Received: 19 November 2022

DOI: 10.1049/qtc2.12060

ORIGINAL RESEARCH
- -
Revised: 13 April 2023 Accepted: 15 May 2023

- IET Quantum Communication

Quantum for 6G communication: A perspective

Muhammad Zulfiqar Ali1 | Abdoalbaset Abohmra1 | Muhammad Usman1,2 |

Adnan Zahid1,3 | Hadi Heidari1 | Muhammad Ali Imran1 | Qammer H. Abbasi1

1
James Watt School of Engineering, University of Abstract
Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
In the technologically changing world, the demand for ultra‐reliable, faster, low power,
2
School of Computing, Engineering and Built and secure communication has significantly risen in recent years. Researchers have shown
Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Glasgow, UK immense interest in emerging quantum computing (QC) due to its potentials of solving
3 the computing complexity in the robust and efficient manner. It is envisioned that QC
School of Engineering and Physical Science, Heriot‐
Watt University, Edinburgh, UK can act as critical enablers and strong catalysts to considerably reduce the computing
complexities and boost the future of sixth generation (6G) and beyond communication
Correspondence systems in terms of their security. In this study, the fundamentals of QC, the evolution of
Muhammad Zulfiqar Ali, Room 311, Rankine quantum communication that encompasses a wide spectrum of technologies and appli-
Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8LT,
cations and quantum key distribution, which is one of the most promising applications of
UK.
Email: [email protected] quantum security, have been presented. Furthermore, various parameters and important
Qammer H. Abbasi, School of Engineering, Room
techniques are also investigated to optimise the performance of 6G communication in
422, James Watt Building (South), University of terms of their security, computing, and communication efficiency. Towards the end,
Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK. potential challenges that QC and quantum communication may face in 6G have been
Email: [email protected]
highlighted along with future directions.
Funding information
KEYWORDS
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council,
Grant/Award Number: EP/W032627/1 6G communication, quantum communication, quantum computing

1 | INTRODUCTION The QoS requirements in 6G can be satisfied with the

realisation of many emerging technologies, such as artificial
The first generation (1G) of cellular networks appeared in the intelligence (AI), terahertz (THz) communication, cell‐free
1980s. Since then, 2G, 3G, and 4G cellular networks have communication, optical wireless communication, joint com-
evolved as advanced telecommunication networks. Thereafter, munication and sensing, joint information and energy transfer,
fifth‐generation (5G) wireless technologies have been deployed network virtualisation, blockchain, and quantum technologies
since 2020 with the aim of being mostly software‐based by 2025 [3]. Specifically, quantum technologies have evolved more
[1]. The most remarkable aspect of 5G is the micro‐service‐ recently in terms of quantum computing (QC), quantum
based cloudification of network architecture, which abstracts communication, quantum security, and quantum sensing. It
physical resources into virtual and logical environments, intro- has been envisioned that quantum technologies will play a vi-
ducing automated learning management functions. More tal role in enabling future 6G in terms of communication
recently, with the initial commercial deployments of 5G, research and computing while providing a significant level of
in sixth generation (6G) has begun in earnest. Although, it is too security [4].
early to predict the functioning of 6G, a key attribute of 6G will Faster computing always remains an ambition in informa-
be the convergence of several critical features, such as high tion and communication technology (ICT). QC may help in
reliability, low latency, high throughput, massive connectivity, achieving such ambition by leveraging quantum concepts such as
and network densification. 6G will support unique use cases with superposition. Many different quantum systems, including
stringent quality of service (QoS) requirements like holographic trapped ions [5, 6], superconducting qubits [7, 8], photons [9, 10],
communication and remote high‐precision surgery [2]. and silicon [11, 12], which can be used to create quantum

-
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properly cited.
© 2023 The Authors. IET Quantum Communication published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institution of Engineering and Technology.

IET Quant. Comm. 2023;1–13. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/qtc2 1

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- ALI ET AL.

computers. The supremacy of quantum parallelism leads to future 6G networks. Fundamentals of these leading quantum
the realisation of developing more efficient algorithms, which concepts are discussed along with enabling technologies such
on one hand helps enhancing computing‐intensive applica- as quantum interconnects, and quantum repeaters and
tions, while on the other hand provides capabilities to quantum‐enabled 6G communication system. Towards the
break the security of classical cryptosystems such as Rivest– end, future research direction, challenges, and technological
Shamir–Adleman that are based on prime factoring difficulty. limitations are investigated to adopt quantum technologies in
To overcome such security challenges, researchers are investi- cellular communication domain.
gating post‐quantum cryptography, which aims to make ICT
systems resilient against security attacks generated from both
classical and quantum computers. 2 | QUANTUM COMPUTING
Another related area of study is QC‐assisted communica-
tions, with a significant likelihood of meeting the demanding Moore's law has accurately predicted the growth in computing
standards of 6G technologies to deliver exceptionally incr- power, which states that the number of transistors per inte-
easing data rates and link security [13]. QC employs photons grated circuit doubles every 2 years and has been the guiding
(or quantum fields) to encode data in the quantum state (or principle for the semiconductor industry since 1965 [20].
qubits) and transfers qubits from a quantum emitter to a Nowadays, millions of transistors are integrated in single
quantum receiver. Utilising qubits in communications provides computer chip, and the continuous progress has open doors
numerous benefits, such as communication security, high‐ for nanotechnology, and the behaviour of such circuits can
speed and low transmission losses in optical and radio me- only be expressed in quantum mechanical terms rather than
dia, and reduced decoherence risk, among others. In addition, classical physics which obeys the laws of quantum mechanics.
QC‐assisted communication has tremendous potential for In 1985, Richard Feynman showed quantum computers can
long‐distance communications. Quantum repeaters can be perform computations by taking into account the probabilistic
utilised at great distances to divide the communication link into weight of each computation and can act as a quantum process
numerous shorter middle parts and then rectify problems such simulator, which are impossible to be achieved efficiently
as photon loss and operation defects in these segments [14]. through conventional automation [21].
Future communication systems' link capacity enhancement
options, such as power domain multiple access enabled by
Successive Interference Cancellation, have extremely high run‐ 2.1 | Basic of quantum computing
time computational power requirements, making QC clearly
applicable [15]. A quantum‐aided solution to data‐packet paths The fundamental unit of classical computing is bits, which have
in multi‐hop communication networks is an illustration of a two states, zero and one. The bits are given to computers in the
challenging multi‐objective space, and an exhaustive search form of strings which use gates to switch some of the bits from
problem in communications has already been presented [16]. It 0 → 1 and 1 → 0. Quantum computers use qubits, a port-
is anticipated that 6G would include high data rate applications manteau of quantum and bits, like a bit a qubit can be in states
and a massive number of connected devices [17] including bio zero and one. The qubits states are represented as |0〉 and |1〉.
and nano‐internet of things (IoT), unmanned mobility, haptic Like classical computers, it is initially just a string of zeroes and
communications, unmanned aerial vehicles, and a number of ones, but these qubits can also be in infinitely many super-
other applications [18, 19]. The quantum‐safe cryptography position while quantum computer is running between |0〉 and
solutions guarantee secure communication in future fully |1〉. When the qubit is in superposition, it has some probability
connected world. The secure quantum communication may of being in state |0〉 and some probability of being in state |1〉.
achieve information‐theoretical security by leveraging quantum The superposition states, when measured, will collapse into a
principles such as entanglement and no‐cloning theorem [4]. basic state, either |0〉 or |1〉. This superposition state allows us
An example of information‐theoretically secure protocol is to make calculations not only on one state but on multiple
quantum key distribution (QKD). states at the same time. This is clear from famous Schrö-
An important area of 6G where quantum systems can dinger's cat thought experiment, that is, before opening the
outperform classical systems is sensing and imaging of a box, the mythic cat is in a position of alive and dead. But by
physical environment. Indeed, quantum sensing surmounts the observing the cat, it is forced to pick a state, alive or dead, not
classical sensing due to its ability to detect minute changes in both. Quantum Computer is typically full of Schrödinger's cats
the environment with few physical qubits. This makes quan- [22]. Mathematically, the state vector of unit amplitude can
tum systems an ideal choice in realising digital‐twin applica- describe the state of the qubit as
tions, such as the metaverse. Quantum sensing could also help � �
in realising haptic communications [4]. α
jψ〉 ¼ ¼ αj0〉 þ βj1〉 ð1Þ
It is worth mentioning that quantum technologies are still β
evolving, however, they will play a crucial role in achieving the
requirements of future 6G systems. This paper discusses the where |0〉 and |1〉 are the zero and one vectors of the qubit,
details and importance of quantum concepts, such as QC, and α and β are the associated probability amplitudes providing
quantum communication and quantum security as enablers of the likelihood of one of the states [23]. P|0〉 = |α|2 will be the
 26328925, 0, Downloaded from https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/qtc2.12060 by Cochrane Canada Provision, Wiley Online Library on [04/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ALI ET AL.
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probability of |0〉 and P|1〉 = |β|2 of |1〉. The value of P|0〉 through which secret messages can be crypt into ciphertext and
and P|1〉 can only be determined by preparing multiple rounds sent from one user to another [31]. In short, QKD‐based
of the same qubit state as stated in Equation 1 and measuring it communication have two steps, first is establishing the key
to accumulate statistical data of probabilities |α|2 and |β|2. and second is to use classical channels for ciphered trans-
For physical implementation of quantum computation, one mission. Another quantum communication is quantum secure
needs to change the quantum state of the qubit. This can be direct communication. In this, message can be transmitted
achieved through the dipole interaction between the qubit and directly from the sender to the receiver by condensing QKD
the external microwave drive field. and classical communication ciphertext into single quantum
For efficient implementation of QC systems, following are communication, and the entire system is quantum mechanical
the key requirements, long coherence time (T1 and T2, time [32].
duration for which qubit has a fixed state), high scalability Quantum communication encompasses a wide spectrum of
(capacity to accommodate rising computing demand), high technologies and applications, ranging from cutting‐edge lab-
fault tolerance, and quantum error correction (quantum error oratory studies to commercially viable products. QKD and
correction [QEC] is used to shield quantum information from quantum random number generators are two of the most
errors caused by decoherence and other quantum noise. disputed and investigated quantum technologies in this
Entanglement essentially aids in error detection and correction growing subject of commutations. At the same time, there are
while maintaining the qubit's state, ability to initialise qubit also significant hurdles in building worldwide quantum
(to rapidly reduce the entropy of a quantum system), universal communication networks. While some advancements have
quantum gates (set of quantum logic gates), efficient qubit‐ been made in this area, all of these endeavours are still in their
state measurement capability (quickly and accurately detect a infancy. Important techniques for secure quantum communi-
qubit's state using quantum mechanics), and faithfully trans- cation are (a) discrete variable system (b) continuous variable
mit flying qubits between specified locations (condition system [33].
necessary for quantum communication) [24, 25]. In classical communications, the greatest amount of in-
formation that can be securely sent across an ideal binary
communication channel is one bit per channel. With the use of
3 | QUANTUM COMMUNICATION entanglement, it is feasible to double the maximum amount of
information in the quantum paradigm. This technique is
Sensitive information is currently encrypted before being known as super‐dense coding [34]. In addition, the practical
transmitted via fibre‐optic cables and other channels, along design of quantum‐assisted communication protocols largely
with the required cryptographic keys to decode the informa- relies on quantum channel/error correction coding in order to
tion. The data and keys are transmitted using the standard bit get close to the theoretically feasible capacity. Due to the
format of 0 and 1s. The ability to track down hackers using this quantum nature of the information transmitted across quan-
communication method is also exceedingly challenging. tum channels, the encoding and decoding procedures cannot
Quantum communication is the effective way to address this be treated like their conventional counterparts.
problem. This method uses the laws of quantum physics to Due to the impossibility of duplicating a quantum state,
safeguard data and make sure that communications are secure. caution must be taken when attempting to apply the ideas of
These rules allow for the superposition of particles, typically conventional error‐correcting codes to quantum systems (no‐
light photons used for data transmission through optical ca- cloning theorem) [35, 36]. Some of the key technologies that
bles. This allows them to represent several simultaneous can help realise 6G are depicted in Figure 1. The traditional
combinations of 0 and 1s. The hackers are unable to alter these decision‐making process is mostly based on the anticipated
quantum bits (qubits) without leaving a visible trace of their utility hypothesis, and its performance is severely impaired in
actions. It may be claimed that this technology has not fully risky and uncertain situations [37]. In the majority of traditional
developed yet, and further study is still needed. Notably, decision‐making processes, the likelihood of producing accu-
several commercial companies have already used quantum rate predictions can be significantly impacted by the sur-
physics and its features to build networks for sending rounding environment, such as an unknown stochastic or
extremely sensitive data based on QKD [26–29]. variable environment. Moreover, in scenarios with limited or
Quantum communication has a distinctive position between partially accurate data or imperfect preference relations, pre-
quantum mechanics and applied quantum optics. Quantum dictions are likely to be qualitative and partial. Quantum De-
mechanics is a branch of physics which deals with the behaviour cision Theory (QDT) appears to be a potential technique for
of matter and light on the atomic and subatomic level. At this addressing this issue, and it has been studied in various pub-
level, a particle can have more than one quantum state and at the lished works [37, 38].
same time may interact with the particles which are very far One of the main challenges in 6G networks is the high
away. This is mainly due to the quantum principles, which in- level of complexity and uncertainty due to a large number of
cludes, quantization, uncertainty principle, quantum super- connected devices, the diversity of applications and services,
position, tunnelling, entanglement and decoherence [26, 30]. and the dynamic and unpredictable nature of the wireless
Among the mature quantum information techniques is the environment. QDT can help address these challenges by
QKD. In this, two remote users can create private key securely, providing a more flexible and powerful framework for
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methodology improves BER performance compared to a

classical methodology employing the PSO algorithm while
requiring the same computational complexity. Moreover, the
proposed quantum‐assisted precoder outperforms the con-
ventional precoder when users can only send a small amount of
channel state information back to the BS because of the need
to quantise the channel states [45]. Quantum security, quantum
interconnects, and quantum repeaters are important parts of
the evolving field of quantum information technology (QIT),
and they are discussed in greater detail below.

3.1 | Quantum security

Quantum cryptography employs quantum physics principles
for the secure transmission of information. The transmission
FIGURE 1 Enabling quantum technologies in 6G. of secret messages from one location to another, is an im-
portant example. Even if the communication link is unreliable,
the cryptographic requirement is that the sent messages remain
decision‐making. For example, QDT can be used to optimise unavailable to anybody other than the intended recipients. This
the allocation of wireless resources such as spectrum, power, is typically only guaranteed in traditional cryptography under
and bandwidth among different devices and applications [39]. assumptions of computational difficulty, such as when
Additionally, QDT can be used to model and analyse the factoring huge numbers is impossible. In contrast, quantum
behaviour of network users and applications and to predict cryptography relies solely on the laws of quantum mechanics
their future actions and preferences [40]. Game theory is a for its security. In this regard, QKD is becoming one of the
strategy for making the appropriate decisions in conflict situ- most promising applications of quantum security [46].
ations. It has been extensively utilised in economics, the social QKD employs a quantum system to protect data, rather
sciences, and biology to describe decision‐making scenarios in than mathematics [47]. In QKD, a quantum communication
which the outcomes depend on the interacting approaches of channel is used along with an authentic channel to construct a
two or more individuals with competing or, at best, self‐ secret key between legitimate parties [48, 49]. QKD operates
interested goals. by transmitting photons between legitimate parties via the
Quantum Game Theory (QGT) has the potential to pro- communication channel such as fibre optic cables. When a
vide new insights and approaches for analysing and designing photon arrives at its destination, it passes through a beam
6G networks. By combining the principles of quantum me- splitter, forcing it to take one of two paths into a photon
chanics and game theory, QGT can provide a more accurate collector. To determine which emitter actually sent each
and comprehensive understanding of the complex interactions photon, the receiving end sends back information about the
between network operators, service providers, and users, sequence in which the photons were received. Photons in the
leading to more efficient and secure communication protocols. wrong beam collector are discarded, leaving only a specific
QGT can be used to analyse and optimise communication sequence of bits. This bit sequence is then used to encrypt
protocols, design secure QKD schemes, and explore the data [50].
impact of quantum technologies on network performance and There are two main types of QKD, prepare‐and‐measure
security in 6G networks [41–43]. and entanglement‐based [51, 52]. Prepare‐and‐measure pro-
As an additional crucial point, due to the development of tocols measure quantum states, which can detect eavesdrop-
mobile devices like smartphones and tablets, wireless data ping and the amount of data intercepted. On the other hand,
transfer speeds have skyrocketed. Therefore, it is more entanglement‐based protocols focus on quantum states for-
important than ever to have communications that conserve med by two linked objects. Entanglement means that
power by using multiple‐stream detectors with minimal measuring one object affects the other. If an eavesdropper
complexity. Create low‐complexity soft‐input soft‐output changes a trusted node, other parties will know. Some of the
quantum‐assisted multi‐user detectors that can be success- common protocols built upon QKD are BB84 [53], Silberhorn
fully incorporated into state‐of‐the‐art iterative receivers, [54], Decoy state [55], and E91 [56]. Hence, QKD will provide
achieving a bit error rate (BER) of 10−5 in the uplink of a rank‐ novel approaches to secure 6G networks and technologies.
deficient multi‐carrier interleave division multiple access sys-
tem that uses realistic imperfect channel estimation at the
receiver and allowing for 14 users to transmit QPSK symbols 3.2 | Quantum repeaters
in Ref. [44]. In the difficult rank‐deficient scenarios, where the
number of transmit antenna elements at the BS is less than the When it comes to quantum communication, quantum re-
number of users, a new quantum‐assisted precoding peaters are essential infrastructure. The success rate of direct
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ALI ET AL.
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quantum communication between two parties drops expo- Quantum switch (QS), a device that can send optical
nentially with the distance between them. Waystations, which signals between several channels while maintaining quantum
function in the communication channel like amplifiers do in coherence and entanglement, is at the centre of a network of
traditional channels, are necessary to get around this funda- various quantum information systems, as shown in Figure 2.
mental constraint. Yet, the no‐cloning theorem makes it The implementation of quantum interconnects has significant
impossible to amplify a quantum signal, unlike classical signals technical challenges: They must transmit quantum informa-
which can be amplified using conventional amplifiers. To this tion (quantum states) with high accuracy, quick rates, and low
goal, quantum repeaters create entanglement and then ex- loss, frequently across a broad range of energies and do so in
change it between waystations in order to broaden the scope of a scalable manner. In some situations, a workable candidate
quantum correlations. With the help of quantum repeaters, quantum interconnect strategy is well established, but
entanglement can be generated over an entire communication implementation requires focussed engineering effort. In other
system. Entanglement's integrity can be restored through situations, however, novel physical processes must be inves-
distillation (purification) if it has degraded [14, 57, 58]. tigated in order to implement a particular quantum inter-
Forerunners to full quantum repeaters are the quantum connect system. The development of materials, devices,
relays. That is, they are rudimentary quantum repeaters that can systems, and supporting infrastructure in critical‐path do-
only do basic tasks. Even though it does not exhibit the scal- mains that support the development of useable quantum
ability of a network based on true quantum repeaters (poly- technologies will advance significantly with an acceleration of
nomial resource usage, with the quality of the entangled research towards the creation and application of quantum
resource not scaling exponentially with overall communication interconnects. Quantum interconnects eventually enable
distance), it is still possible for it to scale polynomially if the distributed quantum processing. The analysis and develop-
quantum memory has an infinite coherence time. The relays ment schedule for quantum interconnects are discussed in
typically require single photon sources, single photon de- Ref. [73].
tectors, quantum memory, and a qubit‐photon interface based For short distances, without the need for quantum re-
on material. Controlling matter qubits via optical transitions peaters, quantum interconnects can be built on the chip and
like (nitrogen‐vacancy) NV centres in diamond and developing between the chips. For instance, 1 m of superconducting cable
lossless fibre‐cavity coupling are all necessary. Many of the was used to transmit entangled superconducting qubit [74].
fundamental hardware components of quantum relays and Using photons is anticipated for long‐distance quantum in-
quantum repeaters are the same, despite the fact that the to- terconnects. Effective transducers are needed for the use of
pologies of the respective communication systems are very non‐photonic qubits with photonic quantum interconnects. A
different. When compared to a quantum repeater, a quantum network of quantum computers linked together by quantum
relay device does not need to be able to purify entanglement or communication channels is known as the quantum internet.
store photons [59, 60]. Problems limiting the ultimate rates On the quantum internet, quantum computers are coherently
for sending quantum information, entanglement, and se- networked, allowing for the worldwide distribution and con-
cret (cryptographic) keys via quantum repeaters for parties sumption of quantum correlations. The global distribution and
directly connected by a quantum channel are discussed in consumption of quantum correlations would be possible with
Ref. [61]. such a system of coherently interconnected quantum com-
Establishing entangled states whose quality does not puters [75].
degrade exponentially with the number of repeater nodes in a
network necessitates that quantum repeaters have at most a
polynomial scaling in terms of resources required [62]. 4 | 6G COMMUNICATION
Entanglement distribution [63–65], entanglement switching
[66, 67], and entanglement distillation (purification and error Beyond 5G and 6G, research has begun in earnest in parallel
correction) [68–70] are the three main functions of a quantum with the growth of commercial 5G deployments. 6G systems
repeater system. The error correction used by quantum re- will support novel use applications with demanding Key Per-
peaters is similar to that used in quantum computation, but the formance Indicators, which will be enabled by new facilitating
implementation is simpler, and fault tolerance is not required technologies and network designs [76]. This improvement in
[71]. throughput and delay for 6G will translate into support of
more demanding high‐speed data applications like immersive
(i.e., 360°) 8k video and critical delay‐sensitive applications like
3.3 | Quantum interconnects remote surgery with haptic feedback. 6G is expected to have
throughput and latency that will be from 5� to at least 20�
Quantum communications systems use quantum interconnects better than 5G [77].
to transfer entanglement between quantum devices. In partic- This will enable improvements in high‐speed data appli-
ular, they offer important advantages in this era of noisy cations and low‐delay critical control applications. Moreover, it
intermediate‐scale quantum computing by significantly altering is interesting to consider the potential device types to be used
the connectivity for quantum adiabatic computation, quantum in 6G by human users (as opposed to M2M and other non‐
annealing, and quantum simulation [72]. human users). The biggest enhancements in 6G, however,
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- ALI ET AL.

FIGURE 2 The role of quantum interconnects in quantum communication. Quantum interconnects are shown by wave packets that represent photons.

will be in the areas of AI and QIT. 6G networks will need services. In particular, ultra‐reliable low latency communica-
native security and privacy mechanisms, higher efficiency, and tions have stringent real‐time constraints as well. With an eye
ubiquitous intelligence [78]. towards proposed 6G communication frameworks, several
The jump from fourth generation mobile communications technologies have been proposed to address the issues. One of
(4G) to 5G was fuelled by an unprecedented increase in con- those is providing a machine learning (ML) framework for end‐
nected users, bandwidth requirements, and data intensive to‐end communications.
 26328925, 0, Downloaded from https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/qtc2.12060 by Cochrane Canada Provision, Wiley Online Library on [04/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ALI ET AL.
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One of the key areas where quantum technology could be the capacity measurements of the quantum communication
applied in 6G networks is in the development of quantum channels [83]. This is due to the fact that quantum channels
communication networks. These networks would use quantum may have several possibilities in terms of sending information
cryptography to secure the transmission of data, making it including quantum information and entanglement‐assisted
virtually impossible for third parties to intercept or access classical information [84]. These are the two types of infor-
sensitive information [79]. This is achieved through the use of mation that can be sent by quantum channels. As a result,
QKD, which allows for the secure distribution of encryption substantial amounts of research effort are necessary to make
keys using entangled particles. Another area where quantum quantum communication physically practicable in the future
technology could be applied in 6G networks is in the devel- systems that support 6G communications [15].
opment of quantum sensors [18]. These sensors would be
capable of detecting and measuring a wide range of physical
parameters, including temperature, pressure, and magnetic 5 | QUANTUM‐ENABLED 6G
fields, at a level of precision that is impossible with classical COMMUNICATION
sensors. This would enable a range of new applications, such as
ultra‐accurate positioning, real‐time environmental monitoring, Future 6G systems are expected to benefit from QIT from
and enhanced imaging capabilities [13]. In addition, QC could both a computing and communication standpoint. For
be used to optimise the operation of 6G networks. Quantum instance, 6G security can be enhanced by utilising secure
algorithms could be used to analyse large amounts of data, quantum communications techniques like QKD [4]. Quantum
optimise network performance, and develop new communi- mechanics, quantum communications, QC, and quantum
cation protocols that are more efficient and secure. sensing and metrology are the four primary subfields of QIT.
Parallel to the progression of cellular networks from 5G to Quantum entanglement forms the base for many effects such
6G, QIT has seen rapid development over the last several years as QKD [85, 86], Quantum dense coding [87], Quantum
in terms of quantum communications and QC. It is anticipated teleportation [58, 88], and Entanglement swapping [89, 90].
that QIT will allow and enhance future 6G systems in terms of QC has the potential to contribute to wireless communications
communication and processing. For instance, secure quantum in several ways, including through the development of quan-
communications such as QKD may be used to enhance the tum optimal algorithms [91, 92] and quantum ML [15].
security of 6G networks. Quantum communication can be Quantum optimal algorithms: Quantum optimal algorithms are
useful for the future 6G communication networks. For designed to solve optimisation problems more efficiently than
example, it can enhance the channel capacity, could transmit an classical algorithms. In the context of wireless communica-
unknown quantum state, and to achieve a quantum cryptog- tions, quantum optimal algorithms could be used to optimise
raphy by exploiting several advanced communication pro- resource allocation and schedule in wireless networks, which
tocols. Such advanced communication protocols are not could improve network efficiency and reduce complexity.
possible with the classical techniques [50]. QC enables robust Channel estimation is a critical aspect of wireless communi-
security for 6G wireless communication systems [80]. This is cation, as it is used to estimate the characteristics of the
possible by using a quantum key approach, which is based on wireless channel and optimise signal transmission. QC could be
the uncertainty and the quantum no‐cloning principle. QC has used to develop more accurate and efficient methods of
the ability to increase the effectiveness of detecting unau- channel estimation, which could improve network perfor-
thorised users. In addition, quantum communication has the mance and reduce complexity. Overall, while these are just a
ability to provide a high data rate and robust security against few examples, QC has the potential to make significant con-
cyberattacks [81]. tributions to wireless communications in the future. By
Quantum techniques can be significantly useful in investi- developing real‐time optimisation, which is made possible by
gating computationally efficient solutions to classical signal rapidly expanding data analytics and ML, 6G wireless networks
processing problems. One important advantage of utilising the will be able to handle immersive services like virtual reality,
quantum domain in communications is high degrees of augmented reality, mixed reality, and tactile Internet [93].
freedom. By replacing the conventional physical communica- The capacity of current network technology could poten-
tions channel with the nano‐scale objects, that is, photons, tially be significantly increased by quantum network receivers.
electrons, governed by the quantum principle, in terms of In contrast to conventional receivers, a quantum receiver's
logical values of zero and one, it is possible to utilise the linear technology operates differently. The latter can access infor-
combinations of these logical values [82]. It is widely agreed mation by decoding a classical (non‐quantum) signal that is
that QEC is a significant technological challenge that has to be received. The amount of data that can be decoded with a
handled. As a result, the development of a quantum error‐ conventional receiver is nonetheless constrained. This
correcting coding scheme is of considerable significance [40]. constraint is caused by the fact that the amount of data that can
In addition, the construction of network entities with quantum be deciphered is inversely correlated with the energy required
Internet is considered to be another technical challenge that to convey it. On a conventional network, the signal that a
may be faced by the quantum communication, as it needs QSs/ receiver node receives is also heavily contaminated by noise
routers and repeaters. To overcome this potential barrier, QSs/ [94]. In order to determine the best performance parameters at
routers and repeaters are necessary. One other difficulty is in a specific time and in the context of a specific network node,
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quantum‐enabled ML and QC‐powered networks may be able from consensus methods, and privacy breaches from trans-
to coordinate data inputs as diverse as battery life, throughput, parent block data. QIT, quantum‐assisted blockchain, can fix
local demand factors, and other significant metrics. This would these difficulties. Quantum communications can improve
have a significant impact on the performance of the entire communication security among blockchain nodes, entan-
network if replicated across numerous nodes in a single, widely gled qubits can simulate block links, and entanglement can be
scattered network. utilised to develop novel consensus methods without
high communications overhead and increase transaction speed
[99–102].
5.1 | Quantum 6G communication system Massive data from ubiquitous devices and network nodes
and AI methods like deep learning, deep reinforcement
A quantum‐enabled 6G system is depicted in Figure 3 where learning, federated learning, and transfer learning will make 6G
QIT is used to implement novel 6G functionality and services. systems more intelligent and autonomous. QIT helps wireless
Quantum‐capable photonic systems like lasers or fibre optic AI in numerous ways. First, quantum cryptography can protect
cables connect all nodes. Some nodes will be fully quantum‐ model sharing and communications in decentralised AI like
capable. Yet, many nodes can generate, send, and receive federated learning. QC can speed up AI training and inference.
qubits. Blind QC could enable privacy‐preserving AI training. QML
As part of 6G, thousands of satellites in low earth orbit, may introduce new wireless AI methods [15, 103]. Users can
medium earth orbit, and geosynchronous earth orbit will submit QC tasks to cloud‐based quantum computers via
continue to build mesh‐like non‐terrestrial networks. Free‐ traditional Internet. Like classical computing as a service,
space optic networks connect satellite nodes, which can entanglement production, distribution, error correction,
house quantum computers. Free‐space optics have been used memory, and measurement are further quantum capabilities of
to demonstrate quantum communications between satellite a full‐fledged quantum computer. Other less powerful quan-
nodes and ground stations [95]. Entanglement distribution for tum computers, 6G services and 6G apps may use these
distant satellite nodes must be properly addressed for quantum quantum capabilities as a service. Quantum measurement as a
communications. Powerful satellite nodes with quantum service might be hosted by the 6G core network (CN), O‐RAN
computers can also offer QC to other satellites and ground central units, or even powerful 6G devices like quantum‐
stations. Yet, a satellite node can be a trust node or quantum capable drones and automobiles. Cars or quantum dock sta-
repeater to improve quantum communications like satellite‐ tions could share quantum capabilities with ordinary elec-
based QKD. QC and communications improve radio access tronics. QKD‐enabled RAN may not have good quantum
network (RAN) efficiency and security. Open RAN (O‐RAN) measurement capability (e.g., quantum measurement hardware
can use quantum communication for enhanced security. O‐ like fast and high‐fidelity readout) like the CN. Then CU can
RAN components like distribution units (DU) and control use CN quantum measurement and can pass all received qubits
units (CU) must be easily deployable and securely coupled. to the CN via the quantum channel to use the CN's quantum
Otherwise, eavesdropping, man‐in‐the‐middle attacks, and measurement capability. CN receives qubits from CU and
other security threats may affect all user traffic passing via O‐ measures them randomly using the QKD protocol to produce
RAN nodes. QKD can establish security keys between O‐RAN classical bits. Assuming secure communications, the CN sends
components, solving this problem. Pervasive edge computing the measurement basis and results to CU via the classical
services will be provided by more edge nodes (e.g., vehicles) in channel. CU follows the QKD protocol and transmits desig-
6G systems. Edge computing environments face security, nated feedback (e.g., measurement basis) to DU after receiving
workload offloading, and resource allocation issues. QC can the measurement basis and findings from the CN. DU receives
optimise task offloading and edge resource allocation, while CU feedback and follows the QKD procedure. CU and DU
secure quantum communications can ensure secure commu- can finally share a security key [4, 104, 105].
nications to, from, and between edge nodes [4, 96–98].
Modern data centres use optical fibre and free‐space optics
for inter‐rack communications instead of wireless connectivity 5.2 | Quantum‐classical network evolution
to boost data throughput and reduce interference. Quantum
channels can use these optical links. Quantum communication Classical information and communication technologies (CICT)
and cryptography can increase inter‐rack security. QC can solve and QIT will work together to improve hybrid classical‐
computation‐intensive data centre challenges like efficient data quantum systems. Quantum computers require conventional
flow and energy consumption management. Blockchain tech- computers or circuits for quantum unit control. The most
nology uses distributed consensus protocols, distributed data- difficult part is partitioning classical and QC units. Pre‐, post‐,
bases, cryptography, and hashing to create a decentralised and co‐processing require well‐specified quantum and classical
system with transparency and immutability. Blockchain tech- modules. No hardware prototype has tested classical‐quantum
nology enables 6G applications like decentralised authentica- hybrid approaches on wirelessly networked system challenges.
tion and distributed wireless resource sharing between parties Hybrid classical‐quantum architectures aim to enable ultra‐high
that may not trust one other. Blockchain technology also faces throughput networks. How to partition sequential computa-
security threats from hostile nodes, slow transaction speeds tional tasks into classical or quantum units and assign them to
 26328925, 0, Downloaded from https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/qtc2.12060 by Cochrane Canada Provision, Wiley Online Library on [04/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ALI ET AL.
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FIGURE 3 Quantum‐enabled 6G communication system.

staged processing units is critical [106, 107]. Quantum net- analogue‐to‐digital converters and digital‐to‐analogue con-
works communicate qubits over long distances via a physical verters, power amplifiers, etc. [110].
layer, like classical networks. Due to their speed, ease of Moving up in the frequency, the device physics changes
avoiding interactions, and availability of fibre‐optic cable drastically and the approach of using a metal‐based antenna
conduits, photons are the only suitable particle for trans- has several limitations, chief among them is the low mobility of
ferrable qubits. Photons absorb and scatter like other particles, electrons in the nanoscale metallic structures. This results in
so a long transmission will reduce propagation efficiency on the antennas being highly lossy at the resonant frequencies,
Earth [108]. As a result, a hybrid architecture is anticipated for which would result in a high attenuation and subsequently,
the quantum‐enabled 6G. The difficulty comes from creating poor efficiency of the overall system [111]. To address this
QIT and CICT to cohabit in an effective, modular, and scalable lossy behaviour, meta‐material‐based nanostructures have
framework. This calls for a comprehensive evaluation and emerged as attractive solutions [112]. Graphene is an atomi-
understanding of the pros and cons of each technology in cally thin, 2D material crystalline form of carbon in which the
order to determine optimal matching scenarios and solutions carbon atoms are arranged in a hexagonal lattice structure (see
to accommodate different user requirements (such as security Figure 4b,c). On the other hand, the design of signal pro-
requirements and expected quantum fidelity), different hard- cessing algorithms is impacted by the high cost and power
ware component constraints (such as classical technologies and consumption of these components at the mm Wave and THz
QIT equipment cooling requirements), and existing CICT bands, making it impossible to employ standard transceiver
infrastructure (e.g., types of physical fibre links, data centre architectures. Partnering across the hardware and algorithm
configurations) [4]. communities will be essential for designing systems of this
complexity. What this indicates is that hardware‐algorithm co‐
design has to be promoted. The design of transceiver systems
6 | CHALLENGES AND FUTURE needs to be both algorithm and hardware friendly [113].
DIRECTIONS Recent advances in cutting‐edge circuits, antennas, and
metamaterial‐based structures, as well as the rapid rise of AI
In order to get ready for the potential challenge that QC would techniques, such as ML, data mining, and data analysis, have
provide in the 6G era in the future, scientists have already explored a new path for overcoming the obstacles that radio
begun researching quantum resistant hardware and encryption networks will encounter on the path to 6G. For this reason, it
solutions. To investigate prospective breakthroughs in 6G is of importance to provide intelligence above and beyond the
design, the 6G architecture can be divided into four blocks: well‐established intelligent spectrum access for cognitive radio
‘platform,’ ‘functional,’ ‘specialisation,’ and ‘orchestration.’ To networks in order to solve new problems in radio communi-
accelerate hardware and improve data flow centrality, hetero- cation. Therefore, state‐of‐the‐art AI/ML approaches will be
geneous clouds must establish an open, scalable, and agnostic required for the ideal intelligent radio (IR) to deal with issues
run‐time environment as part of the ‘platform’ of the 6G ar- including precise channel modelling and estimation, modula-
chitecture [109]. The demand to communicate at ever‐ tion, beamforming, resource allocation, optimal spectrum ac-
increasing data speeds will continue indefinitely. To achieve cess, and automated network deployment and administration.
data speeds of terabits per second, it is necessary to operate at Thus, IR's incorporation into 6G will shorten the imple-
higher and higher frequency bands. The increasing pathloss mentation time and drastically cut the price of new algorithms
and other propagation phenomena necessitate the use of very and hardware [114].
large‐scale antenna arrays, which require the assistance of As networks become more complex and heterogeneous,
numerous hardware components, such as signal mixers, software only will no longer be effective for 6G. To support
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F I G U R E 4 (a) RIS‐enabled non‐line‐of‐sight transmission. (b), (c) Schematic representation of an electron density wave propagating along a metal–
dielectric interface (Graphene). RIS, reconfigurable intelligent surface.

AI‐based applications, network entities must support a wide chips benefit from the introduction of quantum dot‐based
range of capabilities, such as communications, content caching, materials, which produce cheap detectors. In Ref. [117],
computing, and even wireless power transfer. In addition, 6G colloidal quantum dots were utilised as the active layer to create
will incorporate new radio access interfaces such as THz a 3D microstructure array in order to introduce the surface
communications and intelligent surfaces. It must also support plasmon polariton effect and increase the THz field's limiting
more advanced IoT functions such as sensing, data collection, impact. This process enhanced the THz detector's perfor-
analysis, and storage [1]. All of the aforementioned challenges mance in 6G technology. Converging THz waves within a
necessitate a flexible, adaptive, and, most importantly, intelli- concave structure provided the constructed device with a high
gent architecture. Physical layer security (PLS) approaches, responsiveness and low equivalent noise power.
such as the deployment of active relays or friendly jammers
that employ artificial noise (AN) for security provisioning, may
entail on higher hardware cost and power consumption, and 7 | CONCLUSION
must be evaluated in conjunction with 6G security issues.
Moreover, acceptable secrecy performance cannot always be QC is envisioned to revolutionise the wireless resource opti-
assured in poor wireless propagation settings, even with the misation challenges in 6G communication systems in terms of
employment of AN. Therefore, it would be desired to adap- their security, efficiency, and intelligence and is believed to be a
tively manage the propagation parameters of wireless channels vital enabling technology. This paper provides a visionary
in order to assure the security of wireless communications, description and in‐depth research of QC, which has the po-
which cannot be achieved with current communication tech- tential to minimise the computational complexity of future 6G
nologies. By intelligently regulating the phase shifts of recon- communication systems. In addition, the significance of qu-
figurable intelligent surface (RIS), the reflected signals may be antum interconnects, quantum repeaters, and quantum security
coherently combined at the target receiver to improve the has also been discussed in detail, which is considered to be
quality of the received signal [115]. incredibly useful and important in the development of QIT. In
With the development of metamaterials and micro- this study, it is also established that the quantum technology is
electromechanical systems, RISs have emerged as a viable so- still gradually evolving, and 6G communications enabled by
lution for tackling the security, energy, and spectrum efficiency QC may face some challenges in designing efficient and secure
issues of intelligent environments. RIS is a software‐controlled quantum communication equipment for 6G communication
metasurface composed of a planar array of several passive, low‐ systems. The study also highlights those challenges which
cost reflecting components whose reflective coefficients can be quantum‐enabled 6G network may encounter, as well as its
altered in real‐time as shown in Figure 4a. This allows them to potential future possibilities. In a nutshell, the findings of this
regulate the amplitude and/or phase shift of reflected wave, review paper are expected to be beneficial for researchers and
hence enhancing the transmission of wireless communications scientists working in QC discipline for the deployment of
[114, 116]. future quantum‐enabled 6G networks.
In recent years, Quantum dot‐based materials with desired
properties have been developed, such as tuneable absorption AUT HO R C O N TR I B U T I O N S
band gap, practical physical size, minimal crosstalk, low dark Conceptualisation: Muhammad Zulfiqar Ali, Abdoalbaset
current, and solution‐based processing enabling straightfor- Abohmra, and Qammer H. Abbasi. Writing—Original Draft
ward device integration. As a result, research on THz imaging Preparation: Muhammad Zulfiqar Ali, Abdoalbaset Abohmra,
 26328925, 0, Downloaded from https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/qtc2.12060 by Cochrane Canada Provision, Wiley Online Library on [04/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ALI ET AL.
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