Chapter 4: Measurement of Angles and Directions

4.1. Introduction
Horizontal and vertical angles are fundamental measurements in surveying. The vertical angle is
used in obtaining the elevation of points (trigonometric levelling) and in the reduction of slant
distance to the horizontal. Horizontal angle is used primarily to obtain direction to a survey control
point, or to topographic detail points, or to points to be set out. An instrument used for the
measurement of angles is called a theodolite, the horizontal and vertical circles of which can be
linked to circular protractors set in horizontal and vertical planes. It follows that although the points
observed are at different elevations, it is always the horizontal angle which is measured. The angle
being read directly on the vertical protractor in reference to its vertical plane is called zenith angle
(ZA) and its corresponding vertical angle from its horizontal plane is vertical angle which is
computed as 90o-ZA.

Figure 4.1: Horizontal and Vertical Protractors of the Instrument

Z.A. = 190o20o50o

H.A. = 023o20o13o

Figure 4.2: Angle reading by optical theodolite

NB: Angle measurement needs the activities: Reference of starting line, Direction of turning
and Angular value (Value of the angle)

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4.2 Methods of Describing Directions
When working with a map and compass, there are usually three different norths to be considered:
True North, Grid North and Magnetic North. There is now a fourth: Google Maps North

Figure 4.3: The three Northings

True North
Each day, the Earth rotates about its axis once. The ends of the axes are the True North and South
poles. True North on a map is the direction of a line of longitude which converges on North Pole.

Grid North
Grid lines point to a Grid North, varying slightly from True North. This variation is smallest along
the central meridian (vertical line) of the map, and greatest at the map edges. The difference
between grid north and true north is very small and for most navigation purposes can be ignored.
Magnetic North
A compass needle points to the magnetic north pole. The magnetic north pole is currently located
in the Baffin Island region of Canada, west of true north. The horizontal angular difference
between True North and Magnetic North is called MAGNETIC VARIATION or DECLINATION.
The magnitude of the vitiation generally depends from place to place which is estimated as 7°W
of the true north.

Figure 4.4: Magnetic Northing Vs True Northing

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Why do we use magnetic north and not true north on the compass?
Because no matter where you go, a compass points at magnetic North. But since it isn't quite at
true North (the axis of the North Pole), how far off and what direction it is off from magnetic North
depends on longitude. So a compass, which is merely a small magnetized needle, cannot simply
be adjusted to point to the axis of the Earth, because of flattened out section of the globe, the lines
are not straight.
What is the difference between north and due north?
‘North’ could mean anything within 45°s of North which is closer to North than to East or West.
True North is the point in the northern hemisphere, around which the entire Earth rotates.
What are the differences between true north and magnetic north?
Magnetic North is the northern pole of Earth’s magnetic field. This is found in northern Canada,
some distance from the northern pole of the Earth’s rotation. The deviation is less as one go north.
Do compasses point to the true north of the Earth or the magnetic north?
Compasses point to the true north as the north tip of the compass (the red part) is actually the north
of the magnet and the south part the South Pole. Since the geographic north of earth is
approximately the magnetic south of the earth and the geographic south is approximately the
magnetic north of the earth, opposite poles attract each other. A magnetic compass does not point
to the geographic North Pole. A magnetic compass points to the earth's magnetic poles, which are
not the same as earth's geographic poles. The magnetic pole near earth's geographic North Pole
is actually the south magnetic pole.

Figure 4.5: Relations of between Geographic and magnetic poles

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What is the difference between the magnetic and geographic poles?
Geographic North Pole is where lines of longitudes converge into what we call the North Pole.
The Magnetic Pole is a point in Northern Canada where the northern lines of attraction enter the
Earth. A compass needle will point to the direction of the Magnetic North Pole.
Geographic north (also called "true north") is the direction towards the fixed point we call the
North Pole. Magnetic north is the direction towards the north magnetic pole, which is a
wandering point where the Earth's magnetic field goes vertically down into the planet.
4.3. Methods of Describing Angles:
Angles are formed when two lines intersect at a point. The measure of the opening between these
two rays is called an angle which is represented by the symbol ∠. Angles are usually measured in
degrees and radians, which is a measure of circularity or rotation. Engineers and architects use
angles for the design of roads, buildings, and sport facilities.
There are two main parts related to an angle “arms and vertex”. The two rays which join at a
common point to form the angle are called arms of the angle. Observe Figure 4.6 which shows
that OA and OB are the arms of the angle AOB.

Figure 4.6: Angle Parts

4.3.1. Interior Angles
In geometry, interior angles are formed in two ways. One is inside a polygon, and the other is
when parallel lines cut by a transversal line. Angles are categorized into different types based on
their measurements. We can define interior angles in two ways:
1.Interior Angles of a Polygon: The angles that lie inside a shape, generally a polygon, are said
to be interior angles.

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 Where:
- Vertices are A, B, C, D, E, and F
- Sides are AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FA
- BE is the diagonal.
- All interior angles are seen by blue ( )
- All exterior angles are seen by yellow ( )

Figure 4.7: Sample for Polygonal Interior Angle

Interior Angles of a Polygon: The interior angles (as shown on Fig.4.7) are formed between the
adjacent sides inside the polygon. The number of interior angles is equal to the number of sides.
The sum value of all interior angles of polygon can be calculated if number of sides of the polygon
is known by using the following formula: Sum of interior angle = 180° (n-2)n,

where n is the number of sides or stations.

Exterior Angles of a Polygon: as shown on Fig.4.7, subtracting each interior angles from 360°

gives each corresponding exterior angle of a regular polygon. Each exterior angle of a regular
polygon is equal and the sum of the exterior angles of a polygon is 360°. An exterior angle can be
calculated if the number of sides of a regular polygon is known by using the following formula:
Exterior Angle = 360º/n, where n is the number of sides or stations
Important Notes
-Polygons are 2-D figures with three or more sides (stations).
-Angles of a regular polygon can be measured by using the following formulas:
Exterior Angle = 360º/n
Interior angle = 180º(n-2)/n, where n refers to the number of sides.
-The sum of interior and exterior angles at a point is always 180º as they form a pair of angles

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Table 4.1: Area and Perimeter of Polygons

2. Interior and exterior Angles of Parallel Lines: The angles that lie in the area enclosed
between two parallel lines that are intersected by a transversal are also called alternate
interior/exterior angles.

Figure 4.7: Transversal Angles

4.3.2 Deflection Angles:
Deflection angles may have values between 0° and 180°, but usually they are not employed for
angles greater than 90°. The angle between a line and the prolongation of the preceding line is
called a deflection angle. Deflection angles are recorded as right or left depending on whether the
line to which measurement is taken lies to the right (clockwise) or left (counterclockwise) of the
prolongation of the preceding line. Thus, in Fig.4.8b, the deflection angle at B is 22°R, and at C is

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 33°L. Deflection angles may have values between 0° and 180° but usually they are not employed
for angles greater than 90°. In any closed polygon the algebraic sum of the deflection angles is 360

a. Polygonal Deflection Angle b. Deflection Angle of Consecutive Lines

Figure 4.8: Forms of Deflection Angles

4.3.3 Angles to the Right: angles may be determined by clockwise measurements from the
preceding to the following line, as illustrated by Fig. 4.9 such angles are called angles to right or
azimuths from back line.

Figure 4.9: Angles to the Right

NB: as it is shown on Fig.4.9, angles to the left can also be conducted in counter clockwise
direction from forward to its preceding line about the same vertex.

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 Figure 4.10: Angles to the Left
4.3.4. Magnetic Compass:
.A compass is a device that shows the cardinal directions used for navigation and geographic
orientation. The four cardinal directions are the four main compass directions: North, East, South

and West, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W respectively. It commonly consists
of a magnetized needle. Compasses often show angles in degrees: north corresponds to 0°, and
the angles increase clockwise, so east is 90°, south is 180°, and west is 270°. These numbers allow
the compass to show azimuths or bearings which are commonly stated in degrees. If
local variation between magnetic north and true north is known, then direction of magnetic north
also gives direction of true north.

Figure 4.11: cardinal directions

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 Figure 4.12: Magnetic Compass
4.3.4.1 Magnetic Declination
Magnetic declination, or magnetic variation, is the angle on the horizontal plane between
magnetic north (the direction the north end of a magnetized compass needle points, corresponding
to the direction of the Earth's magnetic field lines) and true north (the direction along meridian
towards the geographic North Pole). This angle varies depending on position on the Earth's surface
and changes over time. Somewhat more formally, Bowditch defines variation as “the angle
between the magnetic and geographic meridians at any place, expressed in degrees and minutes

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east or west to indicate the direction of magnetic north from true north. The angle between
magnetic and grid meridians is called grid magnetic angle, grid variation.
By convention, declination is positive when magnetic north is east of true north, and negative when
it is to the west. Isogonic lines are lines on the Earth's surface along which the declination has the
same constant value, and lines along which the declination is zero are called agonic lines. The
lowercase Greek letter δ (delta) is frequently used as the symbol for magnetic declination.
The term magnetic deviation is sometimes used loosely to mean the same as magnetic declination,
but more correctly it refers to the error in a compass reading induced by nearby metallic objects,
such as iron on board a ship or aircraft.

Figure 4.13: magnetic declination from geographic north. Ng is geographic or true north, Nm is
magnetic north, and δ is magnetic declination
4.3.4.2 Local attraction
Local attraction is the phenomenon by which the magnetic needle is constantly

prevented to point towards the magnetic north at a place. This is because that

these magnetic compass is influenced by other magnetic objects at that locality

such as wires carrying electric current, rails, steel and iron structures etc.

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4.3.5. Use and Adjustment of Theodolites.
Theodolite is a versatile instrument basically designed to measure horizontal and vertical angles.
It is also used to give horizontal and vertical distances using stadia hairs. Magnetic bearing of lines
can be measured by attaching a trough compass to the theodolite. It is used for horizontal and
vertical alignments and for many other purposes. A theodolite has three important lines or axes,
namely the horizontal axis or trunion axis, the vertical axis, and the line of collimation or the line
of sight. It has one horizontal circle perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument for
measuring horizontal angles and one vertical circle perpendicular to the trunion axis for measuring
vertical angles. For leveling the instrument there is one plate level having its axis perpendicular to
the vertical axis. The instrument also has one telescope level having its axis parallel to the line of
sight for measuring vertical angles. The three axes of a perfectly constructed and adjusted
theodolite have certain geometrical requirements of relationship between them. The line of
collimation has to be perpendicular to the trunion axis and their point of intersection has to lie on
the vertical axis. The intersection of the horizontal axis, the vertical axis and the line of collimation,
is known as the instrumental centre. The line of sight coinciding with the line of sight describes a
vertical plane when the telescope is rotated about the trunion axis. The vertical axis defined by
plumb bob or optical plummet, has to be centered as accurately as possible over the station at
which angles are going to be measured. Basically there are two types of theodolite, the optical
mechanical type or the electronic digital type, both of which may be capable of reading directly to
1’, 20” or 1” of arc depending upon the precision of the instrument.

Figure 4.14: Optical theodolite and its parts

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Figure 4.15: Parts of a Digital Theodolite

Figure 4.16: Protractors and axes of a theodolite

Preparing a theodolite for work:
The activities 1st centering and then leveling the theodolite is generally said to be temporary
adjustment. Setting up the tripod for work and then the instrument are the two phases of setting
ups. In order to maintain the primary axes of the theodolite in their correct geometrical relationship
the instrument should be regularly tested and adjusted at every its positions. Although the majority
of the resultant errors are minimized by double face procedures, but this does not work to plate
bubble error. As most engineering surveying is carried out on a single face, regular checking is
important.
Adjustments and Tests:
1. Centering: is done by observing through the optical plummet and moving the two legs of the
tripod, with the guide of one leg of the surveyor, until it’s seen through the optical plummet and then by
rotating any one of the three foot screws as necessary.

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Test: after centering, when the instrument is rotated in any 360° and observed through
optical plummet or plumb bob, it has to be remained centered.

Figure 4.17: Centering

2. Plate level test
The instrument axis must be truly vertical when the plate bubble is centralized. The vertical axis
of the instrument is perpendicular to the horizontal plate which carries the plate bubble. To ensure
vertical axis of the instrument is truly vertical, it is necessary to align the bubble axis parallel to
the horizontal plate.
Test: when the instrument is rotated in any 360° , it remains aligned.

Figure 4.18: Levelling by foot screws

3. Collimation in azimuth
The purpose of this test is to ensure that the line of sight is perpendicular to the transit axis.
Test: after the instrument is set up well, the telescope is plunge over 180o from target and directed
to the same point if the line of sight is perpendicular to the transit axis. It also ensures the
perpendicularity of the horizontal and vertical axes of the theodolite after setup.
Example: If Face Left reading = 001° 30′ 10" and Face Right reading = 181° 30′ 50" .

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 The difference 40” which had to be zero. The correct reading had to be either 181o30’10” (FRR)
or 001o30’10” (FLR)
4.3.5.1. Measurement of Horizontal Angles
Although the theodolite or total station is a very complex instrument, measurement of horizontal
and vertical angles is a simple concept. The horizontal and vertical circles of the instrument should
be regarded as circular protractors graduated from 000° to 360° in a clockwise manner. Horizontal
angle is measured about three survey points say A, B and C in such a way that B is station in the
sense of measuring from target A(back station BS) clockwise to target C(forward station FS) read
on the horizontal protractor as shown in Fig.4.19.

Figure 4.19: Horizontal angle measurement

The instrument is centered and levelled on survey point B. Commencing on ‘face left’, do target
to survey point A (back station BS)and then the instrument is rotated clockwise to survey point C
(forward station FS). Then the horizontal angle is the difference of the Forward Station (C) angle
reading minus Back Station (A) angle reading (FS - BS). Do the same on ‘face right’ position
also. During small angle measurement, increasing the number faces improve angle accuracy
which is named repetition angle measurement. .Horizontal angles can be :
Interior horizontal angle (included) or Deflection horizontal angles
Interior angles:-can be clockwise or anticlockwise depending on the direction of turning the upper
part of the theodolite (Fig4.20a and b)

Figure 4.20: Right and Left Progressions of Angle Measurements

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Deflection angles: similarly deflection angle can be deflection to the right (clockwise) and
deflection to the left (anticlockwise) Fig 4.8

Figure 4.21: Deflection angles

4.3.5.2. Measuring zenith and Vertical angles
In the measurement of horizontal angles, the concept of measuring index is moving around a
protractor. Similarly, zenith angle observation value is read on the vertical protractor as shown
on Fig.4.22 and the corresponding vertical angle value to the observed zenith angle shows either
angle of elevation or depression from the horizontal plane in such a way that subtracting zenith
angle from 90° . Vertical angle is simply computed value of the line of sight from the horizontal
plane. Fig. 4.22 shows telescope horizontality with zenith angle 90° in face left position of the
telescope and 270° during face right position of the telescope. Changing face would result in a
reading of 270° . The vertical circle index remains constant when the head is rotated in any angle.

Figure 4.22: Zenith angle measurement

4.3.7 Tacheometry
The stadia method of measuring distance is employed extensively on topographic, hydrographic and other
surveys conducted for the purpose of securing data for plotting maps. It is far more than chain surveying
and under certain conditions, it is precise. The equipment for stadia measurements consists of a telescope
with two horizontal hairs (upper and lower hairs), called stadia hairs and a graduated rod stadia rod (staff)

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 4.3.7.1. Stadia Method
In stadia (tacheometry) the line of sight of the tacheometer may be kept horizontal or inclined
depending upon the field conditions.
1) In the case of horizontal line of sight (Fig. 4.23), the horizontal distance D between the
instrument at A and the staff at B is given as:
D = KS + C
Where K and C are the multiplying and additive constants of the tacheometer respectively and the
staff intercept“S” = U-L, where U and L are upper and lower hairs’ readings respectively.
Generally, the value of K and C are 100 and 0 (zero) respectively, unless their values are given
So the horizontal distance D is simply: D = 100 S

Figure 4.23: Horizontal position of the tacheometer

The elevations of the points for horizontal line of sight are also obtained by determining the
instrument height hi and taking the middle hair reading M. Then
hB = hA + hi - M
Where hA and hB are elevations of ground points A and B
2) Inclined position of the telescope: In the case of inclined line of sight as shown in Fig 4.24
the vertical angle "𝛼"is measured from the horizontal axis of the instrument. Horizontal and vertical
distances D and V are determined respectively from the following expressions:

Figure 4.24: Inclined Position of the Tacheometer

𝐾𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼
D = KScos2 𝛼, V = , hB = hA + hi + V – M
2

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Example: To determine the distance between two ground points A and B, a tacheometer was set
up at P and the following observations were recorded.
Reading at A: Staff readings = 2.225, 2.605, 2.985 and Vertical angle = + 7°54′
Readings at B: Staff readings = 1.640, 1.920, 2.200 and Vertical angle = – 1°46′
Horizontal angle APB = + 68°32′30″ and Elevation of A = 315.600 m.
Then determine the distance AB (D) and the elevation of B (hB)
Solution: horizontal distance is given by D = KScos2 𝛼. If the horizontal distances PA and PB
are represented as DA and DB respectively, then: DA =100(2.985 -2.225) cos2 ( + 7°54′)
=74.564m
DB =100(2.200 -1.640) cos2 ( −1°46′) = 55.947m
Now in ∆ APB if ∠ APB is θ(+ 68°32′30″) and the distance AB”D” using cosine law are:
D2= D2A+ D2B - 2DA DBcosθ =74.5642+55.9472-2x74.564x55.947xcos(+ 68°32′30″) =5637.686
This implies D=√5637.686 = 75.085m, then distance AB = D = 75.085m
𝐾𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 100(2.985−2.225)sin(2𝑥(+7°54")
The vertical distance V at A is given by VA= = =10.347m
2 2
𝐾𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 100(2.200−1.640)sin(2𝑥(−1°46")
The vertical distance V at B is given by VB= = = -1.726m
2 2
The elevation of the line of sight for A =HI = Elevation of A + Middle reading at A- VA
Which implies HI =315.600+2.605-10.347=307.858m
Then the elevation of B hB=HI - VB –middle reading at B =307.858-1.726-1.92=304.212m
Then, shortly the elevation of B (hB) = 304.212m
Exercise1: as it’s seen on the tacheometric observations were made on points P and Q from station A.

The height of the tacheometer at A above the ground was 1.55 m. Determine the elevations of P and Q if
the elevation of A is 75.500 m. The stadia constant k and c are respectively 100 and 0.00 m. Assuming
that the vertical angle ± 1.5′, also calculate all horizontal distances.
Exercise2 The following tacheometric observations were made from station A to stations 1 and 2.
Calculate the errors in horizontal and vertical distances if the staff was inclined by 1° to the
vertical in the following cases:

(a) Staff inclined towards the instrument for the line A–1.
(b) Staff inclined away from the instrument for the line A–2.
The height of the instrument above ground was 1.52 m. Take stadia constants as 100 and 0.

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