CE 326 – HYDRAULICS

MODULE 5

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

Introduction

The previous chapters deals with fluids at rest in which the only significant property used
is the weight of the fluid. This chapter will deal with fluids in motion which is based on the
following principles: (a) the principle of conservation of mass, (b) the energy principle (the
kinetic and potential energies), and (c) the principle of momentum.

When a fluid flows through pipes and channel or around bodies such as aircraft and
ships, the shape of the boundaries, the externally applied forces and the fluid properties
cause the velocities of the fluid particles to vary from point to point throughout the flow field.

The motion of fluids can be predicted using the fundamental laws of physics together
with the physical properties of the fluid.

The geometry of the motion of fluid particles in space and time is known as the
kinematics of the fluid motion.

A fluid motion may be specified by either tracing the motion of a particle through the field
of flow or examining the motion of all particles as they pass a fixed point in space.

Objective

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

1. Comprehend the concepts necessary to analyze fluids in motion.

2. Identify differences between steady/unsteady, uniform/non-uniform and

compressible/incompressible flow.

3. Appreciate the Continuity principle through Conservation of Mass and Control

Volumes.

4. Derive the Bernoulli (energy) equation.

5. Familiarize with the momentum equation for a fluid flow.

Learning Content

Types of flow

 Steady Flow- The flow in which the velocity of fluid is constant at any point is
called as steady flow.
A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-
section) may differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time.

 Unsteady Flow- When the flow is unsteady, the fluid velocity differs between any
two points.
If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow is described
as unsteady. (In practice there is always slight variations in velocity and
pressure, but if the average values are constant, the flow is considered steady.)

 Uniform Flow- flow velocity has the same magnitude and direction at every point
in the fluid.
 Non-uniform Flow- If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point
the flow. (In practice, by this definition, every fluid that flows near a solid
boundary will be non-uniform - as the fluid at the boundary must take the speed
of the boundary, usually zero. However if the size and shape of the cross-section
of the stream of fluid is constant the flow is considered uniform.)
  Steady uniform flow:

Conditions: do not change with position in the stream or with time.

Example: the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant

velocity.

 Steady non-uniform flow:

Conditions: change from point to point in the stream but do not change
with time.

Example: flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet-velocity

will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the exit.

 Unsteady uniform flow:

At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the same, but
will change with time.

Example: a pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump pumping at a

constant rate which is then switched off.

 Unsteady non-uniform flow:

Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and with time
at every point.

Example: waves in a channel.

 Laminar flow

All the particles proceed along smooth parallel paths and all particles on any path
will follow it without deviation.

Hence all particles have a velocity only in the direction of flow.

Typical
particles path

 Turbulent Flow

The particles move in an irregular manner through the flow field.

Each particle has superimposed on its mean velocity fluctuating velocity

components both transverse to and in the direction of the net flow.
 Particle
paths

Comparison:

 Transition Flow

This exists between laminar and turbulent flow.

In this region, the flow is very unpredictable and often changeable back and forth
between laminar and turbulent states.

Modern experimentation has demonstrated that this type of flow may comprise
short ‘burst’ of turbulence embedded in a laminar flow.
Relative Motion

Observer

Observer

Boat moving Boat stationary

Flow pattern moves along Fluid moving past boat pattern
channel with boat stationary relative to boat
 changes with time  does not change with time
 UNSTEADY  STEADY

Mass and Volume Flow rate

mass of fluid
mass flow rate= collect the fluid ¿
time taken¿

Discharge or Rate of flow

It is defined as the volume of liquid flowing per second.

The amount of fluid flow per unit second is called rate of flow or discharge.
It is represented by ‘Q’
V
Q= or Q= Av
t

Where
V = volume
t = time
v = velocity
A = area

Its S.I. unit is m3/sec or liter/sec or kiloliter/sec

 The Fundamental Equations of Fluid Dynamics

1. The law of conservation of matter

 Stipulates that matter can be neither created nor destroyed, though it may be
transformed (e.g. by a chemical process).

 Since this study of the mechanics of fluids excludes chemical activity from
consideration, the law reduces to the principle of conservation of mass.

2. The law of conservation of energy

 States that energy may be neither created nor destroyed.

 Energy can be transformed from one guise to another (e.g. potential energy can
be transformed into kinetic energy), but none is actually lost.

 Engineers sometimes loosely refer to ‘energy losses’ due to friction, but in fact
the friction transforms some energy into heat, so none is really ‘lost’.

3. The law of conservation of momentum

 States that a body in motion cannot gain or lose momentum unless some
external force is applied.

 The classical statement of this law is Newton's Second Law of Motion, i.e.

 force = rate of change of momentum

Continuity Equation (Principle of Conservation of Mass)

• Matter cannot be created nor destroyed - (it is simply changed in to a different form of
matter).

• This principle is known as the conservation of mass and we use it in the analysis of
flowing fluids.

 Continuity equation is based upon ,principle of conservation of mass.

 For a fluid flowing through the pipe at all cross section, the quantity of fluid flowing per
second is constant.

 Or in the other words, for a steady and incompressible flow, rate of flow of liquid remains
constant at different sections.
 CONTROL
Inflow VOLUME Outflow

Control surface

 For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says

Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase of mass in the control

per unit time per volume

For steady flow:

 (there is no increase in the mass within the control volume) Mass entering per unit time =
Mass leaving per unit time

Mass entering per unit

time at end 1 = Mass
leaving per unit time at
end 2

A stream tube section

 If the velocity of flow across the entry to the control volume is measured, and that the
velocity is constant at V1 m/s. Then, if the cross-sectional area of the streamtube at
entry is A1,

Q (entering) = V 1 A1

 Thus, if the velocity of flow leaving the volume is V2 and the area of the streamtube at
exit is A2, then

Q (leaving) = V 2A2
 Therefore, the continuity equation may also be written as

V1A1 = V2A2 (3.5b)

 Q1= Q2= Q3

a1v1= a2v2 =a3v3 Q rate of flow in , a=area of flow ,

V= velocity of flow

Energy Possessed by flowing Fluid

 Energy

Three forms:

1. Kinematic Energy

2. Potential Energy

3. Pressure Energy

Kinematic Energy: Ability of mass to do work by virtue of its velocity.

Potential Energy:It is by virtue of the position of the liquid with respect to some datum
level

Pressure Energy: Energy possessed by a liquid particle by virtue of its existing

pressure.

Application of Continuity Equation

 We can apply the principle of continuity to pipes with cross sections which change along
their length.

 A liquid is flowing from left to right and the pipe is narrowing in the same direction. By the
continuity principle, the mass flow rate must be the same at each section - the mass
going into the pipe is equal to the mass going out of the pipe. So we can write:

1 A1V1= 2 A2V2
 As we are considering a liquid, usually water, which is not very compressible, the
density changes very little so we can say 1 =2 =. This also says that the volume flow
rate is constant or that

 Discharge at section 1 = Discharge at section 2

Q1 = Q 2
A1V1
A1V1 = A2V2 or V2 = A2

A pipe with a contraction

 As the area of the circular pipe is a function of the diameter we can reduce the
calculation further,
2
π d1
2
A1 4 d1
v 2= v 1= v = 2 v1
2 1
A2 π d2 d2
4
2
d1
v 2=( ) v
d2 1

Another example is a diffuser, a pipe which expands or diverges as in the figure below
 A pipe which diverges

The continuity principle can also be used to determine the velocities in pipes coming from a
junction.

A pipe with a junction

Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the junction

1Q1 = 2Q2 + 3Q3

When the flow is incompressible (e.g. water) 1 = 2 = 

Q1 = Q 2 + Q 3

A1V1 = A2V2 + A3V3

Work and Energy

(Principle of Conservation Of Energy)
 friction: negligible

 Sum of kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy is constant.

Recall:

Kinetic energy = ½ mV2

Gravitational potential energy = mgh

Where
m = mass,
V = velocity,
h = height above the datum

 To apply this to a falling body we have an initial velocity of zero, and it falls through a
height of h.

 Initial kinetic energy = 0

 Initial potential energy = mgh

 Final kinetic energy = ½ mV2

 Final potential energy = 0

 We know that,

 kinetic energy + potential energy = constant

Energy Possessed by flowing fluid

1. Kinetic Energy

2. Potential Energy

3. Pressure Energy

Bernoulli’s theorem
  This theorem states that whenever there is a continuous flow of liquid the total
energy at every section remains the same provided that there is no loss or addition
of the energy.

Z= potential energy

V2/2g=kinetic energy

P/w=pressure energy

Bernoulli's Equation

 We see that from applying equal pressure or zero velocities we get the two equations
from the section above. They are both just special cases of Bernoulli's equation.

 Bernoulli's equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they are:

 Flow is steady;
 Density is constant (which also means the fluid is incompressible);
 Friction losses are negligible.
 The equation relates the states at two points along a single streamline, (not
conditions on two different streamlines).

A contracting expanding pipe

Limitations of Bernoulli’s equation

1. It is applicable to ideal incompressible flow.

2. The heat transfer into or out of fluid should be zero

3. The temperature remains constant so that internal energy does not change

4. The effect of presence of any mechanical device between two sections is ignored.

Assumption for Bernoulli’s Equation

 Modifications of Bernoulli Equation

In practice, the total energy of a streamline does not remain constant. Energy is ‘lost’
through friction, and external energy may be either:

 Added by means of a pump or

 Extracted by a turbine.
Consider a streamline between two points 1 and 2. If the energy head lost through
friction is denoted by Hf and the external energy head added (say by a pump) is or
extracted (by a turbine) HE, then Bernoulli's equation may be rewritten as:

± HE = H 2 + H f

Or
2 2
p1 V1 p V
  z1  H E  2  2  z2  H f
g 2 g g 2 g

HE = energy head added/loss due to external source such as pump/turbines

 This equation is really a restatement of the First Law of Thermodynamics for

an incompressible fluid.

The Power Equation

In the case of work done over a fluid the power input into the flow is :

P = gQHE

Where

Q = discharge,
HE = head added / loss
If p = efficiency of the pump, the power input required,

ρgQ H E
P¿ =
ηp

Examples:
1. Compute the discharge of water through 75 mm pipe if the mean velocity is 2.5 m/sec

Solution:
1
Q = ʋA = 2.5[ π(0.0752)]
4
Q = 0.011 m3/sec

2. The discharge of air through a 600-mm pipe is 4 m3/sec. Compute the mean velocity in m/sec.

Solution:
Q = ʋA
1
4=ʋ[ π(0.62)]4
4
ʋ =14.15 m/sec

3. A pipe line consists of successive lengths of 380-mm, 300-mm, and 250-mm pipe. With a
continuous flow through the line of 250 Lit/sec of water, compute the mean velocity in each size
of pipe.

Solution:
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q

ʋ1A1 = ʋ2A2 = ʋ3A3 = Q

1 1 1
ʋ1[ π(0.3802)] = ʋ2[ π(0.3002)] = ʋ3[ π(0.2502)]=0.25
4 4 4

ʋ1 = ¿) = 2.20 m/sec

ʋ2 = ¿) = 3.54 m/sec

ʋ3 = ¿) = 5.09 m/sec

4. Water is flowing in a fire hose with a velocity of 1.0 m/s and a pressure of 200000 Pa. At the
nozzle the pressure decreases to atmospheric pressure (101300 Pa), there is no change in height.
Use the Bernoulli equation to calculate the velocity of the water exiting the nozzle.

Solution:
1 1
𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑃2
2 2
Since the height does not change (h1=h2), the height term can be subtracted from both sides.
1 1
𝜌𝑣12 + 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝑃2
2 2

Algebraically rearrange the equation to solve for v2, and insert the numbers

√(2 1 2
ρ 2 )
ρ v + P1 −P 2 = 𝑣2 = 14 𝑚/s

5. As shown in the figure, the smaller pipe is cut off a short distance past the reducer so that the
jet springs free into the air. Compute the pressure at 1 if Q = 5 cfs of water. D 1 = 12 inches and
D2 = 4 inches. Assume that the jet has the diameter D 2, that the pressure in the jet is
atmospheric and that the loss of head from point 1 to point 2 is 5 ft of water.

Solution:
Discharge
3
Q 1=Q 2=5 ft /s

Velocity head
2 2
v 8Q
=
2 g π 2 g D4

2
v1 8(5)2
= =0.6293 ft .
2 g π 2 (32.2)(1)4
2
v2 8 (5)2
= 4
=50.98 ft .
2g 2 4
π (32.2)( )
12

Energy equation between 1 and 2

E 1−HL=E 2
2 2
p 1 (v 1) p2 (v 2)
+ + z 1−HL= + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
p1
+0.6293+ 0−5=0+50.98+0
γ
p1
=55.35 ft .
γ
p1=55.35 γ w =55.35 (62.4)
p1=3453.88 psf =23.98 psi

6. In the figure, with 35 L/s of sea water (sp gr 1.03) flowing from 1 to 2, the pressure at 1 is 100
kPa and at 2 is -15 kPa. Point 2 is 6 m higher than point 1. Compute the lost energy in kPa
between 1 and 2.

Solution:

3
Q 1=Q 2=0.035 m / s

Velocity head
2 2
v 8Q
=
2 g π 2 g D4

2
v1 8( 0.035)2
= =0.0125 m
2 g π 2 (9.81)(0.3)4
2
v2 8(0.035)2
= =1.0122 m
2 g π 2 (9.81)(0.1)4

Energy equation between 1 and 2

E 1−HL=E 2
 2 2
p 1 (v 1) p2 (v 2)
+ + z 1−HL= + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
100 −15
+0.0125 +0−5= +1.0122+6
1.03(9.81) 1.03 ( 9.81 )
HL=4.38 m
p=4.38(1.03)(9.81)
p=44.27 kPa

7. The diameter of a pipe carrying water changes gradually from 150 mm at A to 450 mm at B.
A is 4.5 m lower than B. If the pressure at A is 70 kPa and that B is 50 kPa, when 140 L/s is
flowing.
(a) Determine the direction of flow.
(b) Find the frictional loss between the two points.

Solution:

3
Q 1=Q 2=0.14 m /s

Velocity heads:
2 2
v 8Q
= 2
2 g π g D4

2
v1 8(0.14 )2
= 2 =3.1990 m
2 g π (9.81)(0.15)4
 2
v2 8(0.14 )2
= =0.0395 m
2 g π 2 (9.81)(0.45)4

Pressure heads:
p A 70
= =7.1356 m
γ 9.81
p B 50
= =5.0968 m
γ 9.81

Total head:
2
p v
E= + + z
γ 2g
E A =7.1356+3.1990+ 0=10.3346 m
E B=5.0968+ 0.0395+4.5=9.6363 m

The flow is always from higher energy to lower energy. E A > EB , thus, the flow will be from A to
B.

Energy equation between A and B

E A−HL=E B
10.3346−HL=9.6363
HL=0.6983 m

8. In the figure, a 50 mm pipeline leads downhill from a reservoir and discharges into air. If the
loss of head between A and B is 44.2 m, compute the discharge.

Solution:

Velocity heads:
2 2
v 8Q
= 2
2 g π g D4
Energy equation between A and B
E A−HL=E B
2 2
p A (v A ) p B (v B)
+ + z A −HL= + + zB
γ 2g γ 2g
2
8Q
0+ 0+45.7−44.2=0+ 2 4
+0
π (9.81)(0.05)
3
m
Q=0.01065 =10.65 L/s
s

9. The 150-mm pipe line shown in Figure 4-05 conducts water from the reservoir and discharge
at a lower elevation through a nozzle which has a discharge diameter of 50 mm. The water
surface in the reservoir 1 is at elevation 30 m, the pipe intake 2 and 3 at elevation 25 m and the
nozzle 4 and 5 at elevation 0. The head losses are: from 1 to 2, 0; from 2 to 3, 0.6 m; from 3 to
4, 9 m; from 4 to 5, 3 m. Compute the discharge and make a table showing elevation head,
pressure head, and total head at each of the five points.

Solution:

Head Losses:
HL 1−2=0
HL2−3=0.6 m
HL 3−4=9 m
HL 4−5=3 m

HL 1−5=HL 1−2+ HL 2−3+ HL 3−4 + HL 4−5

HL 1−5=0+ 0.6+9+3HL 1−5=12.6 m
Energy equation between 1 and 5
E 1−HL=E 5
2 2
p 1 (v 1) p 5 (v 5)
+ + z 1−HL 1−5= + + z5
γ 2g γ 2g
2
8Q
0+ 0+30−12.6=0+ 2 4
+0
π (9.81)(0.05)
3
m
Q=0.0363 =36.3 L/s
s

Velocity heads:
2 2
v 8Q
= 2
2 g π g D4

2 2
v3 v4 8 (0.063)2
= = 2 =0.2151m
2 g 2 g π (9.81)(0.15)4
2
v5 8( 0.0363)2
= 2 =17.4202 m
2 g π (9.81)(0.05)4

Pressure heads:
p2
=El .1−El .2 =30−25
γ
p2
=5 m
γ
Energy equation between 2 and 3
E 2−HL 2−3=E 3
2 2
p 2 (v 2) p 3 (v 3)
+ + z 2−HL 2−3= + + z3
γ 2g γ 2g
p3
5+0+ 25−0.6= +0.2151+25
γ
p3
=4.1849 m
γ

Energy equation between 3 and 4

E 3−HL 3−4 =E 4
2 2
p 3 (v 3) p 4 (v 4 )
+ + z3 −HL3−4 = + + z4
γ 2g γ 2g
p4
4.1849+ 0.2151+25−9= +0.2151+0
γ
p4
=20.1849 m
γ

Tabulated Result
Point Elevation head Velocity head Pressure head Total head (m)
(m) (m) (m)
1 30 0 0 30
2 25 0 5 30
3 25 0.2151 4.1849 29.4
4 0 0.2151 20.1849 20.4
5 0 17.4202 0 17.4

10. A pump takes water from a 200-mm suction pipe and delivers it to a 150-mm discharge pipe
in which the velocity is 2.5 m/s. At A in the suction pipe, the pressure is -40 kPa. At B in the
discharge pipe, which is 2.5 m above A, the pressure is 410 kPa. What horsepower would have
to be applied by the pump if there were no frictional losses?
Solution:
Discharge
Q=v B A B
Q=2.5¿
3
Q=0.0442m / s

Velocity heads:
2 2
v 8Q
=
2 g π 2 g D4

2
vA 8(0.0442)2
= =0.1009 m
2 g π 2 (9.81)(0.2)4
2
vB 8(0.0442)2
= 2 =0.3189 m
2 g π (9.81)(0.15)4
Neglecting losses between A and B
E A+ HA =E B
2 2
p A (v A ) pB (v B )
+ + z A + HA= + + zB
γ 2g γ 2g
−40 410
+0.1009+0+ HA= + 0.3189+2.5
9.81 9.81
HA=48.5896 m

Power delivered by the pump:

Power=QγHA=0.0442(9810)(48.5896)
1hp
Power=21058.37 watts ×( )
746 watts
Power=28.23 hp

11. A pump (Figure 4-07) takes water from a 200-mm suction pipe and delivers it to a 150-mm
discharge pipe in which the velocity is 3.6 m/s. The pressure is -35 kPa at A in the suction pipe.
The 150-mm pipe discharges horizontally into air at C. To what height h above B can the water
be raised if B is 1.8 m above A and 20 hp is delivered to the pump? Assume that the pump
operates at 70 percent efficiency and that the frictional loss in the pipe between A and C is 3 m.
Solution:
Discharge
Q=v B A B
Q=3.6 ¿
3
Q=0.0636 m /s

Output power of the pump

Poutput =Efficiency × P input
Poutput =0.70 Pinput =0.70(20)

Poutput =14 hp ( 7461 watts

hp )
Poutput =10,444 watts
Head Added
Poutput =QγHA
10444=0.0636 (9810)HA
HA=16.74 m

Velocity heads:
2 2
v 8Q
= 2
2 g π g D4

2
vA 8(0.0636)2
= 2 =0.2089 m
2 g π (9.81)(0.2)4
2
vB 8(0.0636)2
= 2 =0.6602 m
2 g π (9.81)(0.15)4

Energy equation from A to C.

E A+ HA −HL=EC
2 2
p A (v A ) pC (v C )
+ + z A + HA−HL A−C = + + zC
γ 2g γ 2g
−35
+ 0.2089+0+16.74−3=0+0.6602+(1.8+h)
9.81
h=7.92 m

12. The 600-mm pipe shown in Figure 4-11 conducts water from reservoir A to a pressure
turbine, which discharges through another 600-mm pipe into tailrace B. The loss of head from A
to 1 is 5 times the velocity head in the pipe and the loss of head from 2 to B is 0.2 times the
velocity head in the pipe. If the discharge is 700 L/s, what power is being given up by the water
to the turbine and what are the pressure heads at 1 and 2?
Solution:
Discharge
3
Q=0.7 m /s

Velocity heads:
2 2
v 8Q
= 2
2 g π g D4

2 2
v1 v2 8 (0.7)2
= = 2 =0.3124 m
2 g 2 g π (9.81)(0.6) 4

Head Losses:
2
v1
HL A−1=5 × =5 ( 0.3124 )=1.562m
2g
2
v2
HL 2−B=0.2 × =0.2 ( 0.3124 )=0.0625 m
2g

Energy equation between A and B

E A−HE−HL=E B
2 2
p A (v A ) p B (v B )
+ + z A −HL A−1−HE−HL 2−B= + +zB
γ 2g γ 2g
0+ 0+60−1.562−HE−0.0625=0+0+ 0
HE=58.3755 m

Power given up by the water to the turbine:

P=QγHE=0.7(9810)(58.3755)
1 hp
P=400,846.56 Watts ×
746 watts
P=537.35 hp

Energy equation between A and 1

2 2
p A (v A ) p 1 (v 1)
+ + z A −HL A−1= + + z1
γ 2g γ 2g
p1
0+ 0+60−1.562= +0.3124+ 4.5
γ
p1
=53.6256 m
γ
Energy equation between 2 and B.
2 2
p 2 (v 2) pB ( vB)
+ + z 2−HL 2−B = + +zB
γ 2g γ 2g
p2
+0.3124 +4.5−0.0625=0+0+ 0
γ
p2
=−4.7499 m
γ

Checking:
Energy equation between 1and 2:
2 2
p 1 (v 1) p2 (v 2 )
+ + z 1−HE = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
53.6256+0.3124 + 4.5−58.3755=−4.7499+ 0.3124+ 4.5
0.0625=0.0625(okay !)