Alexandria Engineering Journal (2022) 61, 6739–6753

H O S T E D BY
Alexandria University

Alexandria Engineering Journal

www.elsevier.com/locate/aej
www.sciencedirect.com

Techno-economic analysis of solar photovoltaic

powered electrical energy storage (EES) system
Salah Ud-Din Khan a,b,*, Irfan Wazeer c, Zeyad Almutairi a,b,d,e, Meshari Alanazi a,b

a
Sustainable Energy Technologies Center, College of Engineering, King Saud University, PO-Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
b
K.A.CARE Energy Research and Innovation Center, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
c
Chemical Engineering Department, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
d
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Saud University, PO-Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
e
King Abdullah Institute of Nanotechnology, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Received 22 December 2020; revised 5 October 2021; accepted 7 December 2021

Available online 27 December 2021

KEYWORDS Abstract As solar energy is rapidly being implemented as a renewable energy resource, solar
Theoretical model; energy integrated systems should be optimally designed by performing a detailed analysis of mate-
PV system; rials, control systems, and economical aspects. This work aims to develop a theoretical and compu-
Energy storage; tational model for the techno-economic analysis of a photovoltaic (PV) system with and without the
Computational techniques; use of batteries as energy storage devices. A comprehensive literature review was first performed on
Integrated system; PV systems with renewable energy integrated systems. Mathematical calculations of PV systems
Viable approach were then performed to develop a theoretical model to assess the technical aspects of PV systems.
In addition, theoretical model was developed to calculate the economical assessment of the inte-
grated PV system. Various types of lithium-ion and flow batteries were then discussed and assessed
both technically and economically to determine the optimal storage method source. Five cases were
analyzed, including the use of no storage solution, two scenarios including lithium-ion batteries,
and two cases including flow batteries, using the proposed computational techniques. It was
observed that PV system with lithium cobalt oxide battery shows the lowest levelized cost of elec-
tricity (3.4 cent/kWh) as compared to other PV system with batteries. The research suggests that
integrated system including lithium-ion batteries was determined to be the most feasible and eco-
nomical. Overall, the resulting detailed analysis of the PV system with energy storage options
reflects the applicability of this system in remote areas.
Ó 2021 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
* Corresponding author at: Sustainable Energy Technologies Center,
College of Engineering, King Saud University, PO-Box 800, Riyadh
11421, Saudi Arabia.
Unlike their non-renewable counterparts, renewable energy
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Ud-Din Khan). sources exist in every country. Further integration of renew-
Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria able energy sources into electricity generation will thus reduce
University. resource scarcity, energy reliance, and environmental impact.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2021.12.025
1110-0168 Ó 2021 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
6740 S. Ud-Din Khan et al.

Nomenclature

A Ideality factor Bc Coupling inductor

AC Alternating current CHdirect Cost of hybrid plant energy supplied directly
DC Direct current CHsurplus Cost of surplus energy
EES Electrical energy storage Ctotal Total cost of the hybrid system
EU’s European Union’s Cp Number of cells in parallel
GHG Greenhous gas Cs Number of cells in sequence
I Output current CPV;surplus Cost of surplus energy of PV system
IFB Iron flow battery CPV;direct Cost of energy supplied directly
K Boltzmann’s constant EPV;direct Electricity directly supplied by PV system
LCO Lithium cobalt oxide EPV;surplus Surplus energy from PV system
LCOE Levelized cost of electricity Etotal Total energy generated
LCOS Levelized cost of storage ID Diode current
LIB Lithium-ion batteries Iinv Inverter current
LTO Lithium titanate Iph Light-generated current source
NREL National renewable energy laboratory IS Cell saturation of dark current
PF Power factor of the inverter Pinv Inverter active power
PV Photovoltaic Qinv Reactive power from the inverter
RBH Rowdat Ben Habbas Rs Series resistance
S Solar irradiance Rsh Parallel resistance
SAM System advisor model Vd Diode voltage
T Working temperature of cell Vg Utility grid voltage
V Voltage Vinv Inverter fundamental output voltage
VFB Vanadium flow battery Vt Thermal charge
VRE Variable renewable energy d Phase shift leading angle of inverter
k Discount factor £ Angle between invert current and grid voltage
q Electron charge

Further, sustainably expanding the energy system using these capacity was estimated to be approximately 170 GW world-
renewable sources would cover the needs of the present with- wide. Solar photovoltaic (PV) power accounted for nearly
out conceding the ability of upcoming generations to cover 55% of newly installed renewable power capacity, and most
their own requirements. of the remaining capacity additions were due to wind and
Worldwide, the power sector is undergoing fundamental hydropower [2]. In many countries, planned coal and natural
transformations at an unprecedented pace brought about by gas capacity expansions are being canceled or existing plants
the rapid uptake of renewable energy. This uptake, aiming to are being scheduled for early retirement.
reduce environmental impact and mitigate the effects of cli- In Saudi Arabia, the total electricity capacity in 2017 was
mate change, has been driven since the 2000 s by a number 85 GW, of which 43% was from natural gas, 28% was from
of factors, including: 1) the implementation of policy and reg- heavy fuel oil, and the rest was from crude oil and diesel
ulations in advanced economies; 2) technological advances [3,4]. Saudi Arabia has announced an initial target of installing
encouraged by these regulations and financial support that 27.3 GW from renewable energy by 2024 and 58.7 GW by
have led to dramatic drops in the cost of renewable electricity 2030. To achieve these targets, considerable power system
production, especially solar and wind energy; and 3) the Paris development must be made. This work thus aims to address
Agreement, agreed upon in late 2015 by 196 countries and for- this development by exploring various long-term scenarios
mally ratified in 2016. These changes have affected the entire with different penetration levels of renewable energy. How-
energy ecosystem, from electricity generation to transporta- ever, many renewable energy sources are weather-dependent
tion, heating, and cooling. However, the pace of change has and thus can vary greatly. Due to their inconsistency and lower
been uneven; the largest immediate effects have been seen in predictability when compared with fossil fuels, increasing
the electricity sector, whereas the transportation sector is renewable energy production without proper planning may
showing signs of significant change only in the light-duty vehi- endanger the reliability of the power system.
cle subindustry. Transforming the global heating and cooling One challenge involves the operation in terms of emissions
sector remains the most challenging issue for industry and pol- and grid reliability with more renewable energy in the future
icy makers; as a result, this sector remains the least disrupted power mix, given that renewable energy contributes little in
segment of the global energy landscape. power system inertia. This must be measured in a context fea-
Global investment in new renewable electricity capacity turing numerous environmental and technical limitations.
deployments has exceeded $240 billion for eight consecutive Many researchers have investigated the feasibility of imple-
years. In 2017, more than $270 billion was invested globally menting PV power generation. Rehman et al. [5] investigated
in renewables, bringing the cumulative investment since 2004 the feasibility of connecting 10 MW of PV power capacity in
to $2.9 trillion [1]; additional renewable power-generating Saudi Arabia. Using a power system dispatch model capable
Techno-economic analysis of solar photovoltaic powered electrical energy storage (EES) system 6741

of measuring the impacts of increased renewable generation on Rehman et al. [5] examined the techno-economic feasibility
the European Union’s (EU’s) power system flexibility, Collins of installing and linking moderate PV power plants to the
et al. [6,7] demonstrated that the gross electricity demand in 10 MW grid, using the thorough analysis of one year solar
the EU-28 in 2030 can be realized with a renewable energy radiation and power output data of 100 kW PV systems at
share of 50%, including a variable renewable energy (VRE) 44 locations across Saudi Arabia by Awan et al. [18]. They
share of 29%, thereby decreasing the carbon dioxide emissions reported that the highest annual electrical output of 172,083
43% from 2005. Although increasing the share of renewable kWh, with a yield and utilization factor of 1721 and 19.6%,
energy sources can contribute to emission reductions, major respectively, was provided by the station at Najran University.
operational challenges can stand in the way of this growth. With respect to the annual PV performance, Sharurah and
In their literature review, Mararakanye et al. [8] aimed to pro- Timma TVTC were second and third best, respectively.
vide an understanding of the impacts of VRE integration in the Rashwan et al. [19] conducted a cost-effectiveness and envi-
context of generator type, penetration level, and grid charac- ronmental feasibility analysis on shifting the power supply
teristics. George et al. [9] presented a load-curve-based from the electrical grid to renewable energy supplied by solar
methodology to analyze the impacts of renewable energy PV modules in a small building situated in Dhahran, Saudi
sources on the electrical grid, where they treated renewable Arabia. Based on the international PV Project Model, the
energy sources as negative loads to find an adapted load dura- PV power plant was assessed with a capacity of 12 kW. In their
tion curve from which capacity savings in terms of base and assessment of three scenarios, including when grid electricity
peak load generation could be calculated. Perera et al. [10] pre- cost is 4.0 cent/kWh, when grid electricity is 8.0 cent/kWh,
sented a multi-objective optimization for a system design con- and with partial grid electricity supply, they found the installa-
sidering grid integration level and the levelized cost of energy tion of solar PV systems in regions with high electricity prices
(LCOE) as functions to assess the potential of electrical hubs to be viable.
to integrate solar PV and wind energy sources. Heylen et al. Rehman et al. [20] explored the possibility of using PV power
[11] argued that future work must focus on further evolving in the north-eastern part of the kingdom to reduce fossil fuel
risk-based indicators to direct the decision-making process of reliance and meet the energy requirements of a small village,
power system reliability management to make secure and Rowdat Ben Habbas (RBH). Due to increasing fuel costs, using
cost-effective choices. Drouineau et al. [12] addressed the tech- only diesel is less cost-effective: at diesel prices
0.60 USD/l,
nical and economic feasibility of the ambitious target of Reu- the hybrid system was more economical. To meet the load
nion Island by merging a study conducted by the TIMES- requirements of RBH with an annual energy supply of 15,943
Reunion model, which delivers future electricity production MWh, a techno-economic analysis of a PV-diesel-battery
mixes according to different scenarios, with a quantitative hybrid system was also performed [21]. Their results indicated
assessment of the reliability of power supply with two reliabil- that for a hybrid system consisting of a 2.5 MWp PV system
ity indicators. McPherson and Tahseen [13] demonstrated with a 4.5 MW diesel system and 1-hour autonomous battery
three main benefits of deploying storage assets to facilitate storage, PV penetration is 27%. Further, the diesel generators
VRE integration by discussing the grid flexibility, renewable reduced their operating hours as PV capacity increased.
penetration, and market structure. Matar et al. [14] presented Various studies were conducted on the PV systems sup-
the KAPSARC Energy Model, which is a large-scale energy ported by different models as discussed above, but no theoret-
policy model for Saudi Arabia to measure the effects of intro- ical explanations were included for the technical and economic
ducing an optimal power flow formulation for electricity trans- analysis. Furthermore, PV system with and without batteries
mission on policy-relevant metrics. In this work, a technical particularly types of batteries were not studied previously
and financial model is developed to study the feasibility of and to conclude the optimized PV system to be installed in
implementing a 600-kW commercial PV project in Riyadh Riyadh city of Saudi Arabia. Therefore, in this study, we
under three storage scenarios, including without storage, and aimed to use the set of equations to explain the I-V character-
with the usage of an electrical energy storage (EES) unit. istics of PV unit cell, arrays, inverter and system model and
Prior researchers have discussed the development of solar add these values in system advisor model (SAM) program to
PV systems in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Rehman and obtained the technical parameters. SAM [22] is developed by
El-Amin [15] carried out a performance analysis of an isolated national renewable energy laboratory (NREL), USA to predict
grid PV power plant with an output of 5.28 kW at the King the performance and cost of energy estimates for various
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals in Dhahran, Saudi renewable energy systems including the installation, opera-
Arabia. Further, in their analysis of PV panel performance, tional and system design cost. The tool consisted of various
they found that as the surface temperature of the PV panels computational models such as PV modules, arrays, inverters,
increased, the output of the PolySol PV panels and the direct AC to DC conversion, efficiency, different types of batteries,
current (DC) performance ratio decreased. Bouzguenda et al. storage capacities etc. SAM also calculates the economic
[16] suggested a method to design off-grid solar PV-battery parameters such as levelized cost of electricity of any renew-
system and found that whereas solar energy supplies were able energy systems including all the financial parameters. In
abundant in the summer, the overall system output for the this study, various technical and economic modules of SAM
given system components was reduced by up to 16% by the was used to design the PV assisted energy storage system with
high ambient temperature and solar cell efficiency. Shading and without batteries. A general flow structure of the research
losses ranged from 0.70% to 4.2%, depending on the panel dis- is presented in Fig. 1. For each type of battery, separate pro-
tance and the field area. Other researchers employed the gram was used so as to identify the most optimal battery type
HOMER software tool to investigate the optimal PV, inverter integrated with PV system according to the meteorological
and PV/inverter sizes for the grid-connected PV system in conditions of the Riyadh region. It is very important to con-
Makkah, Saudi Arabia [17]. sider the economics of the PV system, therefore levelized cost
6742 S. Ud-Din Khan et al.

Fig. 1 Flow diagram of research methodology.

of electricity (direct/indirect) were calculated by mathematical 2.4 Assessment of the PV system with and without an
expressions and were used in SAM model to obtain the various energy storage unit
financial parameters of the PV system with and without batter-
ies in addition to the technical parameters. The objective is to
develop a PV system with most optimized type of battery to be 2.1. Theoretical models for PV system
installed in Riyadh region of Saudi Arabia.
PV cells contain light-sensitive semiconductor compounds that
dislodge electrons by using photons to control the electrical
2. Research methodology current. PV cell development can be classified into two wide
development types: crystalline silicon and thin film. The
The following four-step process was used to develop the advantages and disadvantages of some common PV systems
model: are summarized in Table 1.
A solar cell is the solar panel’s building block. By combin-
2.1 Theoretical models for PV system ing multiple solar cells in series and in parallel, a PV module is
2.2. Techno-economic model for coupled PV  energy created. A single solar cell diode can be modeled using a base,
storage system a diode, and two resistors (series resistor, Rs, and shunt
2.3 Selection of energy storage unit (batteries), resistor, Rsh), shown in Fig. 2. The output current (I) and cell
Techno-economic analysis of solar photovoltaic powered electrical energy storage (EES) system 6743

whereVt ¼ KT . Eq. (1) thus becomes

Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of some common type q

VAVt 
of PV systems. I ¼ Iph  Is e 1 ð2Þ
Types of solar PV Advantages Disadvantages
where I is the output current, Iph is the light-generated cur-
panels
rent source, Is is the cell saturation of the dark current, Id is the
Mono-crystalline 15%–20% efficiency Most expensive diode current, q is the charge of an electron, A is the ideality
silicon technology
factor, K is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the working tempera-
Approx. 25 years Material waste
ture of the cell, and Vt is the thermal charge.
durability during
manufacturing In practice, the I–V design of a solar cell varies from the
Space-efficient Fragile solar ideal design. Eq. (1) can thus be rewritten to account for the
panels series resistance depicted in Fig. 2 as:
More efficient  Vd 
I ¼ Iph  Is eAVt  1 ð3Þ
Poly-crystalline Simple, cost-effective 13%–16%
silicon process efficiency where Vd is the diode voltage with series resistance, i.e.,
Less waste during Low spatial Vd ¼ V þ IRs . Eq. (3) thus becomes:
manufacturing efficiency  VþIRs 
Lower heat tolerance Energy-intensive I ¼ Iph  Is e AVt  1 ð4Þ
manufacturing
Flexible amorphous Simple mass 9%–12% efficiency However, Eq. (4) does not accurately illustrate cell behavior
thin film production when subjected to environmental changes, especially at low
Cost-efficient Low spatial voltages. Typically, the series resistance is very low and results
efficiency from the ohmic interaction of the internal resistance between
High tolerance to High degradation the metal and the semiconductor. The shunt resistance, how-
shading rate ever, can be much higher and reflects the periphery surface
Flexible quality [29]. Introducing both the series and parallel resistances
configurations
(i.e., Rs and Rsh) thus allows for a more realistic model to be
Copper indium Simple mass 10%–12% calculated, as[30–33]:
gallium selenide thin production efficiency
film
I ¼ Iph  Id  Ish ð5Þ
Better resistance to High cost of  VþIRs  V þ IR
s
heat fabrication I ¼ Iph  Is e AVt  1  ð6Þ
Requires fewer toxic Rsh
materials (cadmium)
where
Ish ¼ VRshsh ¼ RVshd ¼ VþIR
Rsh
s
.
In practice, as the output power of a single solar cell is low,
the cells are designed in series and in parallel to increase the
total capacity of a PV system. Using Cp and Cs to represent
the number of cells in parallel and in series, respectively, the
relationship between the output current and voltage is indi-
cated as [25–27]:
Iph;total ¼ Cp Iph ,
Is;total ¼ Cp Is ,
Atotal ¼ Cs A, and
Rs;total ¼ CCps Rs .
Hence, Eq. (6) becomes:
!
C
VþI s Rs
Cp V þ I CCps Rs
I ¼ Cp Iph  Cp Is e Cs AVt 1  ; or ð7Þ
Rsh
! C
V þIRs
Cs Cp V Cps þ IRs
Fig. 2 Equivalent circuit of a single diode PV module. I ¼ Cp Iph  Cp Is e AVt 1  ð8Þ
Rsh

Eq. (8) defines the electric behavior and specifies the I–V
voltage (V) of the PV panel under solar irradiance (S) can then
relationship given by a PV module. It is a non-linear equation
be calculated using the following equations based on Kirch-
with below-defined parameters. For ideal behavior, Rsh >
hoff’s first law [23–28]:
Rs; Rs can thus be considered negligible, allowing the above
In an ideal solar cell, a current source is combined with a
relationship to be modified as:
rectifying diode. According to the Shockley solar cell Eq.
[23], the corresponding I–V characteristic can be depicted as:  V 
Cs

 I ¼ Cp Iph  Cp Is eAVt  1 ð9Þ
I ¼ Iph  Id ¼ Iph  Is eqVAKT  1 ð1Þ
6744 S. Ud-Din Khan et al.

Solar panels produce DC power; most domestic and indus- nomic indicator of the hybrid plant during economic analysis.
trial equipment requires an alternating current (AC) supply. The main economic factors considered for the hybrid plant
The DC of the panel or battery is thus converted into AC using include the installation and maintenance costs. It is an eco-
an inverter. nomic analysis of the overall cost of building and running a
To deliver the active power to a utility from the inverter, the lifetime power-generating plant, measured by the asset’s total
fundamental output voltage of the inverter (Vinv) should lead energy production over that lifespan. The LCOE can be calcu-
the utility grid voltage (Vg) by an angle (d) through a coupling lated as [65,66]:
inductor (Bc) to permit the inverter current (Iinv) to be provided Lifecyclecost
to the utility grid, as depicted in the phase diagram presented LCOE ¼ ð15Þ
EnergygeneratedðlifetimeÞ
in Fig. 3 and derived below:
Vg Vinv In the case of a hybrid system, the LCOE can be written as:
Pinv ¼ sin d ¼ Vg Iinv cos £ ð10Þ
xg Bc CHdirect þ CHsurplus
LCOEhybrid ¼ ð16Þ
Etotal
Vg

Qinv ¼ Vinv cos d  Vg ¼ Vg Iinv sin £ ð11Þ Pn Ctotal
xg B c t¼0 ð1þkÞt
LCOEhybrid ¼ Pn ðEtotal Þt
ð17Þ
Pinv t¼0 ð1þkÞt
PF ¼ ¼ cos £ ð12Þ
Vg Iinv where CHdirect is the cost of the hybrid plant energy supplied
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

2
directly to the load, CHsurplus represents the cost of the surplus
1 energy of hybrid system, Ctotal is the total cost of the hybrid
Iinv ¼ Vinv cos d  Vg þ ðVinv sin dÞ2 ð13Þ
xg B c system, k is the discount factor, and Etotal is the total energy
Here, Iinv, Pinv, and Qinv denote the current delivered to the generated.
utility grid, the active power supplied to the utility, and the Furthermore, if the charging cost is excluded from the
reactive power, respectively, from the inverter, PF is the power EES’s LCOE, then the net levelized cost of storage (LCOS)
factor of the inverter, d is the phase shift (i.e., leading angle) of can be expressed as:
the inverter, and £ is the angle between the inverted current Costofchargingpower
and grid voltage. LCOS ¼ LCOE  ð18Þ
Totalefficiency
In the condition when the AC output exceeds the normal
rating then the predicted as, inverter efficiency can be The LCOE for a PV system can be defined as:
8 CPV
< yPDC : 0 < PDC < PDC0
> LCOEPV ¼
EPV
ð19Þ
PAC ¼ PAC0 : PDC > PDC0 ð14Þ
>
: The LCOE for PV can be divided into two factions, namely,
0 : PDC ¼ 0
the direct and surplus energy, as:
Where ‘P’ denoted predicted for both AC and DC output Pn CPV;surplus
0
and ‘y is the efficiency. t¼0 ð1þkÞt
LCOEPV ¼ P
n ðEPV;surplus þEPV;direct Þt
t¼0 ð1þkÞt
2.2. Techno-economic model for coupled PV  energy storage Pn CPV;direct
system t¼0 ð1þkÞt
þP ð20Þ
n ðEPV;surplus þEPV;direct Þt
The LCOE is commonly used to analyze different power pro- t¼0 ð1þkÞt

duction technologies and was employed here as the main eco- where CPV;surplus represents the cost of the surplus energy of
the PV system, CPV;direct is the cost of energy supplied
directly; EPV;surplus is the surplus energy, and EPV;direct is the elec-
tricity produced by the PV system and directly supplied to the
load. Eq. (20) can be summarized as:
Pn ðCPV;surplus þCPV;direct Þt
t¼0 ð1þkÞt
LCOEPV ¼ P ð21Þ
n ðEPV;surplus þEPV;direct Þt
t¼0 ð1þkÞt

2.3. Selection of energy storage unit (batteries)

Batteries can be used to eliminate irregularities in solar irradi-

ation in many forms of stand-alone PV systems for a continu-
ous power supply. Two main battery types are analyzed here,
lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and flow batteries.
Research into LIBs began in the beginning of the 19800 s,
and the first marketing was done in 1991 [34]. Because of their
Fig. 3 Voltage grid inverter phase diagram. high energy density, high efficiency, and lack of memory effects
Techno-economic analysis of solar photovoltaic powered electrical energy storage (EES) system 6745

seen in nickel–cadmium or nickel-hydride batteries, LIBs were and cyclic ratio efficiency as shown in Fig. 5. It can be
recognized immediately for their capability to revolutionize the observed that maximum power point tracking for both higher
PV and overall renewable energy industries by providing these and low rated power attained the efficiency of 98.91% because
systems with cost-effectiveness. LIBs have two key features, MPPT circuit maximize the energy available from solar
including a longer cycle life and lower life-cycle cost. Most modules.
compact LIBs are cobalt-based; these batteries lithium cobalt The main physical characteristics of the PV module system
oxide (LCO) batteries are known as high-power LIBs, due to are presented in Table 4 which were calculated from the month
their high energy density. LCO batteries consists of a cobalt wise radiation and temperature conditions.
oxide cathode and a carbon graphite anode, and have a stable The shading and diffusing losses in the arrays were
structure, high capacity, and excellent performance, but are observed via a sub-hourly time step and through sun azimuth
expensive and have poor safety. Lithium titanate (LTO) bat- angle by elevation as illustrated in Fig. 6. This includes
teries are a newer type of LIB with excellent protection, high monthly soiling losses for dust or accumulation in the arrays
rate, and very long-life cycles. They can charge more than or other main components, DC losses due to module mis-
80% within a matter of minutes and are well secured against match, wiring, connections, tracking, AC losses due to AC wir-
over-discharge and anti-reverse charging. Further, they are ing and transformer losses. In SAM, the associated model does
resistant to explosions and overheating, even in the case of not calculate module losses mismatch within a subarray
overcharging, reverse-charging, or short-circuiting [35]. because if there are more than one subarray, an optional algo-
Flow batteries, developed over 40 years ago, are particu- rithm estimates the losses between two subarrays and so on.
larly attractive for usage in PV systems, due to their ability The energy storage unit (batteries) also contributed in the loss
to decouple full rated capacity from rated power and greater factor as it is connected directly to PV system AC bus.
flexibility in design. Attention has returned to flow batteries
because they can store megawatt-hours of power and unleash 2.4. Assessment of PV system with and without energy storage
it at rates up to megawatts. One such rechargeable flow battery unit
utilizes vanadium ions in various oxidation states to store
chemical potential energy, the vanadium flow battery (VFB). This work aims to develop a technical and financial model to
VFBs consist of power cells in which the two electrolytes are study the feasibility of implementing a 600-kW commercial
separated by a proton-exchange membrane or ion transfer PV project in Riyadh for five different scenarios with and with-
membrane. In 1981, Hruska and Savinell [36] introduced the out an EES unit. This model thus aims to provide an overview
iron flow battery (IFB); due to its high quality and relatively of how to feasibly implement the project and generate possible
low iron costs, IFBs also are of great interest. The IFB uses transition pathways of the power system. The SAM, which is a
Fe (II) solution in the two half-cells, and the cross- model established by the NREL, was used by first choosing a
distribution problems of the active species are avoided as with financial and performance model to characterize the project.
the VRB. Nonetheless, use of various additives can lead to Values were then allocated to input variables to provide infor-
cross-contamination and incremental performance losses in mation regarding the project’s location, equipment types used,
each semi-cell electrolyte. costs of installing and operating the plant, and financial
The various lithium and flow batteries studied here are assumptions. The model allows simulation over the entire
compared in Table 2. Clearly, LIBs are more efficient than analysis period rather than concentrated on first year only.
their flow-based counterparts. Considering price trends, how- This is due to integration of batteries which depends on the
ever, flow batteries strongly benefit from their flexible scalabil- cycling efficiency and if it degrades, there is a certain limited
ity, and also have a longer life span than LIBs. VFBs have point after which it only acts as stationary storage device
their energy stored in tanks. Therefore, adapting flow batteries and need to be replaced. This feature includes the potentially
to industrial applications is easier and cheaper. Moreover, IFB large capital costs which needs to be considered to evaluate
batteries provide an attractive solution due to their use of inex- the economic performance of the batteries. In this study, var-
pensive materials, the abundance of iron, and the system’s ious types of batteries were assessed in five different scenarios.
non-toxic nature. LIB-based energy storage systems have a The scenario suggests that if the battery is added with the PV
higher cost. system, it results in more energy charge savings but introduced
Equations (1)–(14) were used in SAM energy storage model the capital and replacement costs. This feature also performs
primarily to calculate the I-V characteristics of PV system and net-present current values in order to account for inflation
inverter. The algorithm is such that it first computes the energy and discount rates.
needed to fully charged the battery in addition to the amount To perform a feasibility study for a 600-kW PV commercial
of energy stored already in the battery. The terminal voltage project with and without EES, the following assumptions were
varies as a function of current, capacity, state-of-the-charge made:
and other factors requiring a dynamic model to find the char-
acteristics of the voltage in addition to the charging and dis-  Module efficiency: 30%
charging in the same manner. Fig. 4 illustrates that constant  Module maximum power: 310 W
values of current attained with increase in the voltage up to  Temperature coefficients: 0.386 %/C
certain point and then falls down to a minimum value.  Inverter efficiency: 99%
The parameters obtained from PV system are presented in  Inverter maximum AC power: 60 kW
Table 3.  Number of inverters: 10
It is important to approximate linear functions of the  Total AC capacity: 600 kW
energy transfer, which is associated with many other factors  Number of modules: 6960
such as c-rate, the effect of temperature, depth of discharge
6746 S. Ud-Din Khan et al.

Table 2 Comparison between various lithium-based (LCO, LTO) and flow-based (VFB, and IFB) batteries.
LCO LTO VFB IFB
Nominal voltage (V) 3.70 [37] 2.40 [38,39] 1.4 [40] 1.2 [41]
Energy density (Wh/ 550 [42] 177 [43] 20–33 [40,44] 11.5 [45]
L)
Specific energy (Wh/ 150–200 [46] 50–90 [39,47] 15–25 [40,44] 170 [48]
kg)
Life cycle 500–1,000 [46] 3,000–7,000 [39]
12,000 [49]
10,000 [50]
Operating temp. 0–45 [51] 30–70 [46,47,52] 5–40 [40,44] –
(°C)
Energy efficiency Up to 95% [53] 90 [54] 80–85 [55,56] 75 [50]
(%)
Storage cost ($/ 400–600 [54] 400–600 [54] 150–2500 [54] 250–400 [50]
kWh)
Installation cost ($/ 1,117 [46] 1005 [46] 370 [54] –
kWh)
Major advantages - High specific energy [57] - Safest Li-ion battery - Long-term stability - Longer life span [50]
- High discharge voltage [47,59] [40,44] - Low cost [50]
[58] - Long life [60] - Long cycle life [40,44]
- Good cycling perfor- - Fast charging [61] - Short response time
mance [46] - Wide range temp. [62] [40,44]
- Relatively low cost
[40,44]
Major drawbacks - Limited specific power - Low specific energy - Low energy density - Hydrogen evolution [50]
[46] [64] [40,44] - Low cell voltage and current effi-
- Low thermal stability [46] - Expensive [64] -Low specific energy ciency [50]
- Cobalt is expensive [63] [40,44]

Table 3 PV system output characteristics

Parameters Values
Efficiency (nominal) 19.0159%
Maximum voltage power (Vmp) 54.7 Vdc
Maximum power current (Imp) 5.7 Adc
Power (max) 310.149 Wdc
Circuit voltage Voc‘(open) 64.4 Vdc
Short circuit voltage (Isc) 6.0 Adc
AC power (max) 770,000 Wac
DC power (max) 791,706 Wdc
Power use during operation 2859.5 Wdc
Power used at night 231 Wac
AC voltage (nominal) 0 Vac
DC voltage (max) 820 Vdc
Dc current (max) 1289.42 Adc
MPPT DC voltage (minimum) 545 Vdc
DC voltage (nominal) 614 Vdc
MPPT DC voltage (max) 820 Vdc
Fig. 4 Trends of current and voltage.

 Module per string: 120

 Strings in parallel: 86 production from the PV panels is shown in Fig. 7. The produc-
 Inflation: 2.5% tion was lower during the winter months of November,
 Fixed monthly charge: 5 $ December, and January.
These values are then compared with the overall energy
The performance model in SAM program calculates yearly, demand of the area in Fig. 8. The greatest energy demand
monthly, weekly and hourly data to obtain the energy produc- was present highest during the summer months of June, July,
tion based on the meteorological data of the selected region and August.
and specification of PV system. The equations used in develop- A simple fixed charge rate method is used in the SAM pro-
ing the performance model is based on the solar cell character- gram to calculates annul energy production, capital cost, vari-
istics Eqs. (1)–(14). The resulting simulated monthly electricity able and fixed operating cost. This module calculates the cash
Techno-economic analysis of solar photovoltaic powered electrical energy storage (EES) system 6747

 AC bank capacity: 200 kW

 conversion efficiency: 95%
 minimum state of charge: 20%
 maximum state of charge: 96%

As summarized in Table 5, the levelized cost for this sce-

nario was approximately 6.44 ¿/kWh and the payback period
was outside of the range of the study period (25 years).

2.4.3. Scenario 3: PV system with LTO batteries:

The following assumptions were made to simulate the LTO
batteries:

 AC bank capacity: 200 kW

 conversion efficiency: 96%
Fig. 5 Trends of rated output power.
 minimum state of charge: 20%
 maximum state of charge: 96%

The resulting simulated annual cash flow for scenario 3 is

Table 4 Characteristics of PV system design shown in Fig. 10; an initial investment of approximately 197
thousand USD was required. The levelized cost for this sce-
Parameters Values
nario was approximately 6.47 ¿/kWh and the payback period
Number of inverters used 22 of this project was outside of the range of the study period
DC to AC ratio 1.18 (25 years), as detailed in Table 5.
DC capacity 20000.889 kWdc Comparing these three scenarios analyzing the implementa-
Total AC capacity 16,940 kWac
tion of a 600-kW commercial PV project in Riyadh, the PV
Total inverter DC capacity 17417.541 kWdc
system without any storage options was the most feasible to
Number of modules 6960
Modules per string 120 implement, as it had a payback period of approximately
Strings in parallel 86 19 years, whereas the scenarios involving battery EES was
Tilts angle (in degree) 30 not feasible, as the payback period was greater than 25 years.
Azimuth (in degree) 180 Of the scenarios utilizing EES, the use of LCO batteries
Ground coverage ratio (in degree) 0.3 allowed for lower annual energy losses and a lower levelized
Tracker rotation limit (in degree) 45 cost than when LTO batteries were employed.
Module aspect ratio 1.7
Module length 1.66514 m 2.4.4. Scenario 4: PV system with VFBs
Module width 1.631 m
The resulting simulated annual cash flow for scenario 4 is
shown in Fig. 11. Despite the increased costs, financial gains
were present after approximately 10 years, representing a
marked improvement over the systems employing LIBs, espe-
flow scenarios and is appropriate to obtain the preliminary cially when considering that the average lifetime of the PV sys-
stages of project feasibility including its annual energy produc- tem is 20 years.
tion and total load scenario associated with financial
parameters. 2.4.5. Scenario 5: PV system with IFBs
Five scenarios were then analyzed, the details of which are Employing IFBs as an EES further improved the economic
summarized in Table 5. outcome of the modeled system, as demonstrated in the result-
ing simulated annual cash flow of Scenario 5 shown in Fig. 12.
2.4.1. Scenario 1: PV system without storage The payback period was approximately 10 years.
The resulting simulated annual cash flow for scenario 1 is Although adding the EES to the installed PV system
shown in Fig. 9; an initial investment of almost 157 thousand increased the overall costs, the use of VFB and IFBs improved
USD was required. Further, the levelized cost for this scenario the annual cash flows, reduced the payback periods, and
was approximately 5.25 cent/kWh and the payback period of reduced the LCOE. Furthermore, employing batteries allows
this project is approximately 19 years, as detailed in Table 5. for greater flexibility of the system, as the electricity can be
The results indicate that electricity cost without PV system is consumed regardless of the time of day or weather conditions.
approximately 58.5 k USD while in a case with PV system,
the value is 36.9 k USD concluded that 77 % of performance 3. Conclusions
efficiency is achieved.
This study presented a computational model for an energy stor-
2.4.2. Scenario 2: PV system with LCO batteries age system powered by solar PV panels with an aim to store
The following assumptions were made to simulate the LCO energy for number of applications, especially in remote regions.
batteries: A mathematical model was developed for a PV system to inves-
6748 S. Ud-Din Khan et al.

Fig. 6 Net energy loss in PV system module.

tigate the behavior of an inverter current to the grid connection provided the most economical and feasible solution with real
and was utilized in the most optimized storage medium (bat- levelized cost of electricity for LCO and LTO as 3.44 cent/
tery). Four cases of integrated PV  EES were discussed and kWh and 3.47 cent/kWh respectively as compared to VFB and
compared with a PV system without EES to find the optimum IFB which shows 5.56 cent/kWh and 5.57 cent/kWh respec-
configuration. Overall, the integrated system employing IFBs tively. The developed theoretical model gives all the cost
Techno-economic analysis of solar photovoltaic powered electrical energy storage (EES) system 6749

Fig. 7 Monthly energy production of the PV panels.

Fig. 8 Monthly Energy and Load.

Table 5 Comparative analysis of PV with and without energy storage devices

Parameters Without storage With storage
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 Scenario 5
PV with LCO PV with LTO PV with VFB PV with IFB
Annual energy in first year (kWh) 334,099 331,325 331,742 512,125 512,061
Capacity factor in first year (%) 17.70 26.7 26.7 26.7 26.7
Energy yield in first year (kWh/kW) 1,548 1,535 1,537 23,14 2,341
Performance ratio in first year 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.75 0.75
Nominal levelized cost of electricity (cent/kWh) 6.57 4.06 4.11 8.46 8.47
Real levelized cost of electricity (cent/kWh) 5.25 3.44 3.47 5.56 5.57
Electricity cost without system in first year ($) 58,520 58,520 58,520 111,909 111,909
Electricity cost with system in first year ($) 36,908 36,805 36,770 68,790 68,687
Savings with system in first year ($) 21,612 51,715 41,750 43,120 43,222
Present value ($) (23,949) (87,886) (69,291) (211,878) (212,276)
Payback period (years) 6 6 – – –
Net capital cost ($) 392,655 473,154 493,154 312,758 313,803
Equity ($) 157,062 489,474 197,262 125,103 125,521
Debt ($) 235,593 195,790 295,892 187,655 188,282
6750 S. Ud-Din Khan et al.

Fig. 9 Simulated annual cash flow for Scenario 1, which has no storage options.

Fig. 10 Simulated annual cash flow for Scenario 3, which includes LTO batteries as an EES.

Fig. 11 Simulated annual cash flow for Scenario 4, which includes VFBs as an EES.
Techno-economic analysis of solar photovoltaic powered electrical energy storage (EES) system 6751

and grid characteristics, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 108 (2019)

441–451.
[9] M. George, R. Banerjee, A methodology for analysis of impacts
of grid integration of renewable energy, Energy Policy 39 (2011)
1265–1276.
[10] A.T.D. Perera, V.M. Nik, D. Mauree, J.-L. Scartezzini,
Electrical hubs: An effective way to integrate non-dispatchable
renewable energy sources with minimum impact to the grid,
Appl. Energy 190 (2017) 232–248.
[11] E. Heylen, G. Deconinck, D. Van Hertem, Review and
classification of reliability indicators for power systems with a
high share of renewable energy sources, Renew. Sust. Energ.
Rev. 97 (2018) 554–568.
[12] M. Drouineau, E. Assoumou, V. Mazauric, N. Maı̈zi, Increasing
shares of intermittent sources in Reunion Island: Impacts on the
Fig. 12 Simulated annual cash flow for Scenario 5, which future reliability of power supply, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 46
includes IFBs as an EES. (2015) 120–128.
[13] M. McPherson, S. Tahseen, Deploying storage assets to
facilitate variable renewable energy integration: The impacts of
involved (surplus and direct) and was validated by the computa- grid flexibility, renewable penetration, and market structure,
tional method. The analysis presented may assist with future Energy 145 (2018) 856–870.
efforts to optimize renewable energy-assisted energy storage [14] W. Matar, A.M. Elshurafa, Electricity transmission
systems. formulations in multi-sector national planning models: An
illustration using the KAPSARC energy model, Energy Rep. 4
Declaration of Competing Interest (2018) 328–340.
[15] S. Rehman, I. El-Amin, Performance evaluation of an off-grid
photovoltaic system in Saudi Arabia, Energy 46 (2012) 451–458.
The authors declare that they have no known competing
[16] M. Bouzguenda, A. Al Omair, A. Al Naeem, M. Al-Muthaffar,
financial interests or personal relationships that could have O.B. Wazir, Design of an off-grid 2 kW solar PV system, in:
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. 2014 Ninth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and
Renewable Energies (EVER), IEEE, 2014, pp. 1-6.
Acknowledgment [17] M.A. Ramli, A. Hiendro, K. Sedraoui, S. Twaha, Optimal sizing
of grid-connected photovoltaic energy system in Saudi Arabia,
The authors would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Renewable Energy 75 (2015) 489–495.
Research at King Saud University for funding this research [18] A.B. Awan, M. Zubair, A.G. Abokhalil, Solar energy
resource analysis and evaluation of photovoltaic system
through the Research Group Project no RGP-255.
performance in various regions of Saudi Arabia, Sustainability
10 (2018) 1129.
References [19] S.S. Rashwan, A.M. Shaaban, F. Al-Suliman, A comparative
study of a small-scale solar PV power plant in Saudi Arabia,
[1] Bloomberg New Energy Finance, (Accessed on November 20, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 80 (2017) 313–318.
2020). Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment Report, [20] S. Rehman, L.M. Al-Hadhrami, Study of a solar PV–
2018. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/ diesel–battery hybrid power system for a remotely located
33382/GTR18.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y population near Rafha, Saudi Arabia, Energy 35 (2010) 4986–
[2] Renewables, (Accessed on November 22, 2020). Global status 4995.
report, 2018. https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/ [21] S. Shaahid, I. El-Amin, Techno-economic evaluation of
05/GSR2018_Full-Report_English.pdf off-grid hybrid photovoltaic–diesel–battery power systems for
[3] Annual Statistical Booklet For Electricity & Seawater rural electrification in Saudi Arabia—a way forward for
Desalination Industries, 2018,(Accessed on November 22 sustainable development, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 13 (2009)
2020). https://ecra.gov.sa/en-us/MediaCenter/DocLib2/Lists/ 625–633.
SubCategory_Library/Statistical_Booklet2018.pdf [22] N. Blair, A.P. Dobos, J. Freeman, T. Neises, M. Wagner, T.
[4] M.M. Damoom, S. Hashim, M.S. Aljohani, M.A. Saleh, Adding Ferguson, P. Gilman, S. Janzou, System advisor model, sam
sustainable sources to the Saudi Arabian electricity sector, 2014.1. 14: General description, in, National Renewable Energy
Electr. J. 31 (2018) 20–28. Lab.(NREL), Golden, CO (United States), 2014.
[5] S. Rehman, M. Ahmed, M.H. Mohamed, F.A. Al-Sulaiman, [23] A. McEvoy, T. Markvart, L. Castañer, T. Markvart, L.
Feasibility study of the grid connected 10 MW installed capacity Castaner, Practical handbook of photovoltaics: fundamentals
PV power plants in Saudi Arabia, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 80 and applications, Elsevier, 2003.
(2017) 319–329. [24] N. Pandiarajan, R. Muthu, Mathematical modeling of
[6] S. Collins, J.P. Deane, B.Ó. Gallachóir, Adding value to EU photovoltaic module with Simulink, in: International
energy policy analysis using a multi-model approach with an Conference on Electrical Energy Systems, 2011, pp. 258–263.
EU-28 electricity dispatch model, Energy 130 (2017) 433–447. [25] D. Rusirawan, Energetic modeling of photovoltaic modules in
[7] S. Collins, D. Saygin, J. Deane, A. Miketa, L. Gutierrez, B.Ó. grid-connected systems, PhD theses) SzIU, Gödöll} o, (2012).
Gallachóir, D. Gielen, Planning the European power sector [26] H.-L. Tsai, C.-S. Tu, Y.-J. Su, Development of generalized
transformation: The REmap modelling framework and its photovoltaic model using MATLAB/SIMULINK, in:
insights, Energy Strategy Rev. 22 (2018) 147–165. Proceedings of the world congress on Engineering and
[8] N. Mararakanye, B. Bekker, Renewable energy integration computer science, San Francisco, USA, 2008, pp. 1-6.
impacts within the context of generator type, penetration level [27] K. Kachhiya, M. Lokhande, M. Patel, MATLAB/Simulink
model of solar PV module and MPPT algorithm, in: National
6752 S. Ud-Din Khan et al.

Conference on Recent Trends in Engineering & Technology, [46] BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion (Accessed on Novemeber 20
2011. 2020) https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/types_of_
[28] M. Edouard, D. Njomo, Mathematical modeling and digital lithium_ion
simulation of PV solar panel using Matlab software, Int. J. [47] Y. Wong, L. Lai, S. Gao, K. Chau, Stationary and mobile
Emerging Technol. Adv. Eng. 3 (2013) 24–32. battery energy storage systems for smart grids, in: 2011 4th
[29] J.A. Jaleel, A. Nazar, A. Omega, Simulation on maximum International Conference on Electric Utility Deregulation and
power point tracking of the photovoltaic module using Restructuring and Power Technologies (DRPT), IEEE, 2011,
LabVIEW, International Journal of Advanced Research in pp. 1-6.
Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation, Engineering 1 [48] All-Iron Redox Flow Battery, (Accessed on November 20 2020)
(2012) 190–199. https://dornsife.usc.edu/labs/narayan/all-iron-redox-flow-
[30] R. Singh, M. Pandit, Analysis of photovoltaic cells with closed battery/#:~:text=An%20aqueous%20all%2Diron%20redox,
loop boost converter, International Journal of Advances in system%20for%20large%2Dscale%20applications
Engineering & Technology 6 (2013) 304. [49] Haisheng Chen, Thang Ngoc Cong, Wei Yang, Chunqing Tan,
[31] F. Khan, S.N. Singh, M. Husain, Effect of illumination intensity Yongliang Li, Yulong Ding, Progress in electrical energy
on cell parameters of a silicon solar cell, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. storage system: A critical review, Prog. Nat. Sci. 19 (3) (2009)
Cells 94 (9) (2010) 1473–1476. 291–312.
[32] V. Khanna, B.K. Das, D. Bisht, Matlab/simelectronics models [50] A. Dinesh, S. Olivera, K. Venkatesh, M.S. Santosh, M.G. Priya,
based study of solar cells, Int. J. Renew. Energy Res 3 (2013) 30– A.M. Asiri, H.B. Muralidhara, Iron-based flow batteries to store
34. renewable energies, Environ. Chem. Lett. 16 (2018) 683–694.
[33] K. Ishaque, Z. Salam, An improved modeling method to [51] Summary and Comparison of Battery Characteristics. (Accessed
determine the model parameters of photovoltaic (PV) modules on November 20 2020) https://www.pveducation.org/ru/%D1%
using differential evolution (DE), Sol. Energy 85 (2011) 2349– 84%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%
2359. B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%
[34] G. Pistoia, Lithium-ion batteries: advances and applications, B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5/summary-and-
Newnes, 2013. comparison-of-battery-characteristics
[35] J. Mei, E.K. Cheng, Y. Fong, Lithium-titanate battery (LTO): A [52] LTO Batteries. (Accessed on November 20 2020) https://
better choice for high current equipment, in: 2016 International www.batteryspace.com/Lithium-Titanate-Battery.aspx#:
Symposium on Electrical Engineering (ISEE), IEEE, 2016, pp. 1- ~:text=Li%2DTitanate%20batteries%20have%20a,are%
4. 20high%20security%2C%20high%20stability
[36] L. Hruska, R. Savinell, Investigation of factors affecting [53] Lithium Ion. (Accessed on November 20 2020)
performance of the iron-redox battery, J. Electrochem. Soc. https://batterytestcentre.com.au/project/lithium-ion/
128 (1981) 18. [54] G.L. Soloveichik, Flow batteries: current status and trends,
[37] Xuan Liu, Zhibo Wu, Stanislav I. Stoliarov, Matthew Chem. Rev. 115 (2015) 11533–11558.
Denlinger, Alvaro Masias, Kent Snyder, Heat release during [55] H. Bindra, S. Revankar, Storage and Hybridization of Nuclear
thermally-induced failure of a lithium ion battery: Impact of Energy: Techno-economic Integration of Renewable and
cathode composition, Fire Saf. J. 85 (2016) 10–22. Nuclear Energy, Academic Press, 2018.
[38] P. Schröer, E. Khoshbakht, T. Nemeth, M. Kuipers, H. Zappen, [56] A. Gonzalez, B. Gallachoir, E. McKeogh, K. Lynch, Study of
D.U. Sauer, Adaptive modeling in the frequency and time electricity storage technologies and their potential to address
domain of high-power lithium titanate oxide cells in battery wind energy intermittency in Ireland, Sustainable Energy
management systems, J Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101966. Ireland (2004).
[39] O. Salari, K.H. Zaad, A. Bakhshai, P. Jain, Hybrid Energy [57] Qi Liu, Xin Su, Dan Lei, Yan Qin, Jianguo Wen, Fangmin Guo,
Storage Systems for Electric Vehicles: Multi-Source Inverter Yimin A. Wu, Yangchun Rong, Ronghui Kou, Xianghui Xiao,
Topologies, in: 2018 14th International Conference on Power Frederic Aguesse, Javier Bareño, Yang Ren, Wenquan Lu,
Electronics (CIEP), IEEE, 2018, pp. 111-116. Yangxing Li, Approaching the capacity limit of lithium cobalt
[40] Álvaro Cunha, Jorge Martins, Nuno Rodrigues, F.P. Brito, oxide in lithium ion batteries via lanthanum and aluminium
Vanadium redox flow batteries: a technology review, Int. J. doping, Nature, Energy 3 (11) (2018) 936–943.
Energy Res. 39 (7) (2015) 889–918. [58] Te Tian, Tian-Wen Zhang, Yi-Chen Yin, Yi-Hong Tan, Yong-
[41] Krista L. Hawthorne, Jesse S. Wainright, Robert F. Savinell, Hui Song, Lei-Lei Lu, Hong-Bin Yao, Blow-Spinning Enabled
Studies of iron-ligand complexes for an all-iron flow battery Precise Doping and Coating for Improving High-Voltage
application, J. Electrochem. Soc. 161 (10) (2014) A1662–A1671. Lithium Cobalt Oxide Cathode Performance, Nano Lett. 20
[42] Ki Yoon Bae, Sung Ho Cho, Byung Hyuk Kim, Byung Dae (1) (2020) 677–685.
Son, Woo Young Yoon, Energy-Density Improvement in Li-Ion [59] M. Moorthi, Lithium Titanate Based Batteries for High Rate
Rechargeable Batteries Based on LiCoO2+ LiV3O8 and and High Cycle Life Applications.
Graphite+ Li-Metal Hybrid Electrodes, Materials 12 (12) [60] M. Odziomek, F. Chaput, A. Rutkowska, K. Świerczek, D.
(2019) 2025, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12122025. Olszewska, M. Sitarz, F. Lerouge, S. Parola, Hierarchically
[43] Lithium titanate battery (Accessed on November 22 2020) structured lithium titanate for ultrafast charging in long-life high
https://batteryindustry.tech/dictionary/lithium-titanate-battery/ capacity batteries, Nat. Commun 8 (2017) 1–7.
[44] M. Skyllas-Kazacos, G. Kazacos, G. Poon, H. Verseema, [61] Wei Zhang, Dong-Hwa Seo, Tina Chen, Lijun Wu, Mehmet
Recent advances with UNSW vanadium-based redox flow Topsakal, Yimei Zhu, Deyu Lu, Gerbrand Ceder, Feng Wang,
batteries, Int. J. Energy Res. 34 (2010) 182–189. Kinetic pathways of ionic transport in fast-charging lithium
[45] Michael C. Tucker, Adam Phillips, Adam Z. Weber, All-iron titanate, Science 367 (6481) (2020) 1030–1034.
redox flow battery tailored for off-grid portable applications, [62] P. Huang, Q. Wang, K. Li, P. Ping, J. Sun, The combustion
ChemSusChem 8 (23) (2015) 3996–4004. behavior of large scale lithium titanate battery, Sci. Rep. 5
(2015) 7788.
Techno-economic analysis of solar photovoltaic powered electrical energy storage (EES) system 6753

[63] C. Vaalma, D. Buchholz, M. Weil, S. Passerini, A cost and [65] Seth B. Darling, Fengqi You, Thomas Veselka, Alfonso Velosa,
resource analysis of sodium-ion batteries, Nat. Rev. Mater. 3 Assumptions and the levelized cost of energy for photovoltaics,
(2018) 1–11. Energy Environ. Sci. 4 (9) (2011) 3133, https://doi.org/10.1039/
[64] I. Carrilero, J. Alonso, P.G. Pereirinha, D. Ansean, J.C. Viera, c0ee00698j.
M. Gonzalez, Lithium Iron Phosphate and Lithium Titanate [66] David Lineweber, S. McNulty. (Accessed on November 22
Oxide cell performance under high power requirements of 2020). The cost of power disturbances to industrial & digital
electric bus applications, in: 2018 IEEE Vehicle Power and economy companies. http://www.lb7.uscourts.gov/documents/
Propulsion Conference (VPPC), IEEE, 2018, pp. 1-6. 08-13064.pdf