/exercise)
(3) little muscle control. ◦ Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salvation 2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if
will eventually cease in response to the bell. they belong to the same action sequence (law of
✓ Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of readiness).
two or more different types of disability, at times at a profound ◦ Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be 3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously
state. The combination of disabilities makes it necessary to make “recovered” at an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if encountered situations. 4.Intelligence is a function of
adaptations and have more specialized educational programs. the dog is not presented with food. the number of connections learned.

✓ Sensory Impairments Visual impairment. These are conditions ◦ Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between John Watson
when there is a malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that prevent similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the
normal vision with corrective lenses. presentation of food and which would not. John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with
Pavlov’s ideas.
✓ Hearing Impairments. These involve malfunction of the ◦ Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned
to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, - He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes
auditory nerve that hinders perception of sound within the
such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is. and the emotional reactions of love and rage.
frequency range of normal speech.
Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the - All other behavior is learned through stimulus-response
sound of the bell association through conditioning.
✓ Giftedness Giftedness. This involves a significantly higher level
- He believed in the power of conditioning so much that
of cognitive development. There is unusually high ability or
Connectionism Theory - Edward Thorndike he said that if he was given a dozen healthy infants, he
aptitude in more of these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude and
could make them into anything he wanted them to be,
academic creativity, visual or performing arts, or leadership. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory gave us the original basically through making stimulus-response
S-R framework of behavioral psychology. connections through conditioning.
People-First Language
- He explained that learning is the result of associations Experiment on Albert
This language trend involves putting the person first not the
forming between stimuli (S) and responses(R). Such
example person with a disability not a disabled person does this
associations or “habits” become strengthened or Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment
first language tells us what conditions people have not what this is
weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R concerning Albert, a young child, and a white rat. In the
similar to saying?
pairings. beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made
- Using people-first language and applying the guidelines a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat.
The main principle of connectionism (like all behavior theory) was Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon
above remind you to have a more respectful and
that learning could be adequately explained without considering an became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the
accepting attitude toward learners with exceptionalities.
unobservable internal state. child’s response was generalized to other small animals. Now
Behaviorist Perspective he was most afraid of small animals. Watson then
 “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing Fixed Ratio Schedules - A fixed number of correct responses must
the rat without the loud noise. occur before reinforcement may recur.

- the role of conditioning in the development of Variable Ratio Schedules - The number of correct repetitions of
emotional responses to certain stimuli. the correct response for reinforcement varies.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner - Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules
produce steadier and more persistent rates of response
Skinner believed in the response patterns of conditioned behavior. because the learners cannot predict when the
reinforcement will come although they know that they
- His theory zeroed in only on changes in observable will eventually succeed.
behavior, excluding any likelihood of any processes
taking place in the mind.
- Skinner’s work differs from that of the three
behaviorists before him in that he studied operant
behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating in the
environment). Thus, his theory came to be known as
Operant Conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a

result of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the
result of an individual ‘s response to events (stimuli) that occur in
the environment.

Reinforcement - Is the key element in Skinner’s SR theory a

reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response there is
a positive reinforcer and A negative reinforcer.

- A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or

added to increase the response.

Negative Reinforcement - A negative reinforcement is different

from a punishment because a punishment is a consequence
intended to result in reduced responses.

Shaping of Behavior - To accomplish such behavior, successive

approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal
learns the association between the lever and the food reward.

Behavioral Chaining - comes about when a series of steps are

needed to be learned. The animal would master each step in
sequence until the entire sequence is learned.

Reinforcement Schedules - Once the desired behavioral response

is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact,
it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner
referred to as partial reinforcement schedules.

Fixed interval Schedules - The target response is reinforced after a

fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.

Variable interval schedules - This is similar to fixed interval

schedules but the amount of time that must pass between
reinforcement varies.