Unit 1.

Basic Concepts
What is a computer- meaning, stages of evolution,
generations
Characteristics of a Computer, Advantages and
Limitations.
Basic computer operations and functional units.
Types of Computers- based on data handling technology,
purpose and size
Applications of computers.
Data Representation. Binary number system, conversion
from binary to decimal and vice versa, Computer Codes-
BCD, EBCD, ASCII, ISCII, Unicode.
 What Is a Computer?
Programmable electronic device operating under the
control of instructions stored in its own memory
Accepts data
Raw facts, figures, and symbols
Processes data into information
Data that is organized, meaningful, and useful
Produces and stores results
 History of the Computers

Earliest device: Abacus 600BC

1642: first mechanical adding machine by Blaise Pascal
1671: first calculator for multiplication by Baron Gottfried
Wilhelm von Leibniz of Germany
1822: Difference machine by Charles Babbage to produce
mathematical and Statistical tables
1880: keyboard machines in US, punched cards by Herman
Hollerith
19th century: attempts to build mechanical computers
Early 20th century: mechanical counting systems (cash
registers, etc.)
Stages of evolution-
1937-44: Mark I Computer-ASCC (Automatic Sequence Controlled
Computer)
1939-42-ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer)
1943-46: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator)
1946-52: EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
1947-49: EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator)
1948: Manchester Mark I
1951:UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)
Generations- Key hardware technologies, Key
Software technologies, Key Characteristics, Some
representative systems
FIRST GENERATION (1941-1955)
SECOND GENERATION (1956-1964)
THIRD GENERATION (1964-1974)
FOURTH GENERATION (1975-1989)
FIFTH GENERATION (1989-PRESENT)
Computer Generations
 FIRST GENERATION (1941-1955)
Key hardware technologies
Vacuum tubes; electromagnetic relay memory; secondary
storage: punched cards & punched tapes
Key Software technologies
Machine and assembly languages;
stored program concept; mostly scientific applications
Key Characteristics
Bulky in size; Lot of air-conditioning required; very slow;
consumed lot of power; highly unreliable; limited commercial
use; commercial production difficult and costly; difficult to use
Some representative systems
ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701
 SECOND GENERATION (1956-1964)
Key hardware technologies
Transistors; smaller circuits, magnetic cores memory; magnetic tapes and
disks secondary storage in addition to punched cards
Key Software technologies
Batch operating system; high-level programming languages; scientific and
commercial applications
Key Characteristics
Faster, smaller, more reliable and easier to program than previous generation
systems; generated less heat, required less power; commercial production
was still difficult and costly
Some representative systems
Honeywell 400, IBM 7030, CDC 1604, UNIVAC LARC
 THIRD GENERATION (1964-1974)

Key hardware technologies

Integrated Circuits with SSI and MSI technologies;
larger magnetic cores memory; larger capacity disks and magnetic tapes
secondary storage; minicomputers
Key Software technologies
Timesharing operating system; standardization of high-level programming
languages; unbundling of software from hardware
Key Characteristics
Faster, smaller, more reliable, easier and cheaper to produce commercially,
easier to use, and easier to upgrade than previous generation systems;
scientific, commercial and interactive on-line applications
Some representative systems
IBM 360/370, PDP-8, PDP-11, CDC 6600
 FOURTH GENERATION (1975-1989)

Key hardware technologies

Microprocessors; ICs with VLSI technology; semiconductor
memory; larger capacity hard disks as inbuilt secondary storage;
magnetic tapes and floppy disks as portable storage media;
spread of high-speed computer networks
Key Software technologies
GUI; multiple windows on a single terminal screen; Operating
systems for PCs; multiprocessing operating systems; UNIX
operating system;
C programming language; Object ­oriented design and
programming; PC-based applications; network-based
applications; supercomputing applications
 FOURTH GENERATION (1975-1989)

Key Characteristics
Small, affordable, reliable, and easy to use PCs;
more powerful and reliable mainframe systems and
supercomputers; totally general purpose machines;
easier to produce commercially; easier to upgrade; rapid software
development possible
Some representative systems
IBM PC and its clones, Apple II, TRS­80, V AX 9000, CRAY-l,
CRAY-2, CRAY–X/MP
 FIFTH GENERATION (1989-PRESENT)

Key hardware technologies

ICs with ULSI technology; larger capacity main memory; larger
capacity hard disks with RAID support; portable storage: optical
disks, pen drives
Key Software technologies
Microkernel-based operating systems; multithreading operating
systems; parallel processing
distributed computing systems; World Wide Web; internet-based
applications;
multimedia applications; more complex supercomputing
applications; artificial intelligence
 FIFTH GENERATION (1989-PRESENT)
Key Characteristics
more powerful, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use desktop
machines; Portable computers; notebook computers;
workstations; powerful servers; very powerful supercomputers;
totally general purpose machines;
easier to produce commercially; easier to upgrade; rapid software
development possible
Some representative systems
IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs, SUN Workstations, IBM SP12,
SGI Origin 2000, PARAM 10000, Xybernaut Corp’s personal
wearable computer: POMA
 Technology
1965: Moore’s law [Gordon Moore]
Computational power doubles every 18 months
Speed of Microprocessors and Size of Main Memory & Hard
Disk Double Every 18 Months
Drives functionality, performance, cost
Corollary to Moore’s Law:
Cost halves every two years
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
1. Automatic.
Computers are automatic machines because once started on a job,
they carry on until the job is finished, normally without any
human assistance.
However, computers being machines cannot start themselves.
They have to be instructed. The set of instructions is called a
computer program.
2. Speed.
Speed refers to the amount of time a computer takes in
accomplishing a task or completing an operation.
Computers are capable of performing 100 million calculations
per second. (MIPS- Million Instructions Per Second).
3. Accuracy.
Accuracy refers to the degree of exactness with which
computations are made and operations are performed. The
accuracy of a computer is consistently high. If the input data
entering the computer are correct and if the program of
instructions is reliable, then computer generally will produce
accurate output.
Errors may occur due to bad programming, erroneous data and
deviations from procedures which are in fact the errors caused by
human beings. Errors attributable to hardware are normally
detected and corrected by the computer system itself.
4. Diligence.
Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony,
tiredness, lack of concentration, etc., and hence can work for
hours together without creating any error and without grumbling.
5. Versatility.
Versatility refers to the ability of computers to
perform a variety of tasks simple as well as complex.
Computers are versatile unless designed for a specific
application.
A general purpose computer is capable of being used
in any area of application, viz., business, scientific,
statistical, technological, communications, etc.
6. Reliability
Reliability refers to the ability with which the computers remain
functional to serve the user.
Computer systems are well-adapted to perform repetitive
operations. They are immune to tiredness, boredom or fatigue.
7. Storage
It refers to the amount of data a computer system can store and
access.
A computer can store and recall any amount of information
because of its secondary storage capability.
Every piece of information can be retained as long as desired by
the user and can be recalled as and when required.
ADVANTAGES OF A COMPUTER
The advantages of the computers can be judged
from the various characteristics like, High Speed,
Accuracy, Diligence, Versatility, Power of
remembering, storage, mentioned in its
characteristics.
 LIMITATION OF A COMPUTER
1. Lack of Common Sense:
Computer systems as on date do not possess any
common sense because no fool proof algorithm has
been designed to program Common sense. Computers
work according to a stored program(s).
2. Zero IQ.
Computers are dumb devices with zero Intelligence
Quotient. They possess no intelligence of their own.
They cannot visualize and think what exactly to do
under a particular situation, unless they have been
programmed to tackle that situation.
3. Lack of Decision making
Computers cannot take decisions on their own unless
programmed for it.
If a computer has not been programmed for a
particular decision situation, it will not take decision due
to lack of wisdom and evaluating faculties.
4. No Feelings
Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no
feelings and no instincts because they are machines.
 Application of Computers
Education, Finance, Government, Healthcare, Science,
Publishing, Travel, Manufacturing
Computers cost-effective for
National security – weapons design
Enterprise computing – banking
Departmental computing – CAD, CAM
Personal computer – spreadsheets, email, web
Countless industries revolutionized: aviation,
astronomy, engineering, long range weather forecasting,
airlines & railway reservation, entertainment
Basic computer operations
Input
Storage
Processing
Output
Functional units
Processor/Central Processing Unit
ALU, CU and Internal processor memory
Input Unit
Output Unit
Storage Unit
 A Computer has…

Processor
Input Output

Storage

Von Neumann’s Definition

1. Processor/Central Processing Unit
The electronic component that interprets and carries out
the basic instructions that operate the computer
2. Input Unit
Accepts instructions and data
3. Output Unit
communicates result to the user
4. Storage Unit
Stores temporary and final results
 Central Processing Unit (CPU )
interprets, coordinates the operations and supervises the
instructions.
Controls usage of main memory to store data and
instructions
Highly complex, extensive set of electronic circuitry
which executes stored program instructions
necessary circuits to create CPU are fabricated on a
microprocessor
Main subsystems: ALU, CU and Internal processor
memory (Cache & Registers)
 Subsystems of CPU
1. Control unit
• Directs computer system to carry out, or execute, stored
program instructions
• Directs flow between memory and ALU
Directs flow between CPU and I/O devices
Repeats 4 basic operations
Fetch instruction
Decode instruction
Execute instruction
Store results
2. Arithmetic and logic unit
Performs arithmetical and logical operations
AU: performs actual computing and carries out arithmetic
calculations, such as +, -, X and ÷.
LU: makes logical operations such as comparison (=, !=,
<,>,≤, ≥) of numbers, letters, or special characters and take
action based on the result of comparison
 3. Internal Processor memory

1. Cache Memory
High speed, expensive piece of memory, which is
used to speed up memory retrieval process
CPU comes with a small amount of cache compared
main memory due to its higher cost
Computer uses logic to determine most frequently
accessed data and keeps them in cache.
Made from high speed static RAM that reduces the
access time of the data
 Cache Memory
Categorised into three levels: L1 Cache , L2 Cache and L3 Cache
L1 Cache:
Primary Cache, closest to the processor
Size: 8 to 64 KB or more
Very fast, runs at the speed of the processor since it is integrated into it
L2 Cache:
Larger but slower
Recent accesses not picked by L1 Cache
Size: 64 KB to 2 MB
Also found on CPU
L3 Cache:
Extra cache built into motherboard between the processor and main memory
Speeds up processing operations, reducing time gap b/w request and retrieving of data
and instructions much more quickly than main memory
Size: 3 MB or more
 Subsystems of CPU
2. Registers
Special purpose, high speed temporary memory units for holding
data, instructions, addresses, and intermediate results of
calculations
Working memory of CPU, hold the information that CPU is
currently working on
Register Name Function
Program Counter Keeps track of next instruction to be executed

Instruction Register Holds the instruction to be decoded by CU

Memory address Register Holds address of next location in memory to be accessed

Memory Buffer Register Store data either coming to CPU or data being
transferred by CPU
Data Register Storing operands and other data
Computer Memory
Primary memory Vs. Secondary memory
Primary
RAM & its types- (static Vs. dynamic)
ROM & its types- (PROM, EPROM, EEPROM,
UVPROM, Flash memory)
Cache memory, Registers
 Memory

Electronic holding place for instructions & data where the

computer’s processor can reach quickly.
Holds intermediate results during course of calculations and
provides data as and when required
1. Internal processor memory
2. Primary memory
3. Secondary memory
Internal Processor memory: fastest, most expensive,
compensate speed gap between primary memory and processor
1. Cache
2. Special registers
 Primary Memory

Processes or directly stores and retrieves data from the

secondary memory
Internal storage called primary memory or main memory
CPU can access the main memory in random manner, i.e., any
location to read information from it or store information in it
Primary Memory is implemented by two types of memory
technologies, viz., RAM and ROM
 Primary Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Block of sequential memory locations each of
which has a unique address determining the
location & those locations contain a data element
Temporary holding place for data waiting to be
processed, application programs and the
operating system
Addressable and volatile
Read/write memory
2 categories: DRAM & SRAM
Dynamic RAM
Holds data in dynamic manner with the help of refresh circuitry
Unstable: keeps refreshing the content of each memory cell by
reading it several hundred times per second to maintain the data
Used for system’s main memory because its cheap & small
Static RAM
Retains contents as long as power is provided to the memory
chips
Does not need to be refreshed periodically
Fast but more expensive than DRAM
Used as cache memory due to its high speed
Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Holds computer start up instructions and routines in BIOS

Read by CPU each time it is switched on
Non-volatile: contents not lost even if power failure; no current required
for information to remain stored
Firmware: Hard wired instructions, read only, i.e. can’t be changed by
the user
Random access in nature
Used even in calculators & peripheral devices s.a. laser printers
Types: PROM, EPROM, EEPROM
PROM- Programmable ROM
Cheap blank PROMs available
Programmable only once
EPROM-Erasable PROM
Can be erased & reprogrammed
Entire chip can be erased by exposing to UV light, also called
UVEPROM
More expensive than PROM
Used in software development and testing by R&D personnel
EEPROM-Electrically EPROM
Can be erased by electrical charge, one byte at a time
Flexible, easier to alter than UVEPROM but slow
Used to store programmable instructions in peripheral devices
Flash ROM
constantly powered non-volatile memory that can be erased and
reprogrammed in blocks
variation of EEPROM used to hold control code s.a. BIOS
Also used in digital cellular phones, MP3 players, modems,
digital camera, etc.
Virtual memory

Hard disk used as an extension of RAM

Data swapped between HD and RAM as needed by the
processor
Imaginary memory supported by OS
3. Secondary Memory
Auxiliary memory, back up storage for software program & data
Hard disk, magnetic disk, magnetic tapes, floppy disks, CDROM,
DVDROM, Pen drives etc
Less expensive as compared to primary memory
Much larger storage capacity than primary memory
Not directly accessible by processor, primary memory has a
faster access time as compared to secondary memory
Data, instructions stored are permanent in nature; can be removed
only if user wants it.
Categories of Computers
 Categories of Computers
1. According to Technology
Analog Computers
Digital computers
Hybrid Computers
2. According to Purpose
Special Purpose Computer
Scientific Computers
Business Computers
General purpose computer
3. According to Size
Super Computer
Main Frame Computer
Mini Computer
Micro Computer
Personal Computers (PCs)
Work Stations
Portable computers- Notebook, Netbook
Handheld- Personal Digital Assistants
4. According to Role
Server
Client
Network
 According to Technology.
Analog Computers
Principle of measurement
Measure continuous physical magnitudes, such as pressure, voltage,
temperature etc.
Used for scientific & engineering purpose
Give approximate results because quantities vary continuously
Accuracy is less though very fast
Digital computers
Operates with information, numerical or otherwise represented in a digital
form
Accepts data (text, sound, graphic & video) through various input
devices, converts data into electronic pulses, performs arithmetic and
logical operations, processing and give results.
More accurate and faster than analog computers
 According to Technology.
Hybrid Computers
These computers incorporate the technology of both, Analog and
Digital computers
Measuring feature of an analog computer and computational feature of
a digital computer
Used for scientific, engineering, industrial applications
 According to Purpose
General purpose computer
Perform a variety of tasks
Store a number of programs for various applications ranging from business,
scientific, educational, social and other applications
Though versatile, they lack speed & efficiency
Special Purpose Computer
dedicated computer, designed to handle specific problem or to perform special
tasks, e.g. airlines reservation, satellite tracking, Air Traffic Control, medical
diagnosis, space applications, weather forecasting, banking operations
Very quick & efficient
Scientific Computers
Designed to best suited for large mathematical calculations.
Business Computers
These will lack or take more time in scientific calculation, but be fully equipped to
produce well layout business reports.
 According to Size

Super Computer
fastest computing devices ever invented
Speed measured in teraflops (1012 FLoating-point Operations Per Sec).
Use Multi processing and parallel processing
consist of thousands of integrated microprocessors, main memory of
around 16 GB and secondary memory 1000 GB
e.g., PARAM 10000, PACE, CRAY, Cyber, IBM Blue Gene
IBM’s Blue Gene installed at Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory (LLNL) in California operates at 360 teraflops, used to
study cosmology and the behaviour of stellar binary pairs, laser-
plasma interactions, and the behaviour and aging of high explosives.
 According to Size
Main Frame Computer
processes several millions of instructions per second
bigger & more expensive than workstations
Used in banks and insurance cos., processing on-line
transactions, ERP, Survey etc.
Large disks to store terabytes of data,
transfer data from disk to main memory at several hundred MB
per sec,
process 100 million transactions per sec.
Proprietary OS
e.g., IBM’s System/390, VAX 8000, CDC 6600
 According to Size

Mini Computer
middle sized special purpose computers
used in transaction processing applications
as interface between main frame and WAN,
Serves as a centralised storehouse for a cluster of workstations or
as a network server
Usually multi-user systems, used in industries, research
organisations, colleges & universities
work well with distributed data processing, supports 4 to 200
simultaneous users
VAX 7500, IBM (8000 series), PDP-11.
 According to Size

Work Stations
desktop machines having a powerful processor than a micro (10 times speedier than
PC)
Main memory: several GBs
HD: 100s of GB
support multi-user environment
Operating System: UNIX or its derivatives like AIX (IBM), Solaris (SUN), HP-UX
(HP)
a sophisticated screen display featuring a high resolution colour graphics, large
video screens, inbuilt h/w to connect to LAN
meet computing requirements of engineers, architects
Business & industry usage for executing numeric, graphic intensive multimedia
applications s.a. CAD, simulation of complex systems
Also called super micros.
e.g. DEC, IBM, Sun Workstations
According to Size
Micro Computer
Small, low cost digital computer
most familiar kind of computers
Originally designed for single user, when
networked together can serve more than one user
Many uses
these include: desktop, laptop, PDAs
According to Size- Micro computer

Desktop computer
Personal computer, stand-alone use by an individual
Not expensive
Used by individuals and small businesses
MS-Windows, Windows XP, LINUX
Apple Macintosh (Power PC Processor), IBM PCs (Intel
Pentium processor)
According to Size- Micro computer
Portable computers
Laptop/Note Books
combine the power of PC with mobility, powered
with battery.
Weight around 2kg
Keyboard, flat screen LCD
Wireless connectivity to networks
Cost more than Desktop
According to Size- Micro computer
Personal Digital Assistants
PDAs are much smaller than laptops, handheld computer
also known as Palmtop, Simputer
combine pen input (i.e. stylus), writing recognition and
communication capabilities
No hard disk, use small cards to store programs and data
Runs on batteries
Limited processing capabilities and memory
E.g., Palm pilots, Mind Spring, i-Paq, Casio Cassiopeia, Apple
Newton, Franklin eBookMan
 According to Role
Server
Large computer, manages shared resources and provides services
to clients
specific purpose such as high performance numerical computing
(called compute server), web page hosting, database store,
printing, etc.
Interactive large screens not necessary as in case of workstations
Compute server: high performance processors, large main
memory
Database server: large on-line disk storage (100s of GB)
Print server: support several high speed printers
May be a workstation, mainframe or even a super computer
 According to Role
Client
A single user PC or workstation that provides a highly
user friendly interface to the end user
Runs client processes which sends service request to
server
Network
Interconnects all the clients and servers of the client-
server computing environment
 Data Representation
Binary number system & its relevance
Conversion of numbers among
Binary
Octal
Hexadecimal
Decimal
Binary representation of integers and real numbers
Sign and magnitude representation
Complement representation
Performing simple arithmetic on binary numbers
Computer Codes- BCD, EBCD, ASCII, ISCII, Unicode.
 DATA REPRESENTATION

Number Systems: Positional, Non Positional (Roman)

Positional: Decimal (base 10), Binary-2, Octal-8,
Hexadecimal-16
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
In binary number system, there are only two states: 0 and 1.
These are also called binary digits or bits.
The use of binary number system in digital computers has made
the design of digital computers very simple. All information is
represented using zeros and ones.
0 and 1 in binary number system are used to represent decimal
numbers 0 and 1, respectively.
 BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
Decimal Number Binary Number

0 0000

1 0001

2 0010

3 0011

4 0100

5 0101

6 0110

7 0111

8 1000

9 1001

10 1010
 Converting Binary to Decimal

(a) 101112
the right most bit is called the least significant bit (LSB), its weight is 2 0, i.e.
1.
The next bit on the left side of LSB has a weight of 21, i.e. 2.
The next bit has a weight of 22, i.e. 4, and so on.
Thus, the rightmost bit, which is also called the most significant bit (MSB)
in 10111 has a weight of 24, i.e. 16.
101112
= 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20
=1x16+0x8+1x4+1x2+1x1
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 2310
(b)101010112
= 1 x 27 + 0 x 26 + 1 x 25 + 0 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 1 x 128 + 0 x 64 + 1 x 32 + 0 x 16 + 1 x 8 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 1
= 128 + 0 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1
= 17110
 Converting Decimal to Binary
Divide decimal number by 2.
Then the result (quotient) is successively divided again
by 2, till it cannot be divided further.
The binary number is obtained by writing the
remainders of these divisions backward.
 Convert 4210 into binary number

2 42 Remainder

21 0

10 1

5 0

2 1

1 0

0 1

(42)2= (101010)10
 COMPUTER CODES
Commonly used coding systems: BCD, ASCII, EBCDIC, Unicode, etc.
1. Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a numeral system used in computing
and in electronics systems. In BCD, numbers are represented as a sequence
of decimal digits in which each digit is represented by four bits:

Digit bits Digit bits Digit bits Digit bits Digit bits

0 0000 2 0010 4 0100 6 0110 8 1000

1 0001 3 0011 5 0101 7 0111 9 1001

 Binary-coded decimal (BCD)

To encode a number such as 127, for example, each of the decimal digits
is encoded using the bit pattern shown above, that is: 0001, 0010, 0111.
Most computers store data in eight-bit bytes, so there are two common
ways of storing four-bit BCD digits in those bytes:
Ignore the extra four bits of each byte, usually filling them with either
zero bits or one bits (as in EBCDIC)
Store two digits per byte, called "packed" BCD.
Packed BCD numbers also usually end with a sign 'digit', for which the
preferred values are 1100 for + and 1101 for -.
Thus the number 127 would be represented as (11110001, 11110010,
11110111) in EBCDIC or (00010010, 01111100) in packed BCD.
BCD is wasteful (about 1/6 of the available memory is wasted, even in
packed BCD),
 2. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

EBCDIC was devised in the 1963-1964 by IBM

It is an 8-bit character encoding used on IBM mainframes and AS/400s.
It is descended from punched cards and the corresponding six bit binary-
coded decimal code that most of IBM's computer peripherals of the late
1950s and early 1960s used.
Single byte EBCDIC takes up eight bits, which are divided in two pieces.
The first four bits are called the zone and represent the category of the
character,
the last four bits are the called the digit and identify the specific character.
It was created to extend the Binary Coded Decimal that existed at the time.
 3. AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION
INTERCHANGE (ASCII)
ASCII (generally pronounced ski), is a character set and a character
encoding based on the Roman alphabet as used in modern English and other
Western European languages.
Most commonly used by computers and other communication equipment to
represent text and by control devices that work with text.
ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and the
symbols/glyphs of a written language, thus allowing digital devices to
communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate
character-oriented information.
ASCII is, strictly, a seven-bit code, meaning that it uses the bit patterns
representable with seven binary digits (a range of 0 to 127 decimal) to
represent character information.
Later ASII-8 was developed by IBM which is 8-bit code with 256
characters.
 ASCII
ASCII was first published as a standard in 1968 by the American Standards
Association (ASA), which later became ANSI (American National
Standards Institute). There are many variations of ASCII.
The first thirty-two codes (numbers 0-31 decimal) in ASCII are reserved for
control characters: codes that were not originally intended to carry
information, but rather to control devices (such as printers) that make use of
ASCII.
For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes
a printer to advance its paper), and character 27 represents the "escape" key
found on the top left of common keyboards.
Code 127 (all seven bits on) is another special character known as "delete".
Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words, which
is produced by the large space bar of a keyboard.
Codes 33 to 126 are called the printable characters, which represent
letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols.
 Unicode

Unicode Standard replaced ASCII

Developed by Unicode Consortium in 1991
Provides unique code for every character
Supports international languages
Irrespective of platform, program, language
Adopted by Apple, HP, IBM, Microsoft, Oracle, SAP, Sybase, etc.
 Unit 2.Essential components of
Computers
Meaning of Hardware, Software, Firmware, Live-
ware
Hardware components in brief.
Relationship between hardware and software
 Unit 2.Essential components of
Computers
Hardware, Software, Firmware, Live-ware
Relationship between hardware and software
System Software
Overview of operating system
Application software
 Components of Computer System
Hardware: physical components, electronic & electro
mechanical components
Software: set of computer programs; system software &
application software
computer program: sequence of instructions written in a language that can
be understood by a computer and instructs the computer to perform a task
Liveware: human beings that interact with the computers; system
analysts, programmers and operators
Firmware: software embedded in a hardware device that allows
reading & executing the software but does not allow modification
e.g., BIOS in a ROM
 Hardware Components

What is an input device?

Hardware used to enter data and instructions
What is an output device?
Hardware that conveys information to one or more people
What is storage?
Holds data, instructions, and information for future use
Storage media
Physical material on which data, instructions, and information
are stored
Storage device
Records and retrieves items to and from storage media
Software

Software Categories:
System Software
1. System Management Program
1. Operating System
2. Device Drivers
3. System Utilities
2. System Development Program
1. Programming Languages
2. Language processors
3. Linkers
4. Loader
Application Software
System Vs. Application software
System Software Application Software
Low level programs that End user programs
interact with computer at User oriented programs that
low level perform specific tasks
Provide basic non-task Controlled by system
specific functions software
Control the operations &
extend processing
capability of computer
system
Application Software
 Application software:
1. Word-Processing Software
2. Spreadsheet Software
3. Database Software
4. Graphics Software
5. Personal Assistance Software
6. Education Software
7. Entertainment software
 Application software:
a set of one or more programs designed to solve a specific
problem or do a specific task.
e.g. inventory management, preparation of tax return, banking,
hospital administration, insurance.
1. Word-Processing Software
enables the user to create, edit, view, format, store, retrieve
and print documents (written material such as letters, reports,
books, etc.) on a computer system.
2. Spreadsheet Software
a numeric data analysis tool that allows user to create a kind of
computerized ledger.
can hold large information and perform calculation just like
calculator.
3. Database Software
a set of one or more programs that enables users to create a
database, maintain it (add, delete and update its records),
organize its data in desired fashion and to selectively retrieve
useful information from it.
4. Graphics Software
used for creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and
printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything else
that can be drawn in the traditional manner.
5. Personal Assistance Software
storing and retrieving personal information, planning and
managing schedules, contacts, financial and inventory of
important items
6. Education Software
teaching and learning tool
Black-board, on-line examinations, Authoring tools,
Vocabulary Builder, Mathematics, Geometry, etc
7. Entertainment software
Video games, interactive television, game partner, etc.
 Functions of system software
Controls all operations required to move data into and out of a
computer
Supports development & execution of other applications
software
Monitors effective use of various hardware resources- CPU,
Memory & other peripherals
Communicates with & controls operation of I/O devices
System Software
 Categories of system software
System Management Programs System Development
Responsible for mgt & accurate Programs
functioning of computer system Associated with development of
Manage operations of processor, Computer program
control I/O, manage storage Allow programmers to write &
resources, provide various support construct programs that OS can
devices execute
Include Include:
1. 1.

1. 1.

1. Operating System 1. Programming Languages

2. Device Drivers 2. Language processors
3. System Utilities 3. Linkers
4. Loader
 Operating System
An operating system is a collection of programs that supervises
all the operations of a computer
manages resources of computer system, s.a. memory, processor,
& input/output devices
keeps track of status of each resource & decides who will have a
control over computer resources, for how long & when
acts as an interface between users & hardware of a computer
system
called platform, coordinates all activities among computer
hardware resources
booting the system: OS loaded from hard disk or floppy disk
 Operating System
An operating system is made up of 3 elements:
1. Control programs: provide automatic control of the
resources of a computer, like I/O, scheduling,
communicating with the operator, and handling
interrupts.
2. Processing programs: called (or invoked) as required
by the control programs, e.g. language processors such as
compilers and interpreters.
3. Data management programs: control the organisation
and access of data used by application programs.
 Operating System Functions

1. Process management
2. File and software management
3. I/O and peripherals management
4. Memory management
5. CPU Time management
6. Security management
7. Command interpretation
 Operating System Functions
1. Process management:
creation & deletion of processes, scheduling of system
resources, synchronising of processes
1. File and software management:
OS stores & retrieves files of data
supports a large library of typical user programs & files
retrieves the program required by the user from disk and bring it to the
main memory to be used by the operator
2. I/O and peripherals management:
contains peripheral device handlers
configures new devices
Coordination & assignment of different I/O resources while one or more
programs is being executed
 Operating System Functions
3. Memory management:
determine how much usable RAM a computer has
decides how this RAM is used
Supervises transfer of data and programs into and out of RAM
4. CPU Time management:
Schedules CPU time so that it can be used effectively
When the CPU is idle (e.g., during I/O operations), the operating
system can give the CPU something to do.
 Operating System Functions

5. Security management:
provides security features which enable different users to
protect their files
Enforce security/confidentiality through usernames, passwords,
access rights, etc.
6. Command interpretation:
Interpretation of commands & instructions
Coordination & assignment of compilers, assemblers, utility
program & other s/w to various users of computer system
 Types of OS

1. Multiprogramming OS
2. Multitasking OS
3. Multiprocessing OS
4. Multithreading OS
5. Multiuser OS
6. Real time OS
 Multiprogramming Operating System
interleaved execution of two or more different and
independent programs by same computer
processor executes each program for a very short
interval of time, say, about 150 milliseconds, & then
executes the next program in the queue
All programs residing in main memory will be in one of
the 3 states: running (using CPU), blocked (I/O
operation being done) & ready (waiting for CPU)
even though many programs may reside in the
computer's memory at the same time, only one program
is being executed (running state) at any given time.
 Multiprogramming Operating system
Multiprogramming ensures maximum utilization of
CPU, as its never idle
For multiprogramming to work satisfactorily, large
memories are required.
UNIX, Windows NT, LINUX
 Multi tasking Operating System
System’s capability to concurrently work on more
than one task in single user systems
Technically same as multi programming
Term Multi programming is used for multi user
systems
Windows 95, 98, 2000, XP, Vista, Windows7,etc
 Multiprocessing operating systems
two or more independent processors are linked together.
the instructions from different programs can be
processed at the same time by different processors
Simultaneous execution of two or more processes
Two types: Tightly coupled (single system wide
primary memory shared by all processors & Loosely
coupled (each processor has own local memory,
geographically scattered)
Multitasking operating system supports two or more
active processes simultaneously in a single user system.
Multiprogramming operating system supports multiple
concurrent process & allows the instruction and data
from two or more separate processes to reside in primary
memory simultaneously.
Multiprogramming implies multiprocessing or
multitasking operation, but multitasking does not imply
multiprogramming.
 Multi threading OS
Basic unit of CPU utilization is a thread, also
called light weight process
Each thread of a process share the same address
space, same global variables, same set of OS
resource
Resource sharing is more efficient, lesser
overheads are involved.
At a particular time thread can be in one of 4
states: running, blocked, ready or terminated
 Multi-user operating system
allows simultaneous access to a computer system
through two or more terminals
associated with multiprogramming
e.g., dedicated transaction processing system such as
railway reservation system with hundreds of terminals
under control of a single program
 Real Time Operating System

used in environments where a large number of events

mostly external to computer systems, must be accepted
and processed in a short time or within certain deadlines.
e.g. flight control, nuclear reactor control systems, real
time simulations, military applications, etc.
A primary objective of real-time system is to provide
quick response times.
 Real Time Operating System
User convenience and resource utilization are of
secondary concern to real-time system.
each process is assigned a certain level of priority
according to the relative importance of the event
processes.
processor is allocated to the highest priority process
among those which are ready to execute.
Higher priority process usually pre-empt execution of
lower priority processes (called, priority based pre-
emptive scheduling)
 Device Drivers
Responsible for proper functioning of devices
Every hardware has a driver program for support,
most OS include various h/w drivers
Acts as translator b/w device & programs that use
device
Not independent programs, assist & are assisted
by the OS for proper functioning of device
 Utility Programs
performs a maintenance tasks, usually related to
managing system resources e.g. managing disk drive,
printer and other devices
Support, enhance, expand & secure existing programs
& data in computer system
Bundled along with OS
 Utility Programs
Most common utilities include:
1. Disk formatting: formatting hard disk in tracks, sectors for
orderly sorting of data
2. Disk defragmenter: reorganizing files in a sequential order &
release unused space so that programs run faster
3. Data Compression: squeeze out slack space generated by
formatting schemes
4. Back up utility: copies selected files or entire hard disk into
another storage medium
5. Data Recovery: recover files or information that is accidentally
deleted
6. Disc scanner: Scanning the computer for unnecessary files such
as virus and errors
 System Development software

Programming Languages
Language Processors
Linkers
Loader
Programming Languages
Meaning of programming language
Types of programming language
Low Level Languages and High Level Languages
Low Level languages-Machine language and Assembly
language.
differentiate between different types of language
giving relative advantages and disadvantages
Language processors
assembler, compiler, interpreter
distinguish between compiler and interpreter
 Programming languages
Interface of programmer with a computer
Series of commands which are used in development of s/w
Classification
1. Machine language
First generation language
Understood by computer w/o using translation program
Written as strings of binary 1s & 0s
Converted immediately by computer circuitry into electrical signals
required to execute them
Each model of computer has unique machine language
Advantages: fast execution of programs, no translation required
Used for complex applications s.a. Space control system, nuclear
reactors, chemical processing
Disadvantages: machine dependent, complex language, difficult to
read & understand, error prone, difficult to modify
1.

1. Assembly language
Allows instructions & storage locations to be represented by mnemonics
e.g. ADD, SUB, MLT, etc
Low level language, second generation language, developed by IBM in
1950s
Advantages: easier to understand & use, easier to locate & correct errors,
easier to modify
Limitations: machine dependent, knowledge of h/w required, machine
level coding
2. High level language
Problem oriented instead of machine based
English words & math notation
3GL (COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, C), 4GL (SQL, QBE), 5GL(LISP,
ProLog)
Advantages: readability, machine independent, easy debugging, easy
documentation, faster & low cost development of programs
Disadvantages: poor control on h/w, no need for h/w knowledge, less
efficient, more computation time
 Programming Language processors

Transform instructions prepared by programmers using

convenient programming language into a form that can
be interpreted & executed by a computer system
three categories:
1. Assembler
Converts assembly language program into its equivalent
machine language program
 Programming Language processors

1. Compiler
Converts the entire source program into object code
before program is executed
Reports all errors of programs along with line numbers,
then program is recompiled
Object program made available & compiler is no longer
required memory
e.g. FORTRAN, C, JAVA compilers
 Programming Language processors

1. Interpreter
Translate one source instruction into object code &
computer immediately executes that instruction before
moving on to translate next instruction
Longer time for complete execution than compiled
program
Error can be traced exactly
Unnecessary usage of memory, interpreter must be
always present in the memory
e.g. BASIC, LISP are interpreted language
Basis Compiler Interpreter
Object Code Separate object No object code file
code provided Translates source
Translation Converts entire code line wise
process prog into machine Debugging easier
Debugging code at one go Easier to write, less
Implementation Slow debugging complex prog
Complex programs Less memory
Execution More memory required for
required to execute execution
Faster execution as slow execution as
object file saved each statement
translated
Linker
Links compiled module & data files to create an
executable program

Loader
Brings an executable file (code of program) residing on
disk into memory for execution
Automatically invoked during program run
 Acquiring software

Ready to use/Prewritten software

Customised
Tailor made
In-house development:
Outsourcing:
In-house Vs. Outsourcing
Public domain software
shareware
freeware
 Unit 3. Information System
Meaning
Need of an efficient Information System
Types of Information System
Information requirement for Planning, Coordination,
and Control for various levels in Business, Industry.
Basic of data arrangement and access
Meaning and comparison of data, information and
knowledge
Need of efficient information- accurate, timely, complete,
precise & relevant
Enhance value of information- form, time, place and usage
utility,
Types of information- strategic, tactical, operational, statutory
Meaning and Need of an efficient information System-
facilitate acquisition , transformation & distribution of efficient
information, improve decision making, performance,
productivity and enhance profitability,
 Type of Information system
Based on decision making
Executive Support system
Management information system
Decision Support system
Transaction Processing system
office automation system
expert system.
Based on organizational level
Strategic level information system
management level information system
operational level information system
knowledge level information system
 Executive Support/Information System

generate strategic information and are used by the top

level managers
lay more emphasis on presentation of summary
information, integration of internal and external
information, exception reporting techniques and establish
link with basic operations of the enterprise
help in identifying options, evaluation of alternative
scenarios and making informed choices regarding the
business options.
 Decision Support System

used by managers at middle level for generating

tactical information
DSS not only take input from TPS but from
external sources
They also offer tools for analyzing the information
more rigorously and help in generating tactical
information and performing 'what - if analysis' for
managers.
 Comparing Characteristics of MIS and DSS
Management Information Systems (MIS)
1. The main impact has been on structured tasks, where standard operating procedures,
decision rules, and information flows can be reliably predefined.
2. The main payoff has been in improving efficiency by reducing costs, turnaround time,
and so on, and by replacing clerical personnel or increasing their productivity.
3. The relevance for managers decision making has mainly been indirect (e.g., by providing
reports and access to data).
4, MIS application is routine and done periodically.
Decision Support Systems (DSS)
1. The impact is on decisions in which there is sufficient structure for computer and analytic
aids to be of value but .where the manager's judgment is essential.
2. The payoff is in extending the range and capability of managers' decision processes to
help them improve their effectiveness.
3. The relevance for managers is in the creation of a supportive tool, under their own
control, that does .not attempt to automate the decision process, predefine objectives, or
impose solutions.
4. DSS applications are non-routine, as needed.
 Transaction Processing System (TPS)
refers to a computerized system that serve the operational level of
the organization
Generates operational information.
At the operational level, tasks, resources, and goals are
predefined and highly structured.
records the daily routine transactions necessary to conduct
business and one such transaction affects many databases
Management Information System uses the information contained
in the TPS and processes them for producing the summary
reports for managers to plan and control operations.
TPS is the key producer of information for other types of systems
especially the functional information systems.
 Expert Systems

aim at formalizing expertise and make it available for

repetitive type of business decisions.
use artificial intelligence tools to generate knowledge out
of the information, existing theories, belief and
experiences of managers in various business activities.
they help human experts perform their job more
effectively and replicate the expertise at various locations
in the business enterprise.
Application of IS at different level of management

TOP
EIS

MIDDLE DSS AND MIS

LOWER TPS

Expert Systems
Office Automation System
 Type of Information system
Functional point of view- purpose, features and
cycle
Financial and accounting information system
Human resource development and management system
Manufacturing or production information system
Marketing information system
 Accounting information systems
record and report business transactions and other
economic events as well as help in producing
financial statements.
 Marketing information system
set of procedures and practices employed in
analyzing and assessing marketing information,
gathered continuously from sources inside and
outside of a firm
Information requirement for Planning,
Coordination, and control for various level in
Business, Industry
Basic of data arrangement and Access
Data arrangement and access for specific
information needs
Data access and their usage
 Information requirement
Functions of organisation Information requirement Information system required

Planning Strategic ESS

Tactical DSS, MIS

Operational TPS
 Basics of data arrangement and Access

Data arrangement- data hierarchy (field, record, file,

etc.)
Data access typically refers to software and activities
related to storing, retrieving, or acting on data housed in
a database or other repository.
There are two types of data access, sequential access and
random access.