Mechanical

Measurements

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Nit Warangal
What is Measurement?
Act of quantitative comparison between a predetermined standard and an unknown
magnitude.

What is Mechanical Measurement?

If those unknown magnitudes are related to the practice of mechanical engineering, then
the determination of their amounts constitutes the subject of mechanical measurements.

Agencies which creates Standard of comparison

฀ National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),

฀ International Organization for Standardization (ISO),

฀ American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

Why Measurement?

฀ Everything that we purchase, create, design, and build uses measurement.

฀ Measurement is foundational to Science and Engineering
฀ In the current context measurement is crucial for experiments and control.

Applications of Measurement
1. Monitoring of processes and operations
2. Control of processes and operations
3. Experimental engineering analysis
 Fundamental Measuring Process

฀ Measurand is used to designate the particular physical parameter being observed and quantified.

฀ The act of measurement produces a result.

Classification of Measurement

1. Direct measurement : Comparing with either a primary or a secondary

stand

Measurand

Scale( Tertiary standard)

2. Indirect measurement Through the use of a calibrated

: system
Caliper
Caliper

Measurand Tertiary Standard

Mechanical
Measurements
Class-2.2

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering
Department
Nit Warangal - 506004
Measurement Terminologies
฀ Readability – closeness or ease with which the scale of an instrument may
be read. Fine and widely spaced graduation lines improve the readability.

฀ Eg.- To make the micrometres more readable they are provided with
vernier scale or magnifying devices.
Measurement Terminologies

฀ Least Count – smallest possible reading on the output scale

Measurement Terminologies
฀ Sensitivity –
ratio of change in output to the change in input signal (measured variable)
or
The change of an instrument or transducer's output per unit change in the
measured quantity

฀ Smaller the change in quantity it is able to measure, greater the sensitivity.

฀ Resolution: It is basically the smallest input that an instrument can detect and
its output changes.
 Measurement Terminologies

฀ Hysteresis – difference in output signal for a given input signal depending on whether the input
signal is approached in increasing levels or decreasing levels.
Causes - dry friction, elastic elements…

Hysteresis error: Loading and unloading

curves of the instrument separated by a
difference. It also results in the pointer not
returning completely to zero when the
load is removed.
Measurement Terminologies

฀ Accuracy –Accuracy is about how close measurements are to the ‘true answer’.
฀ The degree of closeness of the output to the known input. It is usually indicated as
percentage of full scale reading. The deviation is called as Error.
฀ Precision – Precision is about how close measurements are to one another. Ability
to reproduce a certain output with a given accuracy.
Calibration – comparison of the output signal of a given instrument with a standard or
instrument of known accuracy or with known input source, to improve its accuracy.

Accuracy cannot be improved beyond the precision of an instrument.

International System of Units (SI)

฀ Unit is the basis for quantification of a parameter. SI is a collection of units

of measurement for measuring seven base parameters,
1. Length – meter (m),
2. Mass – kilogram (kg),
3. Time – second (s),
4. Electric Current – ampere (A),
5. Temperature – kelvin (K),
6. Amount of substance – mole (mol), and
7. Luminous intensity – candela (cd)
฀ SI also provides a number of derived units, and various multiplying factors.
 Standards
฀ Standards are the fundamental reference for a measurement system against which all other
measuring devices are compared.

฀ The role of standards is to achieve uniform, consistent and repeatable measurements throughout
the world. It facilitates interchangeability of parts and identifies the method of manufacture.

฀ Standards can be primary, secondary or working standards.

 Standards
฀ Meter – defined as distance travelled by light in 1/299,792,458 of a second.
฀ Second – defined as 9,192,631,770 periods of hyperfine transition radiation from a cesium atom.
฀ Kilogram – defined by the International Prototype Kilogram (1889-2019). From May 20, 2019, It is
defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10−34 when
expressed in the unit J⋅s, which is equal to kg⋅m2⋅s−1, where the meter and the second are defined
in terms of speed of light and atomic transition frequency.
 Standards
฀ Kibble balance is a metrological instrument that can realize the definition of the kilogram unit of
mass based on fundamental constants.
฀ The operational (or "practical") temperature standard is the lnternational Temperature Scale of
1990 (ITS-90), defined with respect to the thermodynamic temperatures of specific states of
matter.
฀ Ampere – current that produces a magnetic force of 2 x 10-7 N/m on a pair of thin parallel wires
carrying that current and separated by one meter
Mechanical Measurements
Class-2

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Nit Warangal - 506004
Generalized Measurement System
Three stages
1. Detector or Transducer
stage (Input stage) – Detects
and transforms the signal to
more usable form.
2. Intermediate stage –
enhances the signal by
amplification, filtering,
attenuation etc…
3. Final or Output stage –
indicates, records or
control the variable being
measured.
Generalized Measurement System
 Types of inputs based on time dependence

1. 11.
Static Dynamic

(a) Steady-state periodic (b) Non repetitive or transient

i. Single pulse or aperiodic
ii. Continuing or random
 recorder
Types of inputs based on characteristic
sensor
1. Analog
2. Digital shaft switch
 Types of inputs and their Correction

U-tube manometer for differential pressure measurement

1. Desired input
Spurious inputs
2. Interfering input (when they affect the measurement)
3. Modifying input
Types of inputs and their Correction
1. Desired input Spurious inputs
2. Interfering input (when they affect the measurement)
3. Modifying input

Correction methods to correct spurious inputs

1. Method of inherent insensitivity
2. Compensation method
3. Output correction by analysis
4. Signal filtering
Types of inputs and their Correction
Example: Electrical Strain Gauge
Correction methods to correct spurious inputs
฀ Method of inherent insensitivity – strain gauge material with
low temperature coefficient of resistance(𝛼), shielding from
stray field.

฀ Compensation method – inserting identical strain gauge into

another arm of Wheatstone bridge and exposing it to the
same environment.

฀ Output correction by analysis – knowing 𝛼 of the material

and the temperature of the gauge one can calculate the
correction and apply to the output.

฀ Signal filtering – introduce elements to block or minimize

spurious inputs.
Types of inputs and their Correction

Example: Electrical Strain Gauge

Measures strain by change in resistance

Desired input – Strain
Possible Interfering input – 50 Hz stray field that can induce voltage in the circuit
Possible modifying input – Ambient Temperature
Mechanical Measurements
Class-3

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Nit Warangal - 506004
Response of Measuring systems

Response is a measure of a system's fidelity to purpose

Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measuring instrument is capable of faithfully

reproducing the changes in input, without any dynamic error.

Response: It may be defined as an evaluation of the system's ability to faithfully sense, transmit,
and present all the pertinent information included in the measurand and to exclude all else.
 Response of Measuring systems Cont….

฀ Static measurement is done when the input (physical quantity measured) is not
changing with time

฀ For transient inputs the measurement becomes more complex

฀ We need to familiarize with characteristics and parameters applicable to a dynamic

measurement system

Input
signal

Time
Dynamic Measurement

The fundamental concepts of dynamic response, however, can be understood by studying relatively simple
mathematical models
฀
 Dynamic Measurement

฀
Dynamic Measurement

฀
Dynamic Measurement

Zeroth, First and Second order systems

In first order instruments there is a time delay in their response to changes of input. The
time constant is a measure of the time delay.

Thermometers for measuring temperature are first-order instruments.

The time constant of a measurement of temperature is determined by the thermal capacity of

the thermometer and the thermal contact between the thermometer and the body whose
temperature is being measured.
1
4

2 5

3
Dynamic Measurement

฀
Dynamic Measurement

Zeroth, First and Second order systems

To further proceed with understanding the second order system, consider the following
spring mass damper system. k is spring constant and c is damping coefficient

This involves the transformation of a force input function into a displacement function.
Dynamic Measurement

฀
Dynamic Measurement

฀
Dynamic Measurement

฀
Dynamic Measurement

Zeroth, First and Second order systems

฀ Under a static input a second order linear instrument tends to oscillate about its position of equilibrium.
The natural frequency of the instrument is the frequency of these oscillations.

฀ Friction in the instrument opposes these oscillations with a strength proportional to the rate of change of
the output. The damping factor is a measure of this opposition to the oscillations.
Dynamic Measurement

Zeroth, First and Second order systems

฀ An example of a second order instrument is a U-tube manometer for
measuring pressure differences. The liquid in the U-tube tends to oscillate from side
to side in the tube with a frequency determined by the weight of the liquid. The
damping factor is determined by viscosity in the liquid and friction between the
liquid and the sides of the tube.

฀ Another example of a second order instrument is a galvanometer which

measures an electrical current by the torque on a coil carrying the current in a
magnetic field. The rotation of the coil is opposed by a spring. The strength of the
spring and the moment of inertia of the coil determine the natural frequency of the
instrument. The damping of the oscillations is by mechanical friction and electrical
eddy currents.
Mechanical Measurements
Class- 4

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Nit Warangal - 506004
Types of elementary inputs

฀
Step
Input

Time
Response to change of input

Unit Step Function

Suppose that x(t) = 0 for t < 0, and x(t) = 1 for t > 0. This is called the unit step function

Suppose also that y(t) = 0 for t < 0. We want to find y(t) for t > 0
Response to change of input

Unit Step Function

Zeroth Order Instrument
Since in a zeroth order instrument y(t) = K.x(t), we have y(t) = 0 for t < 0, and y = K for t > 0.
Therefore the response to the unit step function is a step function with height K.
Response to change of input

฀
Response to change of input
฀
Response to change of input

฀
 Response to change of input

฀
Response to change of input

฀
Response to change of input

τ
Response to change of input

Unit Step Function

First Order Instrument
If τ is small the response of the instrument is fast. If τ is large the response of the
instrument is slow.
System which exhibit first order behavior usually involve storage and dissipation
capabilities such as an electric capacitor discharging through a resistor (Simple RC
circuit).
When a circuit consists of only a charged capacitor and a resistor, the capacitor will
discharge its stored energy through the resistor.
Response to change of input

Unit Step Function

First Order Instrument
In this system
τ = RC
Response to change of input

Unit Step Function

First Order Instrument
Problem 1: A certain thermometer has a time constant of 15 s and initial temperature of 20oC. It
is suddenly exposed to a temperature of 100oC. Determine the rise time and the temperature at
this time.
(Soln: 34.54 s, 92oC)
Problem 2: A 10 μF capacitor is charged to a potential of 100 V. At time zero it is discharged
through a 1 MΩ resistor. What is the time constant for this system?
Problem 3: Consider an ordinary mercury-in-glass thermometer and indicate which parts
corresponds to which stage of a measurement system.
Mechanical Measurements
Class- 4-1

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Nit Warangal - 506004
Response to change of input
Unit Step Function
Second Order Instrument

Consider that f(t) = 0 at t = 0 and f(t) = F1 when t > 0, with the initial condition y =
y0 at t = 0. The solution for the above equation with the given condition is considered
for four cases.
(i) Undamped system (ζ =0)
(ii) Underdamped system (ζ < 1)
(iii) Critically damped system (ζ = 1)
(iv) Over damped system (ζ > 1)
Response to change of input

Unit Step Function

Second Order Instrument

Case 0. For,
or
 Response to change of input

Unit Step Function

Second Order Instrument
Response to change of input

Unit Step Function

Second Order Instrument
Response to change of input

Unit Step Function

Second Order Instrument

(a)
Response to change of input

฀
Response to change of input

Harmonic Function
Second Order Instrument

Consider the harmonic function

The solution is given by

Spring balance
Response to change of input

฀
Response to change of input
Harmonic Function
Second Order Instrument

Frequency response of the system

Phase-shift characteristics of the system

Response to change of input

Harmonic Function
First Order Instrument
Example 1: The approximate time constant of a thermometer is determined by immersing it
in a bath and noting the time it takes to reach 63% of the final reading. If the result is 28 s,
determine the delay when measuring the temperature of a bath that is periodically changing 2
times per minute.
(td = 6.7 s)
Response to change of input
Unit Step Function
Second Order Instrument
Example 1: A pressure transducer has a natural frequency of 30 rad/s, damping ratio of 0.1
and static sensitivity of 1.0 μV/Pa. A step pressure input of 8x105 N/m2 is applied. Determine
the output of the transducer.
Response to change of input

Harmonic Function
Second Order Instrument
Example 1: A second order instrument is subjected to a sinusoidal input.
Undamped natural frequency is 3 Hz and damping ratio is 0.5. Calculate the
amplitude ratio and phase angle for an input frequency of 2 Hz.
 ME304 – Mechanical Measurements

2. Analysis of Experimental Data

Lecture 5

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
NIT Warangal
Error: Deviation from the true value

• Errors
•Systematic
•Random

Systematic errors: Errors that are not determined by chance but are introduced by an inaccuracy
inherent in the system. They are also called as fixed or bias error.

Random errors: Random errors are errors in measurement that lead to measurable values being
inconsistent when repeated measures of a constant attribute or quantity are taken.
Introduction

Some form of analysis must be performed on all experimental data

Analysis of data pertains to determine errors, precision, and general validity of experimental
measurement

The experimentalist should always know the validity of data

Errors will creep into all experiments regardless of the care taken.

Our task is to determine just how uncertain a particular observation may be and to devise a
consistent way of specifying the uncertainty in analytical form
Systematic error, is predictable and typically constant or proportional to the true value. If the
cause of the systematic error can be identified, then it usually can be eliminated.

Systematic errors are caused by

• imperfect calibration of measurement instruments or

• imperfect methods of observation, or
• interference of the environment with the measurement process, and
• always affect the results of an experiment in a predictable direction.

Incorrect zeroing of an instrument leading to a zero error is an example of systematic error in

instrumentation.
Random error is always present in a measurement. It is caused by

• inherently unpredictable fluctuations in the readings of a measurement apparatus or

• the experimenter's interpretation of the instrumental reading.

Random errors show up as different results for ostensibly the same repeated measurement.

They can be estimated by comparing multiple measurements, and reduced by averaging multiple
measurements.

Systematic error cannot be discovered this way because it always pushes the results in the same
direction.

If the cause of a systematic error can be identified, then it can usually be eliminated.
Error
Example for simple error calculation

Power P=EI
E = 100 ± 2 V
I = 10 ± 0.2 A
Pmax = (100+2)(10+0.2) = 1040.4 W
Pmin = (100-2)(10-0.2) = 960.4 W

Thus the error is between +4.04% and -3.96%

Uncertainty

Uncertainty of measurement is the doubt that exists about the result of any measurement.

Error is the difference between the measured value and the ‘true value’ of the thing being
measured.

Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt about the measurement result.

Whenever possible we try to correct for any known errors: for example, by applying corrections
from calibration certificates. But any error whose value we do not know is a source of uncertainty.
Uncertainty

Uncertainty is expressed in general with two parameters. One is the width of the margin, or
interval. The other is a confidence level, and states how sure we are that the ‘true value’ is
within that margin.

For example:
We might say that the length of a certain stick measures 20 centimetres plus or minus 1
centimetre, at the 95 percent confidence level. This result could be written:

20 cm ±1 cm, at a level of confidence of 95%.

The statement says that we are 95 percent sure that the stick is between 19 centimetres and 21
centimetres long.
Uncertainty Analysis

•
Uncertainties for Product Functions

Suppose the result function takes the form of a product of the respective primary variables raised to exponents
and expressed as
(1)

When the partial differentiations are performed, we obtain (2)

Dividing by R from Eq. (1)

(3)

Inserting this relation in the following equation 4 gives the final equation 5

(4)

(5)
Uncertainties for additive Functions

(1)

The partial derivatives for use in the above equation (2)

The uncertainty in the result may then be expressed as

(3)
Uncertainty Analysis
Problem: The resistance of a certain copper wire is given as
R = R0[1+𝛼(T-20)]
where R0 = 6Ω ± 0.3% at 20oC, 𝛼 = 0.004oC-1 ± 1% and the temperature of the wire is T = 30 ±
1oC. Calculate the resistance of the wire and its uncertainty.
Soln: R = 6.24 ohms and WR = 0.0305 ohms or 0.49%

The nominal resistance is R = (6)[1 + (0.004)(30 − 20)] = 6.24 Ω

The uncertainty in this value is calculated by applying Eq.
The various terms are ∂R /∂R0 = 1 + α(T − 20) = 1 + (0.004)(30 − 20) = 1.04
∂R/ ∂α = R0(T − 20) = (6)(30 − 20) = 60
∂R /∂T = R0α = (6)(0.004) = 0.024
wR0 = (6)(0.003) = 0.018Ω
wα = (0.004)(0.01) = 4 × 10−5 ◦ C−1
wT = 1◦ C
WR = [(1.04)^ 2 (0.018) ^ 2 + (60) ^ 2 (4 × 10−5 ) ^ 2 + (0.024) ^ 2 (1) ^ 2 ] ^1/2 = 0.0305Ω or 0.49%
Uncertainty Analysis

Problem: A resistor has a nominal stated value of 10 ± 0.1 Ω. A voltage difference

occurs across the resister and the power dissipation is to be calculated in two
different ways:
a. from P=E2/R
b. from P=EI
In (a) only a voltage measurement will be made while both current and voltage will
be measured in (b). Comment on the choice of the method of measurement when
the measured values of E and I are:
E = 100 ± 1 V (for both cases)
I = 10 ± 0.1 A
Soln: wp = 2.24% for (a) wp = 1.41% for (b)
Uncertainty Analysis
Problem: Two ME305 students wish to measure the height of the Mechanical
Engineering building. The first student suggests dropping a ball bearing from the top
of the building and measuring the time it takes for the ball to hit the ground using a
digital stopwatch. (Air drag may be neglected) The second student recommends
using a tape measure to measure a horizontal distance from the building, a
protractor to measure the angle to the top of the building, and then using
trigonometry to determine the height. The time for the ball to fall to the ground is
measured at 2.2 s while the angle to the roofline measured from a distance of 20.0
m is 44.4 deg. The uncertainty in the ball-dropping method is ±0.2 sec and the
uncertainty in the length and angle measurements, respectively, are ±0.5 m and ±1
deg.
a. What is the height of the ME building?
b. Which measurement method is most accurate/preferred?
Soln: H = 23.7 ± 4.3 m using the ball dropping method.
H = 19.6 ± 0.8 m using the angle method.
 ME304 – Mechanical Measurements

2. Analysis of Experimental Data

Lecture 6

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
NIT Warangal
Uncertainty Analysis

•
Uncertainties for Product Functions

Suppose the result function takes the form of a product of the respective primary variables raised to exponents
and expressed as
(1)

When the partial differentiations are performed, we obtain (2)

Dividing by R from Eq. (1)

(3)

Inserting this relation in the following equation 4 gives the final equation 5

(4)

(5)
Uncertainties for additive Functions

(1)

The partial derivatives for use in the above equation (2)

The uncertainty in the result may then be expressed as

(3)
Our primary concern is the application of probability and statistics to the analysis of experimental data.

When a set of readings of an instrument is taken, the individual readings will vary somewhat from each other,
and the experimenter may be concerned with the mean of all the readings

Arithmetic
mean,

The Standard deviation or root-mean-square deviation is defined

by

Sometimes it is appropriate to use a geometric mean when studying phenomena which grow in proportion to their size

Probability is a mathematical quantity that is linked to the frequency with which a certain phenomenon occurs after a
large number of tries
 Binomial distribution:

Poisson distribution: The limit of the binomial distribution as N → ∞ and p → 0 such that Np = a = const

The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution: If the measurement is designated by x, the gaussian distribution gives
the probability that the measurement will lie between x and x+dx and
is written
The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution
For any large number of measurement made to determine a particular value, the
random errors are expected to have a normal distribution, given that the
experimental system is controlled well.
The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution

•
The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution
•
The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution
•
The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution

Problem
: A certain steel bar is measured with a device which has a known
deviation of ±0.5mm w
hen a large number of measurement is taken. How many
measurements are necessary to establish the mean length with a 5%
level of significance such that xm= xm±0.2mm.

(Soln: 25)

Problem: Resistance of a certain copper wire is measured repeatedly to

obtain the following data.

R (kΩ): 1.22, 1.23, 1.26, 1.21, 1.22, 1.22, 1.22, 1.24, 1.19

What is the best estimate for the resistance and what is the error with 95%
The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution
 ME304 – Mechanical Measurements

2. Analysis of Experimental Data

Lecture 7

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
NIT Warangal
Problem: Resistance of a certain copper wire is measured repeatedly to obtain the following data.
R (kΩ): 1.22, 1.23, 1.26, 1.21, 1.22, 1.22, 1.22, 1.24, 1.19
What is the best estimate for the resistance and what is the error with 95% confidence?
(Soln: 1.22kΩ, 0.04kΩ)

Sol:

(3.75×1e−5)^0.5 = 0.0194 kΩ from

The corresponding error estimate based on 95% confidence interval is

Regression
Analysis
Presentation of experimental results or experimental data in the form of an algebraic expression relating the effect
to cause or causes.

Regression analysis aims to determine the best global representation of experimental data using a chosen functional
form

Linear relation between Y and X Linear relation between log Y and log X Non Linear relation between Y and X
The non-linear relationship follows a polynomial relationship of the form

The polynomial form is treated as a linear regression noting that it may be written in the linear form
•
Regression Analysis
•
Polynomial Regression
If it were desired to obtain a least-squares fit according to the quadratic function
Regression Analysis

The goodness of the fit is given by a term called as the correlation coefficient defined by,

where σy is the standard deviation in y and S is as defined as earlier

Problem: Obtain y as a linear function of x from the following data and find the correlation
coefficient.

x 1.0 1.6 3.4 4.0 5.2

y 1.2 2.0 2.4 3.5 3.5
Regression Analysis

Soln: a=0.54, b=0.879, r=0.92

Problem: Obtain the equations to find the fit parameters for y as a linear function of x.
We seek an equation of the form y = ax + b
Problem: The following data is expected to follow a quadratic relationship. Determine the fit parameters and
the correlation coefficient.

x 0.9 2.3 3.3 4.5 5.7 6.7

y 1.1 1.6 2.6 3.2 4 5
Sol: a= 0.67, b=0.29
 ME304 – Mechanical Measurements
3. Pressure Measurement

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Nit Warangal - 506004
Pressure
Force per unit area exerted by the fluid on the walls of its container

Definition of various pressures

Pressure Standards

1. Dead Weight Testers – provide known force by means of standard

weights on a known area

1. Liquid Column Testers – compare with a known liquid head

 Why measure pressure?

• Pressure is an important quantity that describes a thermodynamic system

• Pressure is invariably an important process parameter

• Pressure difference is used many a time as a means of measuring the flow rate of
a fluid
Methods of Pressure Measurement

1. Balancing the pressure exerted by a fluid column

2. Measurement of elastic deformation of elements
3. Measurement of electrical quantities
Pressure gauges and their range
Pressure units and conversion

• 1Pa = 1 N/m2
• 1 atm= 760 mm mercury column = 1.013×105
Pa
• 1 mm mercury column = 1 Torr
• 1 Torr = 1.316×10−3 atm= 133.3 Pa
• 1 bar = 105 Pa
Dead Weight Tester

Piston-cylinder type measuring device. Used for the

calibration of electronic or mechanical pressure
measuring instruments.

Basic principle P= F/A, where the pressure (P) acts on a

known area of a sealed piston (A), generating a force (F).

The force of this piston is then compared with the force

applied by calibrated weights. The use of high quality
materials result in small uncertainties of measurement
and excellent long term stability.
Dead Weight Tester

1 – Hand pump
2 – Testing Pump
3 – Pressure Gauge to be calibrated
4 – Calibration Weight
5 – Weight Support
6 – Accurately Machines Piston
7 – Close fitting Cylinder
8 – Filling Connection
Dead Weight Tester

When constrained to float freely within limits,

the fluid pressure as indicated on the gauge
must be equal to the pressure exerted by the
weight piston combination

The piston has to be frequently rotated to

reduce the friction between the cylinder wall
and piston surface.
Dead Weight Tester

Dead weight testers can measure pressures of up to 10,000 bar, attaining accuracies of between
0.005% and 0.1% although most applications lie within 1 - 2500 bar.

The testing pump (2) is connected to the instrument

to be tested (3), to the actual measuring component
and to the filling socket.

A special hydraulic oil or gas such as compressed air

or nitrogen is used as the pressure transfer medium.

The measuring piston is then loaded with calibrated

weights (4).
Dead Weight Tester

The pressure is applied via an integrated

pump (1) or, if an external pressure supply is
available, via control valves in order to
generate a pressure until the loaded
measuring piston (6) rises and 'floats' on the
fluid.

This is the point where there is a balance

between pressure and the mass load.
Dead Weight Tester

Gravity correction: To account for change in

the acceleration due to gravity with altitude
and latitude

Buoyancy correction: To account for buoyant

force acting upward due to displacement by
weight-piston combination
Manometer

Manometers are devices in which columns of a

suitable liquid are used to measure the difference
in pressure between two points or between a
certain point and the atmosphere.
Manometer

One of the ends is connected to a pipe or a

container having a fluid (A) whose pressure is to
be measured while the other end is open to
atmosphere.

The lower part of the U-tube contains a liquid

immiscible with the fluid A and is of greater
density than that of A. This fluid is called the
manometric fluid.
Manometer

•
Manometer

•
Manometer

Example 1: (a) A U-tube manometer employs a special oil of specific gravity 0.82 as the
manometer fluid. One limb of the manometer is exposed to an atmospheric pressure of 740mm
of Hg. The difference in column heights is measured as 20cm ± 1mm when exposed to an air
source at 25 deg C. Calculate the pressure differential in Pa and the uncertainty.
Soln: 1598.5 ± 8 Pa

(b) If the above manometer was carelessly mounted with an angle of 3o to the vertical, what is
the error in the indicated pressure due to this corresponding to the data given above?
Soln: -2.2 Pa
Manometer Variants
• Well type manometer
• Well type manometer with Inclined leg
Manometer Variants

Well type manometer

It has a single vertical tube of small bore being provided

with a large quantity of manometer liquid in a reservoir,
referred to as the “well”.

The height reading is taken using a scale attached to the

vertical tube, with respect to an unchanging datum which
corresponds to the level when the pressure difference
between the well side and the tube side is zero.
Manometer Variants

•
Manometer Variants
Well type manometer with Inclined leg
In case the measured pressure difference is small one may use a well type manometer with
inclined tube shown in figure. This gives better sensitivity

h=Rsinθ
ME304 – Mechanical Measurements
3. Pressure Measurement

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Nit Warangal - 506004
Example 1: (a) A U-tube manometer employs a special oil of specific gravity 0.82 as the manometer
fluid. One limb of the manometer is exposed to an atmospheric pressure of 740mm of Hg. The
difference in column heights is measured as 20cm ± 1mm when exposed to an air source at 25 deg C.
Calculate the pressure differential in Pa and the uncertainty.
1598.5 ± 8 Pa

(b) If the above manometer was carelessly mounted with an angle of 3o to the vertical, what is the error in the
indicated pressure due to this corresponding to the data given above?
The mounting error has been given as θ = 3◦ with respect to the vertical.

It is clear that the manometer liquid height difference, with mounting error is given by

h = hcosθ = 0.2×cos3◦ = 0.2×0.0086 = 0.1997 m

Indicated pressure difference is then given by p − pa = (816.7−1.15)×9.8×0.1997 = 1596.3 Pa

Note that there is thus a systematic error of 1596.3−1598.5 = −2.2 Pa because of mounting error.

This is about 25% of the error due to the error in the measurement of h.
Example 1: (a) A U-tube manometer employs a special oil of specific gravity 0.82 as the
manometer fluid. One limb of the manometer is exposed to an atmospheric pressure of 740mm
of Hg. The difference in column heights is measured as 20cm ± 1mm when exposed to an air
source at 25 deg C. Calculate the pressure differential in Pa and the uncertainty.
A)
Sol:

The head being measured us 3% of 3mm= 0.00009m

This 3% represents the smallest measurement possible

on the manometer,0.5mm=0.0005m, giving

0.00009=0.74x0.0005(sinθ+0.1111)

θ =7.6 degrees
Accuracy Factors

To achieve the best accuracy from a dead weight tester the following factors should be
considered when calculating the pressure reading

Local Gravity
If the gravity at the location where the dead weight tester is being used is different to where it
was calibrated then the readings will need to be corrected since the force generated by the
weights will change.

Pressure Coefficient
The effective area of the dead weight tester will change with pressure due to the expansion and
contraction of the piston and cylinder at different pressures.

Tare Force
This represents a force error in the determination of the mass of the weights, the calculation of
the piston/cylinder and carrier weight or a known characteristic of the dead weight tester.

Horizontal Levelling
If the dead weight tester is not level with the horizontal plane and therefore the piston cylinder
assembly is not perfectly upright there will be a friction force due to a leaning towards one side.
Air Buoyancy
The air pressure and humidity will affect the density of air which contributes a relatively small
lifting force to the weights.

Thermal Expansion
As the temperature changes the cross sectional area of the piston and cylinder will change
affecting the effective area of the dead weight tester.

Surface Tension
For fluid filled dead weight testers a surface tension force is exerted on the piston. This surface
tension force depends on the type of fluid used and the circumference of the piston.

Height Difference
If the dead weight tester is used at a different height to the unit being tested, a force will be
generated due to the head of air or fluid in the connecting test hose .
Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

Transient response depends on

1. response of transducer element that senses pressure

2. response of pressure transmitting fluid and tubing

Consider a U-tube manometer. The manometer fluid is

incompressible. The total length of the manometer fluid remains
fixed. Let it be ‘L’.
Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

When pressure ΔP is applied, the forces acting on L are

1. Force due to acceleration of the liquid – Fa
2. Force supporting the change in height – Fs
3. Force opposing the change
3.1 Weight of column of liquid – W
3.2 Friction force due to viscosity – Ff

Applying Newton’s law to the moving manometer liquid as

Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

•
Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

•
Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

•
Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

•
Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

•
Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

•
Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

•
Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

•
Response of a U-tube manometer for step input
Dynamic Response of Pressure Measurement System

Example 1 : A U-tube manometer uses mercury as the manometer fluid having density of
13580kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity of 1.1 x 10-7m2/s. The total length of the liquid is 0.6m. The
tube diameter is 2mm. Determine the characteristic time and the damping ratio for this
installation. Redo the above with water as the manometer fluid. The density and kinematic
viscosity of water are 996kg/m3 and 10-6m2/s respectively.
[Soln: 0.247s, 0.109]

Manometer liquid is mercury

The given data is L = 0.6 m;d = 2 mm = 0.002 m and

we take g = 9.81 m/s2, ρm = 13580 kg/m3; ν = 1.1×10−7 m/s2

Hence the characteristic time using Equation 7.12 is τ = L g = 0.6 9.81 = 0.247 s
Hence the characteristic time using Equation 7.12 is τ = L g = 0.6 9.81 = 0.247 s

The liquid viscous resistance is calculated as

RH g = 128×1.1×10−7 ×0.6 π×0.0024 = 168067.6 Pa s/kg

The area of cross section of the tube is a = π×0.0022 4 = 3.142×10−6 m2

The damping ratio is then calculated using as

ζ = 3.142×10−6 ×168067.6 2×9.81×0.247 = 0.109

The system is under-damped since ζ < 1. Manometer liquid is water

The manometer liquid properties are changed to ρm = 996 kg/m3;ν = 10−6 m/s2

The characteristic time remains unchanged since it is purely a function of length of manometer fluid column.

The damping ratio changes because of the change in the liquid viscous resistance.

With water as the manometer liquid we have RH2O = 128×10−6 ×0.6 π×0.0024 = 1527887.5 Pa s/kg

The damping ratio is then calculated as ζ = 3.142×10−6 ×1527887.5 2×9.81×0.247 = 0.9905

The system is very nearly critically damped since ζ ≈ 1.

Vacuum Pressure Measurement
McLeod Gauge

McLeod gauges operate by taking in a sample

volume of gas from a vacuum chamber, then
compressing it by tilting and infilling with
mercury. The pressure in this smaller volume is
then measured by a mercury manometer, and
knowing the compression ratio (the ratio of the
initial and final volumes), the pressure of the
original vacuum can be determined by applying
Boyle's law.
McLeod Gauge

Tube P is connected to the vacuum space

Movable reservoir is brought down the level of

opening ‘O’

Mercury in the bulb ‘B’ and capillary move

down into the reservoir

Vacuum space is now in direct connection with

the bulb and the capillary.

Movable reservoir is now moved up to the

reference level to trap the low pressure gas.
McLeod Gauge

y – length of capillary ‘C’ occupied by low

pressure gas
A – cross sectional area of capillary
VB – Volume of the bulb capillary and the tube,
down to opening ‘O’
PC – pressure in the capillary
P – unknown pressure
Vc = Ay (volume of gas in the capillary)
Pressure range measurable is 0.001 to 10 Pa.
McLeod Gauge

•
McLeod Gauge

Example 1: A McLeod gauge has VB = 100cm3

and a capillary diameter of 1mm. Calculate the
pressure indicated by a reading of 3cm. What
error would result if you neglect the gas
volume in the capillary?
P = 0.94pa
McLeod Gauge

Example 2: A McLeod gauge has a capillary

diameter of 0.2mm and VB = 125cm3. What will
be the gauge reading from an absolute
pressure of 20μm?
Pirani Thermal Conductivity Gauge

At low pressures the effective thermal conductivity of

gases decrease with pressure.

Pirani gauge measures the pressure through the

change in thermal conductance of the gas. The
temperature of a heated resistance increases with a
reduction of the background pressure. This is due to
the reduction of rate of heat transfer from the
filament to the gas around.

Resistance is measured using bridge circuit

Pirani Thermal Conductivity Gauge

To compensate for the possible variations in the

ambient conditions, two filaments are exposed to the
same environment. One is reference which is sealed
and evacuated and the other is exposed to the vacuum
space where pressure is to be measured.

Pressure range: 0.1 – 100 Pa

Ionization Gauge

The heated cathode emits electrons, which are

accelerated by the positively charged grid. As the gas
molecules move towards the grid, they produce
ionization of the gas molecules through collisions.

The plate (anode) is maintained at a negative potential

so that positive ions are collected there, producing the
plate current ip.

The electrons and negative ions are collected by the

grid producing the grid current ig.
Ionization Gauge

•
ME304 – Mechanical Measurements

Module 4 Temperature Measurement

By
Dr. Ch. Sampath Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
NIT Warangal 1
1
 Introduction

• Temperature: A measure proportional to the average translational kinetic energy associated with the
disordered microscopic motion of atoms and molecules.

• The flow of heat is from a high temperature region toward a lower temperature region.

• The higher is the temperature of the object, the more kinetic energy the particles of an object have

• Temperature and pressure control various physical phenomenon

• Requires large range of measuring instruments (0 – 100,000 K)

The International Practical Temperature scale (ITS-90) assigns values of temperature to a few highly
reproducible states of matter, such as certain freezing points and triple point.

2
2
Temperature Scales

• Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

• These are based on specification of number of increments (100 in Celsius scale and 180 in
Fahrenheit scale) between the freezing point and boiling point of water at standard atmospheric
pressure.

So (F-32)/180 = C/100 -------------- (1)

• The absolute Celsius scale is called Kelvin scale and that of Fahrenheit is called as the Rankine
scale.

3
3
Temperature measurement

• Parameters like

• Pressure

• Volume

• Electrical resistance

• Expansion coefficients

changes with temperature. Hence these changes can be used to measure temperature.

4
4
 Common temperature-sensing techniques.

I. Changes in physical dimensions 4. Changes in emitted Thermal radiation

(a) Liquid-in-glass thermometers (a) Thermal and photon sensors
(b) Bimetallic elements (b) Total-radiation pyrometers
(c) Optical and two-color pyrometers
2. Changes in gas pressure or vapor pressure (d) Infrared pyrometers
(a) Constant-volume gas thermometers
(b) Pressure thermometers (gas, vapor, and liquid filled)

3. Changes in electrical properties 5. Changes in chemical phase

(a) Resistance thermometers (RID, PRT) (a) Fusible indicators
(b) Thermistors (b) Liquid crystals
(c) Thermocouples (c) Temperature-reference (fixed-point) cells
(d) Semiconductor-junction sensors
5
5
Temperature Scales

6
6
The Ideal Gas Thermometer
• Basis of working – behavior of ideal gas at low pressure

• Ideal gas equation pV = mRgT

V – volume occupied by the gas, m – mass, Rg – Gas constant for a particular gas given by Rg =
R/M, where R is universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol.K) and M is the molecular weight of the gas.

• The figure above shows a constant volume ideal gas thermometer. The pressure gauge reads
absolute pressure P and the metal ball has a fixed volume V

7
7
The Ideal Gas Thermometer

The metal ball is exposed to an unknown temperature (to be measured) and a known standard
temperature. The pressure in both cases are measured

Now,
T = Tref (p/pref)const. vol

8
8
The Ideal Gas Thermometer

By using different gas thermometers a wide range of

temperatures can be measured:

Hydrogen -200 oC to +500 oC

Nitrogen +500 oC to + 1500 oC
Helium -270 oC to + 1500 oC

These thermometers can be very accurate, to within 0.005 oC

from 0 oC to 100 oC, 0.1 oC around 500 oC and to within 2 oC
at 1500 oC

9
9
The Ideal Gas Thermometer

The copper bulb of a constant volume gas thermometer has a radius of 0.05 meters. When the bulb is
filled to 1 atm pressure, there are ≈ 0.021 moles of gas in the bulb. Using the slope of the pressure vs
temperature plot, estimate the ideal gas constant (R). Calculate the percentage error with the
standard value for R of 8.314 J /mol.K .

10
10
Temperature Measurement by Mechanical effects

• Techniques use change in mechanical dimension with change in temperature.

• Examples : Liquid-in-glass thermometer, Liquid-in-metal thermometer, Bimetallic strip

11
11
Temperature Measurement by Mechanical effects

Liquid-in-glass thermometer

• It gives fairly accurate results within the temperature range of -200 to

600°C.

• The working liquid is generally either mercury or alcohol.

• An inert gas, mainly argon or nitrogen is filled inside the thermometer above
mercury to trim down its volatilization.

12
12
Temperature Measurement by Mechanical effects

Liquid-in-glass thermometer

Key features of liquid-in-glass thermometers include:

• The extent to which these thermometers are inserted into the medium under temperature
measurement principally decides the accuracy of results.

• Typically, three classes of immersion exist which are total, partial and complete immersion classified
according to the level of contact between the medium and the sensing element.

• An error can be produced when the thermometer is not immersed to the same extent as it was
when it was originally calibrated.

• An 'emergent stem correction' may be necessary when it is not possible to immerse the
thermometer sufficiently deeply.

13
13
Temperature Measurement by Mechanical effects

Liquid-in-glass thermometer 1st order system

Key features of liquid-in-glass thermometers include:

• The response time of a liquid-in-glass thermometer varies according to the kind of thermometer, its bulb
volume, thickness and overall weight.

• For getting quick response, the bulb of the thermometer should be designed in such a way that it results in small
and the bulb wall thin.

• Their sensitivity is based upon the reversible thermal expansion characteristics of the liquid in comparison to the
glass. The more the thermal expansion of the liquid, the highly sensitive the thermometer is.

• Organic liquids which are usually employed for construction of liquid-in-glass thermometers include toluene,
ethyl alcohol and pentane.

• Although their thermal expansion is high but they are non linear and their use is restricted for high
temperatures.

14
14
Temperature Measurement by Mechanical effects

Liquid-in-metal thermometer

In liquid-in-metal thermometers, the system is filled with liquid and

changes in temperature of the liquid in the sensing bulb cause changes in
pressure which are measured by pressure gauges.

The working temperature range is from –150 to 330°C as working

substances used are made of propyl alcohol, methaxylol, xylol, mercury,
etc.

15
15
Temperature Measurement by Mechanical effects

Bimetallic strips

The principle behind a bimetallic strip thermometer relies on the fact that different metals expand
at different rates as they warm up. By bonding two different metals together, you can make a simple
electric controller that can withstand fairly high temperatures.

16
16
Temperature Measurement by Mechanical effects

Bimetallic strips

Bulb thermometers are good for measuring temperature accurately, but they are harder to use
when the goal is to control the temperature. The bimetallic strip thermometer, because it is
made of metal, is good at controlling things.

Eskin and Fritze [3] have given calculation methods for bimetallic strips. The radius of curvature r may be
calculated as

17
17
Temperature Measurement by Mechanical effects

Bimetallic strips
Main Features

• These types of thermometers work best at higher temperatures, since their accuracy and
sensitivity tends to reduce at low temperatures.

• Bimetallic strip thermometers are manufactured in various designs. One of the most popular
design i.e. flat spiral is shown in the figure below. They can also be wound into a single helix or
multiple helix form.

18
18
Temperature Measurement by Mechanical effects
Bimetallic strips
Main Features
• Bimetallic thermometers can be customized to work as recording thermometers too by
affixing a pen to the pointer. The pen is located in such a way that it can make recordings on a
circling chart.

• Bimetallic strips often come in very long sizes. Hence, they are usually coiled into spirals which
make them compact and small in size. This also improves the sensitivity of bimetallic strips
towards little temperature variations.

• The bimetallic strip can be scaled up or down. On a large scale, it can provide literally tones of
force for mechanical control or other purposes. On a smaller scale, it can provide the force and
movement for micro machine integrated circuits (MMIs).

19
19
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects

▪ The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric

voltage and vice versa.

▪ A thermoelectric device creates voltage when there is a different temperature on each side.
Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature difference.

▪ This effect can be used to generate electricity, measure temperature or change the temperature of
objects.

▪ Because the direction of heating and cooling is determined by the polarity of the applied voltage,
thermoelectric devices can be used as temperature controllers.

20
20
 Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects

Thermoelectric effects (Seebeck, Peltier and Thomson effects)

The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between junctions of two
dissimilar electrical conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference between the two
substances.

21
21
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects

▪ A thermocouple is a device consisting of two dissimilar conductors or semiconductors that contact each
other at one or more points.

▪ A thermocouple produces a voltage when the temperature of one of the contact points differs from the
temperature of another, in a process known as the thermoelectric effect (Seebeck Effect).

▪ The Seebeck effect creates an emf wherever there is a temperature gradient. This emf is used to develop an
open-circuit voltage. Under open-circuit conditions where there is no internal current flow, the gradient of
voltage ΔV is directly proportional to the temperature gradient ΔT.

▪ ΔV = S(T) ΔT, where S(T) is called as the Seebeck coefficient. It is a temperature dependent material
property.

22
22
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects

Negative Temperature Range

Type Positive Metal/Alloy
Metal/Alloy (°C)

T Copper Constantan -200 to +350

J Iron Constantan 0 to +750

K Chromel Alumel -200 to +1250

E Chromel Constantan -200 to +900

23
23
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects

Advantages of Thermocouples

Temperature range: Most practical temperature ranges, from cryogenics to jet-engine exhaust,
can be served using thermocouples. Depending on the metal wires used, a thermocouple is capable
of measuring temperature in the range –200°C to +2500°C.

Robust: Thermocouples are rugged devices that are immune to shock and vibration and are
suitable for use in hazardous environments.

Rapid response: Because they are small and have low thermal capacity, thermocouples respond
rapidly to temperature changes, especially if the sensing junction is exposed. They can respond to
rapidly changing temperatures within a few hundred milliseconds.

No self heating: Because thermocouples require no excitation power, they are not prone to self
heating and are intrinsically safe.

24
24
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects
Thermocouple circuit

Figure shows that the measured output voltage, VOUT, is the difference between the measuring (hot)
junction voltage and the reference (cold) junction voltage.

Since VH and VC are generated by a temperature difference between the two junctions

VOUT is also a function of this temperature difference

The scale factor, a, which relates the voltage difference to the temperature difference, is known as the
Seebeck coefficient.
25
25
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects

Disadvantages

Complex signal conditioning: Substantial signal conditioning is necessary to convert the

thermocouple voltage into a usable temperature reading. Traditionally, signal conditioning has
required a large investment in design time to avoid introducing errors that degrade accuracy.
Accuracy: In addition to the inherent inaccuracies in thermocouples due to their metallurgical
properties, a thermocouple measurement is only as accurate as the reference junction temperature
can be measured, traditionally within 1°C to 2°C.
Susceptibility to corrosion: Because thermocouples consist of two dissimilar metals, in some
environments corrosion over time may result in deteriorating accuracy. Hence, they may need
protection; and care and maintenance are essential.
Susceptibility to noise: When measuring microvolt-level signal changes, noise from stray electrical
and magnetic fields can be a problem.

26
26
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects

▪ When working with thermocouples, you must establish a reference point because thermocouples
are differential temperature-measurement devices.

▪ A thermocouple provides a voltage that represents the temperature difference

between the hot and cold junctions.

▪ If you know both the temperature of the cold junction and the temperature of the hot junction
relative to the cold-junction temperature, you can determine the actual hot-junction temperature.

▪ When the two dissimilar materials are connected to a measuring device, there will be another
thermal emf generated at the junction of the materials and the connecting wires to the voltage-
measuring instrument.

27
27
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects
Rules for analysis of thermoelectric circuits
1. Law of intermediate materials
The net emf of the circuit, where any number of dissimilar materials are introduced, remains the
same as long as the new connections (junctions)are at same temperature.

2. Law of intermediate temperatures

Let the Seebeck emf be E1 with the measuring junction at T1 and reference junction at T2.

Let E2 be the Seebeck emf with measuring junction at T2 and reference junction at T3.
Then the Seebeck emf E3 = E1+E2 will be the Seebeck emf with the measuring junction at T1 and
reference junction at T3.

28
28
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects
Commonly used thermocouple circuit

In this example, the open ends of each wire are electrically connected to wires or traces made of
copper. These connections introduce two additional junctions into the system.

As long as these two junctions are at the same temperature, the intermediate metal (copper) has
no effect on the output voltage.

This configuration allows the thermocouple to be used without a separate reference junction. VOUT
is still a function of the difference between hot- and cold-junction temperatures, related by the
Seebeck coefficient.
29
29
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects
Conventional reference cold junctions

In the early days of thermocouples, the ice-bath reference served as the standard in thermocouple
applications. Implementing an ice bath today is impractical in most situations.

Therefore, when the cold junction is not at 0°C, the temperature of this junction must be known in
order to determine the actual hot-junction temperature.

30
30
 Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects
Cold junction compensation

The output voltage of the thermocouple must also be compensated to account for the voltage created by
the nonzero cold-junction temperature.

This process is known as cold-junction compensation.

To implement cold-junction compensation, the temperature of the cold junction must be determined.

This calculation can be accomplished with any type of temperature-measurement devices

- ICs, thermistors, and RTDs.
- Requirements of a specific application will determine which type to use. 31
31
▪ The system in Fig. a would be necessary if the
binding posts at the voltage-measuring
instrument were at different temperatures,

▪ while the connection in Fig. b would be

satisfactory if the binding posts were at the
same temperature. To be effective the
measurement junctions in Fig. 8.15a must be of
the same material.

32
32
33
33
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects

Thermopile

▪ A thermopile is a device composed of several thermocouples

connected usually in series.

▪ The resulting total output voltage from a thermopile

arrangement as shown in the figure is equal to the sum of
junction voltage differentials.

▪ So, thermopiles have higher sensitivity compared to

thermocouples.

▪ Thermopiles are hence useful to get substantial voltage output

even for small temperature differential.

34
34
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects
Thermocouples in parallel

▪ Thermocouples connected in parallel provides the

average temperature value of the points on which
each thermocouple is connected.

▪ So they are used to find the average temperature

of a surface whose temperature may be non-
uniform.

35
35
Temperature Measurement by Electrical effects
•

36
36
37
37
Temperature Measurement by Electrical effects

▪ Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are sensors used
to measure temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature.

▪ Care must be taken to ensure that the resistance wire is free of mechanical stresses and so
mounted that moisture cannot come in contact with the wire and influence the measurement

▪ Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass
core. The element is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect
it.

▪ They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications below 600 °C,
due to higher accuracy and repeatability.

38
38
Temperature Measurement by Electrical effects

The advantages of Resistance Thermometers include:

1. High accuracy
2. Low drift
3. Wide operating range
4. Suitability for precision applications.

Limitations:
1. Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature changes and
have a slower response time.
2. RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C due to contamination of resistance
element at higher temperature.
3. RTDs are also prone to self-heating and lead wire errors.

39 39
39
Temperature Measurement by Electrical effects
Choice of RTDs vs thermocouples

1. Temperature: If process temperatures are between −200 to 500 °C (−328.0 to 932.0 °F), an
industrial RTD is the preferred option. Thermocouples have a range of −180 to 2,320 °C and
so for temperatures above 500 °C (932 °F) they are the only contact temperature
measurement device.

1. Response time: If the process requires a very fast response to temperature changes—
fractions of a second as opposed to seconds then a thermocouple is the best choice.

1. Size : A standard RTD sheath is 3.175 to 6.35 mm (0.1250 to 0.2500 in) in diameter; sheath
diameters for thermocouples can be less than 1.6 mm (0.063 in).

1. Accuracy and stability requirements: If a tolerance of 2 °C is acceptable and the highest

level of repeatability is not required, a thermocouple will serve. RTDs are capable of higher
accuracy and can maintain stability for many years, while thermocouples can drift within the
first few hours of use.
40
40
Temperature Measurement by Electrical effects
Construction of RTD

▪ These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached.

▪ At temperatures below about 250 °C PVC, silicone rubber or PTFE insulators are used.
▪ Above this, glass fibre or ceramic are used.
▪ The measuring point, and usually most of the leads, require a housing or protective sleeve, often
made of a metal alloy which is chemically inert to the process being monitored.
▪ Selecting and designing protection sheaths can require more care than the actual sensor, as the
sheath must withstand chemical or physical attack and provide convenient attachment points.
41 41
41
The resistance measurement may be performed with some type of bridge circuit

For steady-state measurements a null condition will suffice, while transient measurements will
usually require the use of a deflection bridge.

One of the primary sources of error in the

electrical-resistance thermometer is

▪ the effect of the resistance of the leads which

connect the element to the bridge circuit

Siemen’s three-lead arrangement

At balance conditions the center lead carries no current,
and the effect of the resistance of the other two leads is
canceled out.
The Callender four-lead arrangement solves the problem by
inserting two additional lead wires in the adjustable leg of the
bridge so that the effect of the lead wires on the resistance
thermometer is canceled out

The floating-potential arrangement in Fig. C is the same as the Siemen’s connection, but an extra lead is inserted.
This extra lead may be used to check the equality of lead resistance. 42
42
Temperature Measurement by Electrical effects
•

43
43
The thermistor is a very sensitive device, and consistent performance within 0.01◦C may be anticipated with
proper calibration.

44
44
Temperature Measurement by Electrical effects
Thermistor
Advantages

• Very sensitive – resistance changes rapidly with temperature

• Small lead error – as thermistor itself is of high resistance.
• Low self-heating – as smaller currents are sufficient for excitation.
• Special feature – can be used for temperature compensation of electrical circuits ??

Limitations

• Highly non-linear behavior

• Subject to deterioration at high temperature. (< 300oC)

45
45
Temperature Measurement by Radiation

▪ Thermal radiation is electromagnetic (wavelength range 0.1 – 100 μm)

▪ Total thermal radiation emitted by a black body
Eb = σT4
σ – Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
Eb- emissive power, W/m2
T – absolute temperature, K

▪ The emissive power of blackbody varies with wavelength as per the eqn.
Ebλ = C1λ-5/(eC2/ λT – 1)
Ebλ– monochromatic black body emissive power , W/m2
λ – wavelength (μm), T – temperature (K), C1=3.74x108 W. μm4/m2
C2 = 1.4387x104 μm.K

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Temperature Measurement by Radiation
When thermal radiation strikes a surface then,

α+ρ+τ=1

α – absorprtivity

ρ – reflectivity

τ – transmissivity

For most solids τ = 0, so α + ρ = 1

Emissivity is defined as ε = (E/Eb), where E is the emissive power of the actual surface and Eb is the
emissive power of black body at the same temperature.

Under conditions of thermal equilibrium,

ε=α
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Temperature Measurement by Radiation

Real surfaces exhibit highly variable emissivities over the wavelength spectrum.

Hence the real surface is frequently approximated as a gray body having an emissivity equal to the
average total emissivity of the real surface as defined by

ελ = (Eλ /Ebλ ),

The emissivity of a gray body is constant for all wavelengths.

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Temperature Measurement by Radiation

Wien’s Displacement Law

Black body radiation curve for different temperatures, peaks at a wavelength inversely proportional
to the temperature.

The shift in these maximum points explains the change in color as the body is heated i.e., higher
temperature results in concentration of radiation in lower wavelength portion of the spectrum.

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Temperature Measurement by Radiation
Optical Pyrometer
It is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the spectrum of
the thermal radiation it emits.

A modern pyrometer has an optical system and a

detector.

The optical system focuses the thermal radiation onto

the detector.

The output signal of the detector (temperature T) is

related to the thermal radiation of the target object
through the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the constant of
proportionality σ, called the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant and the emissivity ε of the object.

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Temperature Measurement by Radiation
Optical Pyrometer
It is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the spectrum of
the thermal radiation it emits.

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Temperature Measurement by Radiation

Optical Pyrometer

It is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the spectrum of
the thermal radiation it emits.
E = εσT4

T = (E/εσ )(1/4)

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Transient Temperature Measurement

Temperature sensor as a first order system

Consider a temperature probe as a system subject to transient temperature.
ρ – density of the probe material (kg/m3)
V – volume of the probe material (m3)
A – surface area of the probe (m2)
C – specific heat of the probe material (J/kg.K)
h – heat transfer coefficient between probe and the fluid (W/m2.K)
The probe is assumed to be thermally ‘lumped’ (at uniform temperature T for any given time t). Let
T0 be the initial temperature of the probe and T∞ be the fluid temperature.
By energy conservation,
Rate of change of energy stored in the probe = Rate of heat transfer between
the probe and the fluid

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Transient Temperature Measurement
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1. A certain mercury-in-glass thermometer has been calibrated for a prescribed immersion
depth. The thermometer is immersed too much, such that the extra depth is equal to a
distance of 10◦ on the scale.
The true temperature reading may be calculated with

Ttrue = Tind − 0.000088(Tind − Tamb)D

Where Tind = indicated temperature Tamb = ambient temperature of the exposed stem
D = extra immersion depth of the thermometer past the correct mark
Calculate the thermometer error for an indicated temperature of 210◦F and an ambient
temperature of 70◦F.

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