Most AC motors are induction motors. Induction motors are favored due to their ruggedness and simplicity.

In fact, 90% of industrial motors are induction motors. Nikola Tesla conceived the basic principals of the polyphase induction motor in 1883, and had a half horsepower (400 watt) model by 1888. Tesla sold the manufacturing rights to George Westinghouse for $65,000. Most large ( > 1 hp or 1 kW) industrial motors are poly-phase induction motors. By poly-phase, we mean that the stator contains multiple distinct windings per motor pole, driven by corresponding time shifted sine waves. In practice, this is two or three phases. Large industrial motors are 3-phase. While we include numerous illustrations of two-phase motors for simplicity, we must emphasize that nearly all poly-phase motors are three-phase. By induction motor, we mean that the stator windings induce a current flow in the rotor conductors, like a transformer, unlike a brushed DC commutator motor.

Construction
An induction motor is composed of a rotor, known as an armature, and a stator containing windings connected to a poly-phase energy source as shown in Figure below. The simple 2-phase induction motor below is similar to the 1/2 horsepower motor which Nikola Tesla introduced in 1888.

Tesla polyphase induction motor. The stator in Figure above is wound with pairs of coils corresponding to the phases of electrical energy available. The 2-phase induction motor stator above has 2-pairs of coils, one pair for each of the two phases of AC. The individual coils of a pair are connected in series and correspond to the opposite poles of an electromagnet. That

is, one coil corresponds to a N-pole, the other to a S-pole until the phase of AC changes polarity. The other pair of coils is oriented 90o in space to the first pair. This pair of coils is connected to AC shifted in time by 90o in the case of a 2-phase motor. In Tesla's time, the source of the two phases of AC was a 2-phase alternator. The stator in Figure above has salient, obvious protruding poles, as used on Tesla's early induction motor. This design is used to this day for sub-fractional horsepower motors (<50 watts). However, for larger motors less torque pulsation and higher efficiency results if the coils are embedded into slots cut into the stator laminations. (Figure below)

Stator frame showing slots for windings. The stator laminations are thin insulated rings with slots punched from sheets of electrical grade steel. A stack of these is secured by end screws, which may also hold the end housings.

Stator with (a) 2- and (b) 3- windings. In Figure above, the windings for both a two-phase motor and a three-phase motor have been installed in the stator slots. The coils are wound on an external fixture, then worked into the slots. Insulation wedged between the coil periphery and the slot protects against abrasion. Actual stator windings are more complex than the single windings per pole in Figure above. Comparing the 2- motor to Tesla's 2- motor with salient poles, the number of coils is the same. In actual large motors, a pole winding, is divided into identical coils inserted into many smaller slots than above. This group is called aphase belt. See Figure below. The distributed coils of the phase belt cancel some of the odd harmonics, producing a more sinusoidal magnetic field distribution across the pole. This is shown in the synchronous motor section. The slots at the edge of the pole may have fewer turns than the other slots. Edge slots may contain windings from two phases. That is, the phase belts overlap.

The key to the popularity of the AC induction motor is simplicity as evidenced by the simple rotor (Figurebelow). The rotor consists of a shaft, a steel laminated rotor, and an embedded copper or aluminum squirrel cage, shown at (b) removed from the rotor. As compared to a DC motor armature, there is no commutator. This eliminates the brushes, arcing, sparking, graphite dust, brush adjustment and replacement, and re-machining of the commutator.

Laminated rotor with (a) embedded squirrel cage, (b) conductive cage removed from rotor. The squirrel cage conductors may be skewed, twisted, with respsect to the shaft. The misalignment with the stator slots reduces torque pulsations. Both rotor and stator cores are composed of a stack of insulated laminations. The laminations are coated with insulating oxide or varnish to minimize eddy current losses. The alloy used in the laminations is selected for low hysteresis losses.

Theory of operation
A short explanation of operation is that the stator creates a rotating magnetic field which drags the rotor around. The theory of operation of induction motors is based on a rotating magnetic field. One means of creating a rotating magnetic field is to rotate a permanent magnet as shown in Figure below. If the moving magnetic lines of flux cut a conductive disk, it will follow the motion of the magnet. The lines of flux cutting the conductor will induce a voltage, and consequent current flow, in the conductive disk. This current flow creates an electromagnet whose polarity opposes the motion of the permanent magnet Lenz's Law. The polarity of the electromagnet is such that it pulls against the permanent magnet. The disk follows with a little less speed than the permanent magnet.

Rotating magnetic field produces torque in conductive disk. The torque developed by the disk is proportional to the number of flux lines cutting the disk and the rate at which it cuts the disk. If the disk were to spin at the same rate as the permanent magnet, there would be no flux cutting the disk, no induced current flow, no electromagnet field, no torque. Thus, the disk speed will always fall behind that of the rotating permanent magnet, so that lines of flux cut the disk induce a current, create an electromagnetic field in the disk, which follows the permanent magnet. If a load is applied to the disk, slowing it, more torque will be developed as more lines of flux cut the disk. Torque is proportional toslip, the degree to which the disk falls behind the rotating magnet. More slip corresponds to more flux cutting the conductive disk, developing more torque. An analog automotive eddy current speedometer is based on the principle illustrated above. With the disk restrained by a spring, disk and needle deflection is proportional to magnet rotation rate. A rotating magnetic field is created by two coils placed at right angles to each other, driven by currents which are 90o out of phase. This should not be surprising if you are familiar with oscilloscope Lissajous patterns.

Out of phase (90o) sine waves produce circular Lissajous pattern. In Figure above, a circular Lissajous is produced by driving the horizontal and vertical oscilloscope inputs with 90o out of phase sine waves. Starting at (a) with maximum X and minimum Y deflection, the trace moves up and left toward (b). Between (a) and (b) the two waveforms are equal to 0.707 Vpk at 45o. This point (0.707, 0.707) falls on the radius of the circle between (a) and (b) The trace moves to (b) with minimum X and maximum Y deflection. With maximum negative X and minimum Y deflection, the trace moves to (c). Then with minimum X and maximum negative Y, it moves to (d), and on back to (a), completing one cycle.

X-axis sine and Y-axis cosine trace circle. Figure above shows the two 90o phase shifted sine waves applied to oscilloscope deflection plates which are at right angles in space. If this were not the case, a one dimensional line would display. The combination of 90o phased sine waves and right angle deflection, results in a two dimensional pattern a circle. This circle is traced out by a counterclockwise rotating electron beam. For reference, Figure belowshows why in-phase sine waves will not produce a circular pattern. Equal X and Y deflection moves the illuminated spot from the origin at (a) up to right (1,1) at (b), back down left to origin at (c),down left to (-1.-1) at (d),

and back up right to origin. The line is produced by equal deflections along both axes; y=x is a straight line.

No circular motion from in-phase waveforms. If a pair of 90o out of phase sine waves produces a circular Lissajous, a similar pair of currents should be able to produce a circular rotating magnetic field. Such is the case for a 2-phase motor. By analogy three windings placed 120o apart in space, and fed with corresponding 120o phased currents will also produce a rotating magnetic field.

Rotating magnetic field from 90o phased sinewaves. As the 90o phased sinewaves, Figure above, progress from points (a) through (d), the magnetic field rotates counterclockwise (figures a-d) as follows:

Motor speed
The rotation rate of a stator rotating magnetic field is related to the number of pole pairs per stator phase. The full speed Figure below has a total of six poles or three pole-pairs and three phases. However,there is but one pole pair per phase the number we need. The magnetic field will rotate once per sine wave cycle. In the case of 60 Hz power, the field rotates at 60 times per second or 3600 revolutions per minute (rpm). For 50 Hz power, it rotates at 50 rotations per second, or 3000 rpm. The 3600 and 3000 rpm, are thesynchronous speed of the motor. Though the rotor of an induction motor never achieves this speed, it certainly is an upper limit. If we double the number of motor poles, the synchronous speed is cut in half because the magnetic field rotates 180o in space for 360o of electrical sine wave.

(a) -1 maximum, -2 zero (a') -1 70%, -2 70% (b) -1 zero, -2 maximum (c) -1 maximum negative, -2 zero (d) -1 zero, -2 maximum negative

Doubling the stator poles halves the synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is given by: Ns = 120f/P Ns = synchronous speed in rpm f = frequency of applied power, Hz P = total number of poles per phase, a multiple of 2 Example: The half speed Figure above has four poles per phase (3-phase). The synchronous speed for 50 Hz power is: S = 12050/4 = 1500 rpm The short explanation of the induction motor is that the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator drags the rotor around with it.

The longer more correct explanation is that the stator's magnetic field induces an alternating current into the rotor squirrel cage conductors which constitutes a transformer secondary. This induced rotor current in turn creates a magnetic field. The rotating stator magnetic field interacts with this rotor field. The rotor field attempts to align with the rotating stator field. The result is rotation of the squirrel cage rotor. If there were no mechanical motor torque load, no bearing, windage, or other losses, the rotor would rotate at the synchronous speed. However, the slip between the rotor and the synchronous speed stator field develops torque. It is the magnetic flux cutting the rotor conductors as it slips which develops torque. Thus, a loaded motor will slip in proportion to the mechanical load. If the rotor were to run at synchronous speed, there would be no stator flux cutting the rotor, no current induced in the rotor, no torque.

Torque
When power is first applied to the motor, the rotor is at rest, while the stator magnetic field rotates at the synchronous speed Ns. The stator field is cutting the rotor at the synchronous speed Ns. The current induced in the rotor shorted turns is maximum, as is the frequency of the current, the line frequency. As the rotor speeds up, the rate at which stator flux cuts the rotor is the difference between synchronous speed Ns and actual rotor speed N, or (Ns - N). The ratio of actual flux cutting the rotor to synchronous speed is defined as slip: s = (Ns - N)/Ns where: Ns = synchronous speed, N = rotor speed The frequency of the current induced into the rotor conductors is only as high as the line frequency at motor start, decreasing as the rotor approaches synchronous speed. Rotor frequency is given by: fr = sf where: s = slip, f = stator power line frequency Slip at 100% torque is typically 5% or less in induction motors. Thus for f = 50 Hz line frequency, the frequency of the induced current in the rotor fr = 0.0550 = 2.5 Hz. Why is it so low? The stator magnetic field rotates at 50 Hz. The rotor speed is 5% less. The rotating magnetic field is only cutting the rotor at 2.5 Hz. The 2.5 Hz is the difference between the synchronous speed and the actual rotor speed. If the rotor spins a little faster, at the synchronous speed, no flux will cut the rotor at all, fr = 0.

Torque and speed vs %Slip. %Ns=%Synchronous Speed. The Figure above graph shows that starting torque known as locked rotor torque (LRT) is higher than 100% of the full load torque (FLT), the safe continuous torque rating. The locked rotor torque is about 175% of FLT for the example motor graphed above. Starting current known as locked rotor current (LRC) is 500% offull load current (FLC), the safe running current. The current is high because this is analogous to a shorted secondary on a transformer. As the rotor starts to rotate the torque may decrease a bit for certain classes of motors to a value known as the pull up torque. This is the lowest value of torque ever encountered by the starting motor. As the rotor gains 80% of synchronous speed, torque increases from 175% up to 300% of the full load torque. This breakdown torque is due to the larger than normal 20% slip. The current has decreased only slightly at this point, but will decrease rapidly beyond this point. As the rotor accelerates to within a few percent of synchronous speed, both torque and current will decrease substantially. Slip will be only a few percent during normal operation. For a running motor, any portion of the torque curve below 100% rated torque is normal. The motor load determines the operating point on the torque curve. While the motor torque and current may exceed 100% for a few seconds during starting, continuous operation above 100% can damage the motor. Any motor torque load above the breakdown torque will stall the motor. The torque, slip, and current will approach zero for a no mechanical torque load condition. This condition is analogous to an open secondary transformer. There are several basic induction motor designs (Figure below) showing consideable variation from the torque curve above. The different designs are optimized for starting and running different types of loads. The locked rotor torque (LRT) for various motor designs and sizes ranges from 60% to 350% of full load torque (FLT). Starting current or locked rotor current (LRC) can range from 500% to 1400% of full load current (FLC). This current draw can present a starting problem for large induction motors.

NEMA design classes

Various standard classes (or designs) for motors, corresponding to the torque curves (Figure below) have been developed to better drive various type loads. The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has specified motor classes A, B, C, and D to meet these drive requirements. Similar International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) classes N and H correspond to NEMA B and C designs respectively.

Characteristics for NEMA designs. All motors, except class D, operate at %5 slip or less at full load. Class B (IEC Class N) motors are the default motor to use in most applications. With a starting torque of LRT = 150% to 170% of FLT, it can start most loads, without excessive starting current (LRT). Efficiency and power factor are high. It typically drives pumps, fans, and machine tools. Class A starting torque is the same as class B. Drop out torque and starting current (LRT)are higher. This motor handles transient overloads as encountered in injection molding machines. Class C (IEC Class H) has higher starting torque than class A and B at LRT = 200% of FLT. This motor is applied to hard-starting loads which need to be driven at constant speed like conveyors, crushers, and reciprocating pumps and compressors. Class D motors have the highest starting torque (LRT) coupled with low starting current due to high slip ( 5% to 13% at FLT). The high slip results in lower speed. Speed regulation is poor. However, the motor excels at driving highly variable speed loads like those requiring an energy storage flywheel. Applications include punch presses, shears, and elevators. Class E motors are a higher efficiency version of class B. Class F motors have much lower LRC, LRT, and break down torque than class B. They drive constant easily started loads.

Power factor

Induction motors present a lagging (inductive) power factor to the power line.The power factor in large fully loaded high speed motors can be as favorable as 90% for large high speed motors. At 3/4 full load the largest high speed motor power factor can be 92%. The power factor for small low speed motors can be as low as 50%. At starting, the power factor can be in the range of 10% to 25%, rising as the rotor achieves speed. Power factor (PF) varies considerably with the motor mechanical load (Figure below). An unloaded motor is analogous to a transformer with no resistive load on the secondary. Little resistance is reflected from the secondary (rotor) to the primary (stator). Thus the power line sees a reactive load, as low as 10% PF. As the rotor is loaded an increasing resistive component is reflected from rotor to stator, increasing the power factor.

Induction motor power factor and efficiency.

Efficiency
Large three phase motors are more efficient than smaller 3-phase motors, and most all single phase motors. Large induction motor efficiency can be as high as 95% at full load, though 90% is more common. Efficiency for a lightly load or no-loaded induction motor is poor because most of the current is involved with maintaining magnetizing flux. As the torque load is increased, more current is consumed in generating torque, while current associated with magnetizing remains fixed. Efficiency at 75% FLT can be slightly higher than that at 100% FLT. Efficiency is decreased a few percent at 50% FLT, and decreased a few more percent at 25% FLT. Efficiency only becomes poor below 25% FLT. The variation of efficiency with loading is shown in Figure above Induction motors are typically oversized to guarantee that their mechanical load can be started and driven under all operating conditions. If a polyphase motor is loaded at less than 75% of rated torque where efficiency peaks, efficiency suffers only slightly down to 25% FLT.

Nola power factor corrrector

Frank Nola of NASA proposed a power factor corrector (PFC) as an energy saving device for single phase induction motors in the late 1970's. It is based on the

premise that a less than fully loaded induction motor is less efficient and has a lower power factor than a fully loaded motor. Thus, there is energy to be saved in partially loaded motors, 1- motors in particular. The energy consumed in maintaining the stator magnetic field is relatively fixed with respect to load changes. While there is nothing to be saved in a fully loaded motor, the voltage to a partially loaded motor may be reduced to decrease the energy required to maintain the magnetic field. This will increase power factor and efficiency. This was a good concept for the notoriously inefficient single phase motors for which it was intended. This concept is not very applicable to large 3-phase motors. Because of their high efficiency (90%+), there is not much energy to be saved. Moreover, a 95% efficient motor is still 94% efficient at 50% full load torque (FLT) and 90% efficient at 25% FLT. The potential energy savings in going from 100% FLT to 25% FLT is the difference in efficiency 95% - 90% = 5%. This is not 5% of the full load wattage but 5% of the wattage at the reduced load. The Nola power factor corrector might be applicable to a 3-phase motor which idles most of the time (below 25% FLT), like a punch press. The pay-back period for the expensive electronic controller has been estimated to be unattractive for most applications. Though, it might be economical as part of an electronic motor starter or speed Control. [7]

Induction motor alternator

An induction motor may function as an alternator if it is driven by a torque at greater than 100% of the synchronous speed. (Figure below) This corresponds to a few % of negative slip, say -1% slip. This means that as we are rotating the motor faster than the synchronous speed, the rotor is advancing 1% faster than the stator rotating magnetic field. It normally lags by 1% in a motor. Since the rotor is cutting the stator magnetic field in the opposite direction (leading), the rotor induces a voltage into the stator feeding electrical energy back into the power line.

Negative torque makes induction motor into generator. Such an induction generator must be excited by a live source of 50 or 60 Hz power. No power can be generated in the event of a power company power failure. This type of alternator appears to be unsuited as a standby power source. As an auxiliary power wind turbine generator, it has the advantage of not requiring an automatic power failure disconnect switch to protect repair crews. It is fail-safe. Small remote (from the power grid) installations may be make self-exciting by placing capacitors in parallel with the stator phases. If the load is removed residual magnetism may generate a small amount of current flow. This current is allowed to flow by the capacitors without dissipating power. As the generator is brought up to full speed, the current flow increases to supply a magnetizing current to the stator. The load may be applied at this point. Voltage regulation is poor. An induction motor may be converted to a self-excited generator by the addition of capacitors.[6] Start up procedure is to bring the wind turbine up to speed in motor mode by application of normal power line voltage to the stator. Any wind induced turbine speed in excess of synchronous speed will develop negative torque, feeding power back into the power line, reversing the normal direction of the electric kilowatt-hour meter. Whereas an induction motor presents a lagging power factor to the power line, an induction alternator presents a leading power factor. Induction generators are not widely used in conventional power plants. The speed of the steam turbine drive is steady and controllable as required by synchronous alternators. Synchronous alternators are also more efficient. The speed of a wind turbine is difficult to control, and subject to wind speed variation by gusts. An induction alternator is better able to cope with these variations due to the inherent slip. This stresses the gear train and mechanical components less than a synchronous genertor. However, this allowable speed variation only amounts to about 1%. Thus, a direct line connected induction generator is considered to be fixed-speed in a wind turbine. See Doubly-fed induction generator for a true variable speed alternator. Multiple generators or multiple windings on a common shaft may be switched to provide a high and low speed to accomodate variable wind conditions.

Motor starting and speed control

Some induction motors can draw over 1000% of full load current during starting; though, a few hundred percent is more common. Small motors of a few kilowatts or smaller can be started by direct connection to the power line. Starting larger motors can cause line voltage sag, affecting other loads. Motor-start rated circuit breakers (analogous to slow blow fuses) should replace standard circuit breakers for starting motors of a few kilowatts. This breaker accepts high over-current for the duration of starting.

Autotransformer induction motor starter. Motors over 50 kW use motor starters to reduce line current from several hundred to a few hundred percent of full load current. An intermittent duty autotarnsformer may reduce the stator voltage for a fraction of a minute during the start interval, followed by application of full line voltage as in Figure above. Closure of the S contacts applies reduced voltage during the start interval. The S contacts open and the R contacts close after starting. This reduces starting current to, say, 200% of full load current. Since the autotransformer is only used for the short start interval, it may be sized considerably smaller than a continuous duty unit.

Running 3-phase motors on 1-phase

Three-phase motors will run on single phase as readily as single phase motors. The only problem for either motor is starting. Sometimes 3-phase motors are purchased for use on single phase if three-phase provisioning is anticipated. The power rating needs to be 50% larger than for a comparable single phase motor to make up for one unused winding. Single phase is applied to a pair of windings simultanous with a start capacitor in series with the third winding. The start switch is opened in Figure below upon motor start. Sometimes a smaller capacitor than the start capacitor is retained while running.

Starting a three-phase motor on single phase.

The circuit in Figure above for running a three-phase motor on single phase is known as a static phase converter if the motor shaft is not loaded. Moreover, the motor acts as a 3-phase generator. Three phase power may be tapped off from the three stator windings for powering other 3-phase equipment. The capacitor supplies a synthetic phase approximately midway 90o between the 180o single phase power source terminals for starting. While running, the motor generates approximately standard 3-, as shown in Figure above. Matt Isserstedt shows a complete design for powering a home machine shop. [8]

Self-starting static phase converter. Run capacitor = 25-30F per HP. Adapted from Figure 7, Hanrahan [9] Since a static phase converter has no torque load, it may be started with a capacitor considerably smaller than a normal start capacitor. If it is small enough, it may be left in circuit as a run-capacitor. See Figureabove. However, smaller run-capacitors result in better 3-phase power output as in Figure below. Moreover, adjustment of these capacitors to equalize the currents as measured in the three phases results in the most efficient machine.[9] However, a large start capacitor is required for about a second to quickly start the converter. Hanrahan provides construction details.[9]

More efficient static phase converter. Start capacitor = 50-100F/HP. Run capacitors = 12-16F/HP. Adapted from Figure 1, Hanrahan [9]

Multiple fields

Induction motors may contain multiple field windings, for example a 4-pole and an 8pole winding corresponding to 1800 and 900 rpm synchronous speeds. Energizing one field or the other is less complex than rewiring the stator coils in Figure below.

Multiple fields allow speed change. If the field is segmented with leads brought out, it may be rewired (or switched) from 4-pole to 2-pole as shown above for a 2-phase motor. The 22.5o segments are switchable to 45o segments. Only the wiring for one phase is shown above for clarity. Thus, our induction motor may run at multiple speeds. When switching the above 60 Hz motor from 4 poles to 2 poles the synchronous speed increases from 1800 rpm to 3600 rpm. If the motor is driven by 50 Hz, what would be the corresponding 4-pole and 2-pole synchronous speeds? Ns = 120f/P = 120*50/4 = 1500 rpm (4-pole) Ns = 3000 rpm (2-pole)

Variable voltage
The speed of small squirrel cage induction motors for applications such as driving fans, may be changed by reducing the line voltage. This reduces the torque available to the load which reduces the speed. (Figurebelow)

Variable voltage controls induction motor speed.

Electronic speed control

Modern solid state electronics increase the options for speed control. By changing the 50 or 60 Hz line frequency to higher or lower values, the synchronous speed of the motor may be changed. However, decreasing the frequency of the current fed to the motor also decreases reactance XL which increases the stator current. This may cause the stator magnetic circuit to saturate with disastrous results. In practice, the voltage to the motor needs to be decreased when frequency is decreased.

Electronic variable speed drive. Conversely, the drive frequency may be increased to increase the synchronous speed of the motor. However, the voltage needs to be increased to overcome increasing reactance to keep current up to a normal value and maintain torque. The inverter (Figure ) approximates sinewaves to the motor with pulse width modulation outputs. This is a chopped waveform which is either on or off, high or low, the percentage of on time corresponds to the instantaneous sine wave voltage. Once electronics is applied to induction motor control, many control methods are available, varying from the simple to complex:

Summary: Speed control Scaler Control Low cost method described above to control only voltage and frequency, without feedback. Vector Control Also known as vector phase control. The flux and torque producing components of stator current are measured or estimated on a realtime basis to enhance the motor torque-speed curve. This is computation intensive. Direct Torque Control An elaborate adaptive motor model allows more direct control of flux and torque without feedback. This method quickly responds to load changes.

Summary: Tesla polyphase induction motors A polyphase induction motor consists of a polyphase winding embedded in a laminated stator and a conductive squirrel cage embedded in a laminated rotor.

 Three phase currents flowing within the stator create a rotating magnetic field which induces a current, and consequent magnetic field in the rotor. Rotor torque is developed as the rotor slips a little behind the rotating stator field. Unlike single phase motors, polyphase induction motors are self-starting. Motor starters minimize loading of the power line while providing a larger starting torque than required during running. Line current reducing starters are only required for large motors. Three phase motors will run on single phase, if started. A static phase converter is three phase motor running on single phase having no shaft load, generating a 3-phase output. Multiple field windings can be rewired for multiple discrete motor speeds by changing the number of poles.

Linear induction motor

The wound stator and the squirrel cage rotor of an induction motor may be cut at the circumference and unrolled into a linear induction motor. The direction of linear travel is controlled by the sequence of the drive to the stator phases. The linear induction motor has been proposed as a drive for high speed passenger trains. Up to this time, the linear induction motor with the accompanying magnetic repulsion levitation system required for a smooth ride has been too costly for all but experimental installations. However, the linear induction motor is scheduled to replace steam driven catapult aircraft launch systems on the next generation of naval aircraft carrier, CVNX-1, in 2013. This will increase efficiency and reduce maintenance.[4] [5]

Wound rotor induction motors

A wound rotor induction motor has a stator like the squirrel cage induction motor, but a rotor with insulated windings brought out via slip rings and brushes. However, no power is applied to the slip rings. Their sole purpose is to allow resistance to be placed in series with the rotor windings while starting. (Figure below) This resistance is shorted out once the motor is started to make the rotor look electrically like the squirrel cage counterpart.

Wound rotor induction motor. Why put resistance in series with the rotor? Squirrel cage induction motors draw 500% to over 1000% of full load current (FLC) during starting. While this is not a severe problem for small motors, it is for large (10's of kW) motors. Placing resistance in series with the rotor windings not only decreases start current, locked rotor current (LRC), but also increases the starting torque, locked rotor torque (LRT). Figure below shows that by increasing the rotor resistance from R0 to R1 to R2, the breakdown torque peak is shifted left to zero speed.Note that this torque peak is much higher than the starting torque available with no rotor resistance (R0) Slip is proportional to rotor resistance, and pullout torque is proportional to slip. Thus, high torque is produced while starting.

Breakdown torque peak is shifted to zero speed by increasing rotor resistance. The resistance decreases the torque available at full running speed. But that resistance is shorted out by the time the rotor is started. A shorted rotor operates like a squirrel cage rotor. Heat generated during starting is mostly dissipated external to the motor in the starting resistance. The complication and maintenance associated with brushes and slip rings is a disadvantage of the wound rotor as compared to the simple squirrel cage rotor. This motor is suited for starting high inertial loads. A high starting resistance makes the high pull out torque available at zero speed. For comparison, a squirrel cage rotor only exhibits pull out (peak) torque at 80% of its' synchronous speed.

Speed control
Motor speed may be varied by putting variable resistance back into the rotor circuit. This reduces rotor current and speed. The high starting torque available at zero speed, the down shifted break down torque, is not available at high speed. See R2 curve at 90% Ns, Figure below. Resistors R0R1R2R3 increase in value from zero. A higher resistance at R3 reduces the speed further. Speed regulation is poor with

respect to changing torque loads. This speed control technique is only usefull over a range of 50% to 100% of full speed. Speed control works well with variable speed loads like elevators and printing presses.

Rotor resistance controls speed of wound rotor induction motor.

Doubly-fed induction generator

We previously described a squirrel cage induction motor acting like a generator if driven faster than the synchronous speed. (See Induction motor alternator) This is a singly-fed induction generator, having electrical connections only to the stator windings. A wound rotor induction motor may also act as a generator when driven above the synchronous speed. Since there are connections to both the stator and rotor, such a machine is known as a doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG).

Rotor resistance allows over-speed of doubly-fed induction generator. The singly-fed induction generator only had a usable slip range of 1% when driven by troublesome wind torque. Since the speed of a wound rotor induction motor may be controlled over a range of 50-100% by inserting resistance in the rotor, we may expect the same of the doubly-fed induction generator. Not only can we slow the

rotor by 50%, we can also overspeed it by 50%. That is, we can vary the speed of a doubly fed induction generator by 50% from the synchronous speed. In actual practice, 30% is more practical. If the generator over-speeds, resistance placed in the rotor circuit will absorb excess energy while the stator feeds constant 60 Hz to the power line. (Figure above) In the case of under-speed, negative resistance inserted into the rotor circuit can make up the energy deficit, still allowing the stator to feed the power line with 60 Hz power.

Converter recovers energy from rotor of doubly-fed induction generator. In actual practice, the rotor resistance may be replaced by a converter (Figure above) absorbing power from the rotor, and feeding power into the power line instead of dissipating it. This improves the efficiency of the generator.

Converter borrows energy from power line for rotor of doubly fed induction generator, allowing it to function well under synchronous speed. The converter may borrow power from the line for the under-speed rotor, which passes it on to the stator. (Figure above) The borrowed power, along with the larger shaft energy, passes to the stator which is connected to the power line. The stator appears to be supplying 130% of power to the line. Keep in mind that the rotor borrows 30%, leaving, leaving the line with 100% for the theoretical lossless DFIG.

Wound rotor induction motor qualities. Excellent starting torque for high inertia loads. Low starting current compared to squirrel cage induction motor. Speed is resistance variable over 50% to 100% full speed. Higher maintenance of brushes and slip rings compared to squirrel cage motor. The generator version of the wound rotor machine is known as a doublyfed induction generator, a variable speed machine.

Single phase IM
A three phase motor may be run from a single phase power source. (Figure below) However, it will not self-start. It may be hand started in either direction, coming up to speed in a few seconds. It will only develop 2/3 of the 3- power rating because one winding is not used.

3-motor runs from 1- power, but does not start. The single coil of a single phase induction motor does not produce a rotating magnetic field, but a pulsating field reaching maximum intensity at 0o and 180o electrical. (Figure below)

Single phase stator produces a nonrotating, pulsating magnetic field. Another view is that the single coil excited by a single phase current produces two counter rotating magnetic field phasors, coinciding twice per revolution at 0o (Figure above-a) and 180o (figure e). When the phasors rotate to 90o and -90o they cancel in figure b. At 45o and -45o (figure c) they are partially additive along the +x axis and cancel along the y axis. An analogous situation exists in figure d. The sum of these two phasors is a phasor stationary in space, but alternating polarity in time. Thus, no starting torque is developed. However, if the rotor is rotated forward at a bit less than the synchronous speed, It will develop maximum torque at 10% slip with respect to the forward rotating phasor. Less torque will be developed above or below 10% slip. The rotor will see 200% - 10% slip with respect to the counter rotating magnetic field phasor. Little torque (see torque vs slip curve) other than a double freqency ripple is developed from the counter rotating phasor. Thus, the single phase coil will develop torque, once the rotor is started. If the rotor is started in the reverse direction, it will develop a similar large torque as it nears the speed of the backward rotating phasor. Single phase induction motors have a copper or aluminum squirrel cage embedded in a cylinder of steel laminations, typical of poly-phase induction motors.

Permanent-split capacitor motor

One way to solve the single phase problem is to build a 2-phase motor, deriving 2phase power from single phase. This requires a motor with two windings spaced apart 90o electrical, fed with two phases of current displaced 90o in time. This is called a permanent-split capacitor motor in Figure below.

Permanent-split capacitor induction motor. This type of motor suffers increased current magnitude and backward time shift as the motor comes up to speed, with torque pulsations at full speed. The solution is to keep the capacitor (impedance) small to minimize losses. The losses are less than for a shaded pole motor. This motor configuration works well up to 1/4 horsepower (200watt), though, usually applied to smaller motors. The direction of the motor is easily reversed by switching the capacitor in series with the other winding. This type of motor can be adapted for use as a servo motor, described elsewhere is this chapter.

Single phase induction motor with embedded stator coils. Single phase induction motors may have coils embedded into the stator as shown in Figure above for larger size motors. Though, the smaller sizes use less complex to build concentrated windings with salient poles.

Capacitor-start induction motor

In Figure below a larger capacitor may be used to start a single phase induction motor via the auxiliary winding if it is switched out by a centrifugal switch once the motor is up to speed. Moreover, the auxiliary winding may be many more turns of heavier wire than used in a resistance split-phase motor to mitigate excessive temperature rise. The result is that more starting torque is available for heavy loads like air conditioning compressors. This motor configuration works so well that it is available in multi-horsepower (multi-kilowatt) sizes.

Capacitor-start induction motor.

Capacitor-run motor induction motor

A variation of the capacitor-start motor (Figure below) is to start the motor with a relatively large capacitor for high starting torque, but leave a smaller value capacitor in place after starting to improve running characteristics while not drawing excessive current. The additional complexity of the capacitor-run motor is justified for larger size motors.

Capacitor-run motor induction motor. A motor starting capacitor may be a double-anode non-polar electrolytic capacitor which could be two + to + (or - to -) series connected polarized electrolytic capacitors. Such AC rated electrolytic capacitors have such high losses that they can only be used for intermittent duty (1 second on, 60 seconds off) like motor starting. A capacitor for motor running must not be of electrolytic construction, but a lower loss polymer type.

Resistance split-phase motor induction motor

If an auxiliary winding of much fewer turns of smaller wire is placed at 90o electrical to the main winding, it can start a single phase induction motor. (Figure below) With lower inductance and higher resistance, the current will experience less phase shift than the main winding. About 30o of phase difference may be obtained. This coil produces a moderate starting torque, which is disconnected by a centrifugal switch at 3/4 of synchronous speed. This simple (no capacitor) arrangement serves well for motors up to 1/3 horsepower (250 watts) driving easily started loads.

Resistance split-phase motor induction motor.

This motor has more starting torque than a shaded pole motor (next section), but not as much as a two phase motor built from the same parts. The current density in the auxiliary winding is so high during starting that the consequent rapid temperature rise precludes frequent restarting or slow starting loads.

Nola power factor corrrector

Frank Nola of NASA proposed a power factor corrector for improving the efficiency of AC induction motors in the mid 1970's. It is based on the premise that induction motors are inefficient at less than full load. This inefficiency correlates with a low power factor. The less than unity power factor is due to magnetizing current required by the stator. This fixed current is a larger proportion of total motor current as motor load is decreased. At light load, the full magnetizing current is not required. It could be reduced by decreasing the applied voltage, improving the power factor and efficiency. The power factor corrector senses power factor, and decreases motor voltage, thus restoring a higher power factor and decreasing losses. Since single-phase motors are about 2 to 4 times as inefficient as three-phase motors, there is potential energy savings for 1- motors. There is no savings for a fully loaded motor since all the stator magnetizing current is required. The voltage cannot be reduced. But there is potential savings from a less than fully loaded motor. A nominal 117 VAC motor is designed to work at as high as 127 VAC, as low as 104 VAC. That means that it is not fully loaded when operated at greater than 104 VAC, for example, a 117 VAC refrigerator. It is safe for the power factor controller to lower the line voltage to 104-110 VAC. The higher the initial line voltage, the greater the potential savings. Of course, if the power company delivers closer to 110 VAC, the motor will operate more efficiently without any add-on device. Any substantially idle, 25% FLC or less, single phase induction motor is a candidate for a PFC. Though, it needs to operate a large number of hours per year. And the more time it idles, as in a lumber saw, punch press, or conveyor, the greater the possibility of paying for the controller in a few years operation. It should be easier to pay for it by a factor of three as compared to the more efficient 3--motor. The cost of a PFC cannot be recovered for a motor operating only a few hours per day. [7]

Summary: Single-phase induction motors Single-phase induction motors are not self-starting without an auxiliary stator winding driven by an out of phase current of near 90o. Once started the auxiliary winding is optional. The auxiliary winding of a permanent-split capacitor motor has a capacitor in series with it during starting and running. A capacitor-start induction motoronly has a capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding during starting.

 A capacitor-run motor typically has a large non-polarized electrolytic capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding for starting, then a smaller nonelectrolytic capacitor during running. The auxiliary winding of a resistance split-phase motor develops a phase difference versus the main winding during starting by virtue of the difference in resistance.

Shaded pole induction motor

An easy way to provide starting torque to a single phase motor is to embed a shorted turn in each pole at 30o to 60o to the main winding. (Figure below) Typically 1/3 of the pole is enclosed by a bare copper strap. These shading coils produce a time lagging damped flux spaced 30o to 60o from the main field. This lagging flux with the undamped main component, produces a rotating field with a small torque to start the rotor.

Shaded pole induction motor, (a) dual coil design, (b) smaller single coil version. Starting torque is so low that shaded pole motors are only manufactured in smaller sizes, below 50 watts. Low cost and simplicity suit this motor to small fans, air circulators, and other low torque applications. Motor speed can be lowered by switching reactance in series to limit current and torque, or by switching motor coil taps as in Figure below.

Speed control of shaded pole motor.

2-phase servo motor

A servo motor is typically part of a feedback loop containing electronic, mechanical, and electrical components. The servo loop is a means of controlling the motion of an object via the motor. A requirement of many such systems is fast response. To reduce acceleration robbing inertial, the iron core is removed from the rotor leaving only a shaft mounted aluminum cup to rotate. (Figure below) The iron core is reinserted within the cup as a static (non-rotating) component to complete the magnetic circuit. Otherwise, the construction is typical of a two phase motor. The low mass rotor can accelerate more rapidly than a squirrel cage rotor.

High acceleration 2- AC servo motor. One phase is connected to the single phase line; the other is driven by an amplifier. One of the windings is driven by a 90o phase shifted waveform. In the above figure, this is accomplished by a series capacitor in the power line winding. The other winding is driven by a variable amplitude sine wave to control motor speed. The phase of the waveform may invert (180o phase shift) to reverse the direction of the motor. This variable sine wave is the output of an error amplifier. See synchro CT section for example. Aircraft control surfaces may be positioned by 400 Hz 2- servo motors.

Hysteresis motor
If the low hysteresis Si-steel laminated rotor of an induction motor is replaced by a slotless windingless cylinder of hardened magnet steel, hysteresis, or lagging behind of rotor magnetization, is greatly accentuated. The resulting low torque synchronous motor develops constant torque from stall to synchronous speed. Because of the low torque, the hysteresis motor is only available in very small sizes, and is only used for constant speed applications like clock drives, and formerly, phonograph turntables.

Eddy current clutch

If the stator of an induction motor or a synchronous motor is mounted to rotate independently of the rotor, an eddy current clutch results. The coils are excited with

DC and attached to the mechanical load. The squirrel cage rotor is attached to the driving motor. The drive motor is started with no DC excitation to the clutch. The DC excitation is adjusted from zero to the desired final value providing a continuously and smoothly variable torque. The operation of the eddy current clutch is similar to an analog eddy current automotive speedometer.

Summary: Other specialized motors The shaded pole induction motor, used in under 50 watt low torque applications, develops a second phase from shorted turns in the stator. Hysteresis motors are a small low torque synchronous motor once used in clocks and phonographs. The eddy current clutch provides an adjustable torque.

AC commutator motors
Charles Proteus Steinmetz's first job after arriving in America was to investigate problems encountered in the design of the alternating current version of the brushed commutator motor. The situation was so bad that motors could not be designed ahead of the actual construction. The success or failure of a motor design was not known until after it was actually built at great expense and tested. He formulated the laws of magnetic hysteresis in finding a solution. Hysteresis is a lagging behind of the magnetic field strength as compared to the magnetizing force. This produces a loss not present in DC magnetics. Low hysteresis alloys and breaking the alloy into thin insulated laminations made it possible to accurately design AC commutator motors before building. AC commutator motors, like comparable DC motors, have higher starting torque and higher speed than AC induction motors. The series motor operates well above the synchronous speed of a conventional AC motor. AC commutator motors may be either single-phase or poly-phase. The single-phase AC version suffers a double line frequency torque pulsation, not present in poly-phase motor. Since a commutator motor can operate at much higher speed than an induction motor, it can output more power than a similar size induction motor. However commutator motors are not as maintenance free as induction motors, due to brush and commutator wear.

Single phase series motor

If a DC series motor equipped with a laminated field is connected to AC, the lagging reactance of the field coil will considerably reduce the field current. While such a motor will rotate, operation is marginal. While starting, armature windings connected to commutator segments shorted by the brushes look like shorted transformer turns to the field. This results in considerable arcing and sparking at the brushes as the armature begins to turn. This is less of a problem as speed increases, which shares the arcing and sparking between commutator segments The lagging reactance and

arcing brushes are only tolerable in very small uncompensated series AC motors operated at high speed. Series AC motors smaller than hand drills and kitchen mixers may be uncompensated. (Figure below)

Uncompensated series AC motor.

Compensated series motor

The arcing and sparking is mitigated by placing a compensating winding the stator in series with the armature positioned so that its magnetomotive force (mmf) cancels out the armature AC mmf. (Figurebelow) A smaller motor air gap and fewer field turns reduces lagging reactance in series with the armature improving the power factor. All but very small AC commutator motors employ compensating windings. Motors as large as those employed in a kitchen mixer, or larger, use compensated stator windings.

Compensated series AC motor.

Universal motor
It is possible to design small (under 300 watts) universal motors which run from either DC or AC. Very small universal motors may be uncompensated. Larger higher speed universal motors use a compensating winding. A motor will run slower on AC than DC due to the reactance encountered with AC. However, the peaks of the sine waves saturate the magnetic path reducing total flux below the DC value, increasing the speed of the series motor. Thus, the offsetting effects result in a nearly constant speed from DC to 60 Hz. Small line operated appliances, such as drills, vacuum cleaners, and mixers, requiring 3000 to 10,000 rpm use universal motors. Though, the development of solid state rectifiers and inexpensive permanent magnets is making the DC permanent magnet motor a viable alternative.

Repulsion motor
A repulsion motor (Figure below) consists of a field directly connected to the AC line voltage and a pair of shorted brushes offset by 15oto 25o from the field axis. The field induces a current flow into the shorted armature whose magnetic field opposes that of the field coils. Speed can be conrolled by rotating the brushes with respect to the field axis. This motor has superior commutation below synchronous speed, inferior commutation above synchronous speed. Low starting current produces high starting torque.

Repulsion AC motor.

Repulsion start induction motor

When an induction motor drives a hard starting load like a compressor, the high starting torque of the repulsion motor may be put to use. The induction motor rotor windings are brought out to commutator segments for starting by a pair of shorted brushes. At near running speed, a centrifugal switch shorts out all commutator segments, giving the effect of a squirrel cage rotor . The brushes may also be lifted to prolong bush life. Starting torque is 300% to 600% of the full speed value as compared to under 200% for a pure induction motor.

Summary: AC commutator motors The single phase series motor is an attempt to build a motor like a DC commutator motor. The resulting motor is only practical in the smallest sizes. The addition of a compensating winding yields the compensated series motor, overcoming excessive commutator sparking. Most AC commutator motors are this type. At high speed this motor provides more power than a same-size induction motor, but is not maintenance free. It is possible to produce small appliance motors powered by either AC or DC. This is known as auniversal motor. The AC line is directly connected to the stator of a repulsion motor with the commutator shorted by the brushes.

 Retractable shorted brushes may start a wound rotor induction motor. This is known as a repulsion start induction motor.