UNIT 5

Politics, Economy and Social Processes from the Early 16th

to the end of the 18th C’s
5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and
After
❖ The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle for
control over the trade routes between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim principalities.
❖ This was followed by a series of wars, which were depicted as wars for
religious supremacy in historical accounts of Christian and Muslim clerics.
❖ Causes of the conflict:-
1. competition and struggle for control over the trade routes
2. mal-administration and exploitation of periphery made military
mobilization possible.
3. demographic pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists pushing to
approach Harar and the Christian Kingdom.
4. religion provided ideological justification for the wars.
❖ Major causes remained:- the interest to control trade routes lay at the
heart of the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
Sultanates that lasted from 1529 to 1543.
❖ Background to the Conflict
1. Among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and anarchy
was intensified and a new leadership was urgently called for. Such
leadership came from Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi.
✓ The origins of Imam Ahmed, alias “the left-handed,” are obscure.
✓ He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised
by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila.
✓ He was a rigorous and ardent believer of Islam. He soldiered for
Garad Abun of Adal, who during his few years in power called for
Islamic Puritanism.
2. For centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had wanted to
expand to high plateaus for better and enough pasturelands and their
attempt was held back by the Christian army.
✓ With increased population and overgrazing in Somali and Afar of
eastern Ethiopia, between the 13th and 16th centuries, raiding and
counter-raiding at water holes or animal rustling intensified.
✓ It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in leadership that
he mobilized the pastoral communities of the Afar, the Somali, the
Harla, Harari and others to a common cause.
 ✓ He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to unite and
expand to the Christian Kingdom and resolve their pressing material
needs while at the same time keep Islamic believes.
❖ The Course of the War:
 Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when he was only eleven. Assisted by the
elderly Elleni and due to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state
initially retained its interest and even scoring significant victories into
Muslim territory in the early 16th century.
 However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army in 1520, and he refused
to pay tribute and this was followed by a campaign against the Christian
Kingdom in 1527.
✓ The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories including
Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and the Christian
Kingdom was at risk.
✓ In 1528, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force and encamped about fifty
kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa.
✓ There was the problem of logistics and the leadership of the army of
Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s
force.
▪ On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed’s army managed logistics
problems with its small-sized army.
✓ The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership characterized by
better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command.
✓ As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in
one of the most decisive engagement at the battle of Shimbra Kure in
1529, near present day Mojo.
✓ After the victory, the Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the
territories of the Christian Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and
moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
❖ The Process of Conquest/Futuh al Habasha/

✓ Ahmad resumed an overall invasion of Christian territories in 1531

and occupied Dawaro and Shawa.
✓ By 1535, he brought most parts of the country under his control.
✓ He continued his devastating conquest without any effective resistance
and reached the present provinces of Tigray and Eritrea and along the
Red Sea coast.
 ✓ By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on
the coast including the Ethiopian interior.
 However, Ahmad was not able to capture Libne Dingel, who remained
fugitive and died in the 1540 in the monastery of Dabra Damo, and was
succeeded by his son, Gelawdewos (1540-1559).
❖ Ahmed’s Administration:
✓ Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy constituted
from his own men and newly recruited personnel from the Christian
territories.
✓ One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the wife of
the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military
commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
✓ Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged her husband to
avenge the death of her father.
✓ She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions and even in
a state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules.
✓ Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and
1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray, respectively.
❖ Gelawdewos and the Battle of Woyna-Dega in 1543:
▪ Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), continued to face the wars with more
intensity as Imam Ahmed had received Turkish musketeers.
▪ In the meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel in
1535, about 400 Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in
the Christian court in 1541Christopher da Gama from the coast through
highlands of Eritrea to Tigre.
▪ Imam Ahmed and his forces seeing the coming of Portuguese,
immediately marched to Tigray to prevent the link up the forces of
Gelawdewos with Portuguese.
▪ The Portuguese found their way blocked by Imam Ahmed’s army when
they reached the areas of Wajerat in Tigray. However, in 1542, the
Portuguese army defeated the Imam’s army in two battles.
▪ As a result, Ahmed appealed for military assistance from Ottomans, who
sent 900 warriors and 10 cannons from Zebid(Yemen).
▪ The Portuguese army, in August 1542 was defeated in Ofla, near Lake
Ashange. In the battle, about 200 Portuguese and their leader
Christopher da Gama were killed and the leader was beheaded.
▪ An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the role of
Lebne-Dengel's wife Seblewongel. She is said to have participated in the
war against Imam Ahmed in 1542.
▪ After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s, he sent
his allies back home and let his army camp.
▪ On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for final
confrontation under the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59).
▪ The Queen mother, Seblewongel, advised the reigning emperor how to
prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega.
▪ Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy,
which severely affected Imam’s army.
▪ Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous quality of easy mobility
because they did not know where the attacks came from.
▪ On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana,
he was attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-
Dega.
 Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his
army were loyal to him. As a result, the king restored possession of
almost all the northern and central plateau.
 Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos and he
was tolerant toward them to promote national conciliation and to
develop revival of smooth relations with the Muslim world.
 Gelawdewos was able to restore many of pre-1520s territories and
tributary regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through
campaigns to different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border
areas.
 By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian
Kingdom. However, the control over the Muslim dominated areas was
not an easy task.
 In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state came from:
- the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal,
- the Ottoman Turks,
-Jesuit interlude, and
- Oromo that advanced into the center.
 Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid was ready to
wage war against the Christian state for revenge.
 In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the
king himself.
 Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the
Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa.
 However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks
against him.
 Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend the Turks while
fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the
Oromo.
❖ Consequences of the War
 The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in a number of
consequences.
1. One of the most obvious was the huge human and material cost. Ahmed
Gragn also burnt so many historical churches and monasteries with their
invaluable heritage possessions and their priests and monks.
2. Both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom were weakened thereby
paving the way for an easy infiltration and success of the Oromo population
movement.
3. Ahmad’s destruction of the royal prison of Amba Gishen left many contending
princes free and this resulted into a dynastic conflict and political instability in
the Christian kingdom.
4. The war also led the shift of political centre of the Christian kingdom from
central Shawa to the north, towards the Lake Tana area.
5. The religious controversies in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, caused
by the Jesuit missionaries who came from Portugal following Portuguese
army and the Ottoman Turkish threat along the Red Sea coasts after
Ahmad’s war were some of long term consequences of the war.
6. Ahmad Gragn’s domination also encouraged expansion of Islam.
However, the war had also a disastrous impact on Muslims.
✓ The Muslim states were left impoverished and the ground cleared the
way for their occupations by the Oromos.
7. Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean
between Portugal and the Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities a global
dimension.
▪ Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions between the
Christian Kingdom and Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military
support to Imam Ahmed.
▪ In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for assistance and
regional Ottoman authorities provided two hundred Muslim musketeers
and ten cannons.
On the positive side:
✓ It should be restated that the war had arguably resulted in cultural
interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia.
✓ Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by intermarriages
among peoples of the various cultural groups were one of these
manifestations in the long history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
5.2. FOREIGN INTERVENTION AND RELIGIOUS
CONTROVERSIES
✓ The church was weakened by the wars against the sultanate of Adal. The
destruction of property and deaths of its clergy hampered the operation
of the Church and therefore, its service as an ideological arm of the
state.
✓ The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with
Roman Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry
and training to restore its lost territories.
❖ Background for the arrival of Jesuits:-
✓ The background for the arrival of Catholic missionaries was led by the
coming of Portuguese diplomatic mission in 1520 and Portuguese army
in 1541.
✓ In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de
Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
▪ The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore
separate, natures of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to
Monophysite theology of EOC.
▪ EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect
human nature inseparable from divinity.
▪ In 451A.D. Schism in Chalcedon:- when Coptic Orthodox Church
rejected the notions of the Council of Chalcedon and called itself a
“Monophysite” believe in the “One Nature”.
▪ Diaphysitism:- two natures (human and divine) of Jesus Christ by
Eastern Orthodox Churches.
▪ Roman Chalcedonian Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches
believe into two natures of Christ include Constantinople, Greece,
Cyprus, Russia, Rumania, Hungary and Serbia. Protestant churches
also hold this belief.
▪ Monophysite:- meaning single nature. It merged Christ’s human
nature into his divinity, it meant there was only one single nature, a
divine nature. Coptic Orthodox Church accused being Monophysite
at Chalcedon but this is not what Coptic believed rather it is a
Miaphysite.
 ▪ Non-Chalcedonian Orthodox Churches include Egypt Coptic, Syrians,
Lebanon, Armenians, Ethiopians and Indians.
 The Coptic Orthodox Churches rejected the motion of Council of
Chalcedon based on St. Cyril's expression "One Nature of God the
Incarnate Logos" (Mia Physis Tou Theou Logou Sesarkwmene). Thus, they
referred as “Monophysite” those who believe in the “One Nature”.
 St. Atnathius of Alexandria resolved the expression of one nature does not
indicate divine nature alone or human nature alone rather the unity of both
natures in One Nature (like the soul and body of human).
 Monophysite is misinterpreted through periods in history as a believe in one
nature of Christ and deny other nature.
 The expression "One Nature" does not indicate the Divine nature alone
nor the human nature alone, but it indicates the unity of both natures into
One Nature which is "The Nature of the Incarnate Logos". St. Cyril the
Great taught us not to talk about two natures after their unity.
 Miaphysite:- is one nature means the Lord Jesus Christ is perfect human and
perfect devine, and these two natures are united together without mingling
or confusion, nor alteration in one nature; the nature of God incarnate.
 In October1991,the representatives of all churches agreed on the
Statement of Christology- Incarnate Logos or Complete hypostatic union.
▪ The leading members of the Jesuits mission who played key role in
efforts to evangelize the country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de
Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.
✓ The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos
(r.1540-59), hoping that the rest of the society would follow suit.
✓ Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with the
missionaries, but he was not prepared to give in. Instead, he defended
the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a document entitled the
Confession of Faith.
✓ Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the
other, were too busy fighting against the Oromo and the Turkish forces
to entertain the Jesuits in their courts.
✓ The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4)
who secretly converted to Catholicism.
✓ But Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the desired
result. Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7), who
befell a similar fate in the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
✓ Susenyos, too, as was challenged by provincial leaders who refused to
pay tribute, integrated the Oromo with the forces of central
government to consolidate his power and then stabilize the country.
✓ Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he
got through the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
✓ In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced it to be
state religion later in 1622. In the meantime, in 1617-8 several anti-
Catholic voices mounted following the changes in liturgy and religious
practices.
❖ Even worse, with the monarch’s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Alfonso
Mendez ordered:-
✓ re-consecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of
the mass.
✓ the suspension of Jewish customs such as male circumcision and the
observance of the Sabbath.
✓ Additional pronouncements include prohibitions of preaching in
Ge’ez, fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian
saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
✓ Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian
calendar to be adopted.
✓ The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even
loyal followers of the emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-
67) were opposed to the changes initiated by the Jesuits.
✓ After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state
came to the verge of falling apart. In a battle in June 1632, large number
of peasants lost their lives in one day.
✓ Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who
countered the Catholic transformation.
❖ Fasiledas:-
✓ restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion,
✓ expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’
uncle and the most fervent supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.
✓ By fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas introduced a
new policy called "Close-Door Policy", which isolated the state from
all Europeans for about a century and a half.
✓ Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic
relations with the Islamic world and formed an alliance with the
neighboring Muslim states to ensure that no European crossed into
the Christian Kingdom.
 ✓ As a result, in 1647, he concluded an agreement with the Ottoman
Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter should block
any European from entering in to his territory.
✓ By doing so, Fasiledas was able to restore peace and order.
▪ Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the
beginning of the nineteenth century with the exception of secret visits
by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler
James Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.
✓ Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy
within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant
sects and reached its peak during the Zemene Mesafint.
✓ Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a
Divine Being the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into
the world as a perfect man and perfect divinity united in one nature,
thus Tewahedo (United). It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
✓ Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and
accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at
the moment of his incarnation, when he was born into the world, Holy
Ghost anointed him.
✓ This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
✓ Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught
that Christ was first born in eternity as divine being, was born
again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost. This
sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
5.3. POPULATION MOVEMENTS
➢ The movements of people from one place to another have played
important roles in shaping the history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
➢ Population movements occurred in the Horn due to various
reasons, in varied scales and followed different directions.
➢ In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements could be
attributed to the region's long socio-political conditions involving
military conflicts, drought and demographic factors.
✓ Population movements had extensive effects including the
integration of peoples across ethnic and religious lines.
✓ Major outcomes of population movements during the period
include religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
intermingling of peoples through intermarriage, change of abode,
original culture and evolution of new identities.
 I. POPULATION MOVEMENTS OF THE ARGOBA, AFAR,
AND SOMALI
❖ Causes:
1. The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal in the late 15th and the early 16th centuries
was partly responsible for the population movement of the
Argoba,Afar and Somali.
2. The demographic pressure on environment gave background for
the population movement.
➢ This population movement was probably triggered off by:
-population growth and shortage of grazing land, and
-finally, mounting pressure of Oromos, who began their
expansion in the 15th Century.
A.The Argoba: the Argoba were major agents of Islamic
expansion, trade and Muslim state formation in the Horn.
✓ Towards the end of the 13th century, with the decline of the
sultanate of Shewa, the sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were
dominant, became the center of Muslim resistance.
✓ On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba
joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian Kingdom.
✓ The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the
expanding Christian Kingdom and was the major center of
conflict. This was because the major caravan trade routes passed
through Argoba territory.
B. The Afar: before the 16th century, due to drought, the Afar
moved towards the east until they reached the middle Awash.
✓ Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the
Afar's territory.
✓ As a result, the region was the centre of competition between
the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to control the
trade routes.
✓ Besides being actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably
pressurized the Afar to move into different directions to avoid
the risk of the conflicts.
✓ In the 16th century, their pastoral economy helped them to
survive the destructive effects of the wars.
C. The Somali: their territory laid in the medieval competition for
the control of trade routes.
✓ The population movement of the Somali was a strong force
behind the military strength of the Imam.
✓ However, the population movement of the Somali did not last for
long as they returned to their home base following the defeat of
Imam Ahmed in 1543.
II. GADAA SYSTEM AND THE OROMO POPULATION
MOVEMENT (1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System
 The Oromo population movement of the 16th century cannot be
better understood without considering the Gadaa system.
 The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo: -
-socially organized themselves,
-administered their affairs,
-defended their territories, maintained law and order, and
-managed their economies.
 Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa system
emerged. However, it is clear that for long the society organized
their politics, economy, social, cultural, and religious affairs
through the Gadaa institution.
 The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that during the early 16th
century, the system fully functioned because of which the Oromo
were well organized.
 Thus, it is reasonable to think that the Oromo had practiced the
Gadaa system long before the 16th century movement of the
Oromo.
 Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa centers
suggest that the system evolved from the earlier Cushitic age-set
social organization.
 Time computation and recording history was based on the eight-
year segment of time. In the system, eight years represented one
Gadaa period, 5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented one
generation and nine generations represented an era.
 Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various eras
because of various internal and external factors. For instance, the
Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted after interruption for nearly
two generations. It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu that
became the central Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu
until 1900.
 The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as: -
-periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a one-man rule,
-representation of all lineages, clans and confederacies.
-served as a mechanism of socialization, education, maintenance of peace
and order, and social cohesion.
-Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma
(compensation) and rakoo (marriage).
-provided a socio-political framework that institutionalized relationship
between seniors and juniors and egalitarian relations among members.
 The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-grades
and generation sets delineating members' social, political, and
economic responsibilities. Ten age- grades and five classes operated in
parallel.
 The system helped the members of age-sets to develop a
consistent and stable sense of self and others. Sons joined the
first grade as members of Gadaa class (generation class or set)
forty years after their fathers.
Age-grades and their roles
Gade Grade Age Roles

Dabale Birth-8 years

Socialization
Game 9-16 years

Folle 17- 24 years Military training, agriculture, etc.

Qondala 25-32 years Military service

Raba-Dori 33-40 years Candidates for political power

Luba 41-48 years Leaders of Gadaa government

Yuba 49-80 years Senior advisors, educators and ritual leaders

 The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of the
government was known as Abba-Gadaa and assisted by several
representatives from among the generation set.
 These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe (head
of the assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law),
Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other
councillors.
 In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played
indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the ruling
gadaa class.
 Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which
helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity. Women from
childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre
(adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba)
and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to
have sacred power.
 They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict resolution,
thanks-giving and others. The kalale were also privileged to
support and advise the ruling class.
 The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer from
one Gadaa class to the next every eight years.
 With some minor differences in nomenclature in different parts
of Oromo territories, the five Gadaa classes (generation sets) are
listed below:
The Five Gadaa Classes
Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudana Robale
Kilole Birmaji
Bifole Mul’ata
Michille Dulo

B.The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

❖ Causes:-
✓ A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo
population movement of the 16th and 17th centuries.
1. Natural factors include demographic pressure and subsequent need
for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock population.
2. The conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates from
the 13th to the 16th centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral
Oromo groups to leave the lands they inhabited for other areas.
❖ Courses of the Movement:-
✓ In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo were
already organized under Borana and Barentu confederacies.
✓ The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a
corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya. When they
reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa then westward
and across the Bilatte River to the southwest.
✓ From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
✓ The first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) fought and defeated Christian
regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali.
✓ Gadaa Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
✓ The Kilole Gadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian
regiment Adal Mabraq.
✓ Gadaa Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
✓ The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago,
and Jan Amora; on Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
✓ The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and
Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
✓ In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo
defeated Robale gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga, but Robale
recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force.
✓ The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to
Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
✓ The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and
Tigray.
✓ In the early 17th century, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10),
and Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and Northern parts of
the Horn of Africa.
✓ Others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and
Majertin in Somalia.
❖ Why the Oromos so successful:
 The wars between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates,
 The organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played
crucial role in the success of the Oromo population movement.
 In the course of their movement into various regions, different
Oromo branches established Gadaa centres.
The Five major Gadaa centres
Gadaa Centers Respective Oromo clans
Oda Nabee Tulama
Oda Roba Sikko-Mando (Arsi)
Oda Bultum Itu-Humabenna
Oda Bisil Mecha
Oda Bulluq Jawwi Mecha

✓ Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-

Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma,
Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.
✓ Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of
Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others
established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in their
respective areas.
 However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the
office of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at Madda
Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty.
 Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through
sending their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe until
the pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the
political influence of the Ethiopian state.
 In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation
formula including land. Land holding system to regulate resource
and their interaction among different clans is known as the
qabiyye system.
 The system established rights of precedence (seniority) in
possession of land. Accordingly, place names were given the
names of the pioneer as a marker of qabiyye rights.
5.4. INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION ACROSS ETHNIC
AND RELIGIOUS DIVERSITIES
 The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval
period were the major factors for the people's interactions
across regions.
 Such interactions occurred during peace and conflict times. The
cases in point were the trade contacts and conflicts to control
trade routes, religious expansion, and territorial expansion and
population movements.
 One of the major consequences of the interactions in the
medieval period particularly in the population movement of the
16th century was the integration of peoples across ethnic and
religious diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 It is apparent that territorial and religious expansion by the
Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the
south. Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the population
movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali caused the
expansion of Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.
 One consequence of the Oromo population movement was that
it put an end to the wars between the Christian and Muslim
states as well as the southward expansion of the Christian state.
 At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the
16th century brought far-reaching integrations among peoples
across ethnic and religious background.
 The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
 Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In
this system, the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a
biological child.
 Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly
known as Oromsu. Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of
individuals or groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all
the rights and obligations that such membership entailed.
 Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the clan.
The adopted groups gained both protection and material benefits.
Thus, it lead complete assimilation and disappearance of Bizamo,
and Damot as well as mutual assimilation with Ennarya.
 The process significantly contributed to the social cohesions,
national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
 The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural
values and institutions. A number of peoples in the neighborhood
of the Oromo adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language. E.g.
Sidama and Gedeo adopted the Gadaa system.
 The Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of the
people with whom they came into contact. E.g. the adoption of
monarchical systems and the integration of the Oromo to the
Christian and Muslim states.
 It is important to mention the rise of nobles in the northern
Oromo in politics particularly during the Gondar period, Zemene-
Mesafint and the making of modern Ethiopia.
 5.6.THE GONDARINE PERIOD AND ZEMENE-MESAFINT
1.THE GONDARINE PERIOD
A. Political Developments
 The period of Gondar begins from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-
Dengle when the political center of Ethiopian emperors shifted
to Gondar area.
 Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571.
 Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar
like at Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
 Gondar was founded in 1636 by Fasiledas as his political seat.
 Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three
successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82)
and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
 Among the major reforms during these periods were:
- the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, and
-the establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve
problems stemming from power rivalry.
 Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter
for Muslims at Addis Alem.
 His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a
system of land measurement in Begemder, taxes, and customs, and
revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
 The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the
leadership of his own son, Tekle-Haymanot, ushered in political
instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of reigning
monarchs.
 Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his father
and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos. Tewoflos was again killed by
Yostos, who was also poisoned and replaced by Dawit III, who
himself was poisoned and replaced by Bakafa.
 Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his followers
and his wife Etege Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728.
 The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of the
Oromo in politics and the army.
 From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-
Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court
 Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55)
and Iyoas (1755-69). Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab
was challenged by Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law from Wollo.
 To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal
court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray
who was politically astute and military powerful.
 Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation and refused to
return to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas. This was followed
by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man
Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and
put his son Takla-Haymanot II (1769-77) on power. This marked
the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
B.Achievements of the Gondarine Period
 Gondar became the center of state administration, learning,
commerce, education, art, and crafts for more than two
centuries.
 The first three kings were successful not only in political affairs
but also in cultural developments. This enabled Gondar to repeat
the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela.
 The cultural achievements of the period led some writers to
describe Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian Renaissance.
 Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for
about one hundred fifty years, Ethiopian kings built significant
secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath, library,
towers, fortifications and there are squared, round and unknown
shape of churches.
 In the cities compound the most impressive building known as
Fasil Gemb, there are different palaces corresponding to Emperor
Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and regent Queen
Mentewab.
 The Gondarine architecture would have started before the reign
of emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle
at about 1586, at Guzara near Enfranz, and built a very fine bridge
near his palace at Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos likewise erected
a bridge over Blue Nile at Alata.
 Even it goes back to the reign of Lebne-Dengel (r.1508-1540)
that is the pointed oval dome over the center of the church of
Bahir Gimb Mikael considered as built by him.
 Painting: With a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts
and on wood, ornaments, weapons and other accessories
especially, the churches built by Queen Mentwab were known by
beautiful paintings, cross and an art works.
 Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a
great number of manuscripts. Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of
Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, and many
other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced.
 Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine, music and
poetry.
 Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center
that connected long distance trade routes of the southern region
with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border.
 Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange. The appearance
of daily market was known.
 With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of
foreign communities like Indians, Greeks and Armenians. The city
had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population.
 In addition to its political and commercial importance, it served
as religious center of Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel. Besides,
it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (residence
of the abun and Ichege) until the mid of 19th Century.
 Many of Orthodox churches served as education centers (known
by excellence in teaching aqwaqwam), liturgical chanting was
centered at Gondar.
II.The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
 Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual position of
political power was in the hands of different regional lords.
 Zemene Mesafent was the period when Ethiopia was divided
within itself with no effective central authority; the regional lords
constantly fought against each other for expansion of their
territory and to become the guardian of the king.
 The period lasts from the time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated"
king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as
Tewodros II.
 Ras Mika’el who was a king maker in the period took strong
measures against the nobility. These measures made him highly
unpopular because of which coalitions of lords of Gojjam,
Amhara, Lasta and Wollo that defeated him at the battle of Sarba-
Kussa in 1771.
 The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were
Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and
Shewa.
 When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the
leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at
Debre-tabor. Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as
the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
 Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825)
who made incessant struggle against Ras Walde-Silassie of
Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
 In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-
Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the
battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.
 The period of zemene mesafint was brought to an end by Kasa
Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles that lasted from 1840s
to 1855.
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
 absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
 rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king maker;
 establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door Policy.”
 In addition to the above features, there were developments in
terms of literature, arts, architecture etc during the period.