Meeting Life Challenges (Ch 3)

STRESS

1) Challenges, problems, and difficult circumstances in day-to-day functioning put us under stress.

2) Stress gives energy, increases human arousal and affects performance. Thus, stress increases the
probability of one’s survival.

3) High stress can produce unpleasant effects and cause our performance to deteriorate. Conversely,
too little stress may cause one to feel somewhat listless and low on motivation which may lead us to
perform slowly and less efficiently.

4) ‘Eustress’ is the term used to describe the level of stress that is good for you and is one of a
person’s best assets for achieving peak performance and managing minor crises.

5) Eustress, however, has the potential of turning into ‘distress’. It is this latter manifestation of
stress that causes our body’s wear and tear.

6) Thus, stress can be described as the pattern of responses an organism makes to a stimulus event
that disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope.

7) Stress is embedded in an ongoing process that involves individuals transacting with their social
and cultural environments, making appraisals of those encounters and attempting to cope with the
issues that arise. Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive state.

8) It is a disruption in homeostasis or an imbalance that gives rise to a requirement for resolution of

that imbalance or restoration of homeostasis.

“STRESS”

The word stress has its origin in the Latin words ‘strictus’, meaning tight or narrow and ‘stringere’,
the verb meaning to tighten. These root words reflect the internal feelings of tightness and
constriction of the muscles and breathing reported by many people under stress.

STRESSORS

Stressors are events that cause our body to give the stress response. Eg. Noise, crowding, a bad
relationship, etc

STRAIN

The reaction to external stressors is called ‘strain’.

INDIVIDUAL PATTERNS OF STRESS REACTION

1) Hans Selye, the father of modern stress research, defined stress as “the non- specific response of
the body to any demand” that is, regardless of the cause of the threat, the individual will respond
with the same physiological pattern of reactions.

2) Stress response is not nearly as general and non- specific as Selye suggests. Different stressors
may produce somewhat different patterns of stress reaction, and different individuals may have
different characteristic modes of response.

3) Each one of us will see the situation through our own eyes and it is our perception of the
demands, and our ability to meet them, which will determine whether we are feeling ‘stressed’ or
not.

COGNITIVE THEORY OF STRESS (LAZARUS)

1) The perception of stress is dependent upon the individual’s cognitive appraisal of events and the
resources available to deal with them.

2) The stress process, based on the cognitive theory of stress propounded by Lazarus and his
colleagues, says that an individual’s response to a stressful situation largely depends upon the
perceived events and how they are interpreted or appraised.

3) Lazarus has distinguished between two types of appraisal, i.e. primary and secondary. This two-
level appraisal process determines not only our cognitive and behavioural responses but also our
emotional and physiological responses to external events.

Appraisal

Primary Secondary

4) Primary appraisal refers to the perception of a new or changing environment as positive, neutral
or negative in its consequences. Negative events are appraised for their possible harm, threat or
challenge:

- Harm is the assessment of the damage that has already been done by an event.
- Threat is the assessment of possible future damage that may be brought about by the event.
- Challenge appraisals are associated with more confident expectations of the ability to cope
with the stressful event, the potential to overcome and even profit from the event.

5) When we perceive an event as stressful, we are likely to make a secondary appraisal, which is the
assessment of one’s coping abilities and resources and whether they will be sufficient to meet the
harm, threat or challenge of the event. These resources may be mental, physical, personal or social
to feel less stressed:

- Positive attitude
- Health
- Skills
- Social support
6) These appraisals are very subjective and depend on:

a) One factor is the past experience of dealing with such a stressful condition. If one has
handled similar situations very successfully in the past, they would be less threatening for
her/him.

b) Another factor is whether the stressful event is perceived as controllable, i.e. whether one
has mastery or control over a situation. A person who believes that s/he can control the
onset of a negative situation or its adverse consequences will experience less amount of
stress than those who have no such sense of personal control.

TYPES OF STRESSORS

Stressors

External Social Psychological

(eg. Environmental like noise) (eg. loneliness) (eg. Frustration, conflict)

STRESS REACTIONS

Stress reactions

Physiological Behavioural Emotional Cognitive

1) PHYSIOLOGICAL LEVEL

a) Arousal plays a key role in stress- related behaviours. The hypothalamus initiates action along two
pathways.

b) The first pathway involves the autonomic nervous system. The adrenal gland releases large
amounts of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream. This leads to
physiological changes seen in fight-or-flight response.

c) The second pathway involves the pituitary gland, which secretes the corticosteroid (cortisol)
which provides energy.

2) BEHAVIOURAL LEVEL

- Confrontative action against the stressor (fight)

- Withdrawal from the threatening event (flight)
3) COGNITIVE LEVEL

a) Cognitive responses include beliefs about the harm or threat an event poses and beliefs about its
causes or controllability.

b) These include responses such as inability to concentrate, and intrusive, repetitive or morbid
thoughts.

4) EMOTIONAL LEVEL

The emotional reactions to experience of stress include negative emotions such as fear, anxiety,
embarrassment, anger, depression or even denial.

VARIATIONS IN EXPERIENCE OF STRESS

1) The stresses which people experience vary in terms of:

- Intensity (low intensity vs. high intensity)

- Duration (short-term vs. long- term)
- Complexity ( less complex vs. more complex)
- Predictability (unexpected vs. predictable)

2) Usually more intense, prolonged or chronic, complex and unanticipated stresses have more
negative consequences than have less intense, short-term, less complex and expected stresses.

3) Individuals with poor physical health and weak constitution would be more vulnerable than would
be those who enjoy good health and strong constitution.

4) Psychological characteristics like mental health, temperament, and self- concept are relevant to
the experience of stress.

5) The cultural context in which we live determines the meaning of any event and defines the nature
of response that is expected under various conditions.

6) The stress experience will be determined by the resources of the person, such as money, social
skills, coping style, support networks, etc.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF STRESS IN INDIVIDUALS

1) The way we respond to stress varies depending upon our personality, early upbringing and life
experiences. Everyone has their own pattern of stress response. So the warning signs and their
intensity may vary.

2) Some of us can gauge the depth of the problem by the nature and severity of our own symptoms
or changes in behaviour.

3) These symptoms of stress can be physical, emotional and behavioural.

4) Any of the symptoms can indicate a degree of stress which, if left unresolved, might have serious
implications.

TYPES OF STRESS

The three major types of stress are physical and environmental, psychological, and social:

1) PHYSICAL STRESS

a) Physical stresses are demands that change the state of our body.

b) We feel strained when we overexert ourselves physically, lack a nutritious diet, suffer an
injury, or fail to get enough sleep.

2) ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS

a) Environmental stresses are aspects of our surroundings that are often unavoidable such
as air pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the summer, winter cold, etc.

b) Another group of environmental stresses are catastrophic events or disasters such as fire,
earthquake, floods, etc.

3) PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS

a) These are stresses that we generate ourselves in our minds.

b) These are personal and unique to the person experiencing them and are internal sources
of stress.

c) We worry about problems, feel anxiety, or become depressed. These are not only
symptoms of stress, but they cause further stress for us.

Important sources of psychological stress:

Definition Example

Frustration Frustration results from the There could be a number of

blocking of needs and causes of frustration such as
motives by something or social discrimination,
someone that hinders us interpersonal hurt, low
from achieving a desired grades in school, etc.
goal.
 Conflicts Conflicts may occur between There may be a conflict of
two or more incompatible values when I am
needs or motives. pressurised to take any
action that may be against
the values held by me.

Internal pressures Internal pressures stem Many of us drive ourselves

from beliefs based upon ruthlessly towards achieving
expectations from inside us unrealistically high
to ourselves which can lead standards in achieving our
to disappointment. goals. Eg. I must be perfect.

Social pressures a) Social pressures may be Eg. The peer pressure to try
brought about from people alcohol or smoking.
who make excessive
demands on us. This can
cause even greater pressure
when we have to work with
them.

b) There are people with

whom we face interpersonal
difficulties, ‘a personality
clash’ of sorts.

4) SOCIAL STRESS

a) These are induced externally and result from our interaction with other people. Eg. Death
or illness in the family, strained relationships

b) These social stresses vary widely from person to person. Eg. Attending parties may be
stressful for a person who likes to spend quiet evenings at home while an outgoing person
may find staying at home in the evenings stressful.

SOURCES OF STRESS

A wide range of events and conditions can generate stress:

Life events Changes, big and We learn to cope with If several of these life
small, sudden and small, everyday events that are
gradual affect our life. changes but major life planned (e.g. moving
events can be into a new house) or
stressful, because they unpredicted (e.g.
 disturb our routine break-up of a long-
and cause upheaval. term relationship)
occur within a short
period of time, we
find it difficult to cope
with them and will be
more prone to the
symptoms of stress.

Daily hassles These are the These daily hassles The more stress
personal stresses we may sometimes have people report as a
endure as individuals, devastating result of daily hassles,
due to the happenings consequences for the the poorer is their
in our daily life, such individual who is often psychological well-
as noisy surroundings, the one coping alone being.
commuting, with them as others
quarrelsome may not even be
neighbours, electricity aware of them as
and water shortage, outsiders.
traffic snarls, and so
on.
Traumatic events Traumatic events The effects of these Professional help will
include being involved events may occur be needed to cope
in a variety of extreme after some lapse of with them especially if
events such as a fire, time and sometimes they persist for many
train or road accident, persist as symptoms months after the
robbery, earthquake, of anxiety, flashbacks, event is over.
tsunami, etc. dreams and intrusive
thoughts, etc.

MAJOR EFFECTS OF STRESS

Emotional Physiological Cognitive Behavioural

Signs Ramifications Examples

Emotional Those who suffer from This can start a vicious Some examples are
stress are far more circle of decreasing feelings of anxiety and
likely to experience confidence, leading to depression, increased
mood swings, and more serious physical tension,
show erratic emotional problems. increased
behaviour that may psychological tension
alienate them from and mood swings.
family and friends.
 Physiological When the human Although this physical Examples of
body is placed under reaction will help us to physiological effects
physical or function more are release of
psychological stress, it effectively when we epinephrine and nor-
increases the are under pressure for epinephrine, slowing
production of certain short periods of time, down of the digestive
hormones, such as it can be extremely system, expansion of
adrenaline and damaging to the body air passages in the
cortisol. These in the long-term. lungs, increased heart
hormones produce rate, and constriction
marked changes in of blood vessels.
heart rate, blood
pressure levels,
metabolism and
physical activity.
Cognitive If pressures due to This suffering from Faulty decisions may
stress continue, one high level of stress can lead to arguments,
may suffer from rapidly cause failure, financial loss
mental overload. individuals to lose or even loss of job.
their ability to make Cognitive effects of
sound decisions. stress are poor
concentration, and
reduced short- term
memory capacity.

Behavioural Stress affects our Tranquillisers can be Some of the typical

behaviour in the form addictive and have behavioural effects of
of eating less side effects such as stress seen are
nutritional food, loss of concentration, disrupted sleep
increasing intake of poor coordination, patterns, increased
stimulants such as and dizziness. absenteeism, and
caffeine, excessive reduced work
consumption of performance.
cigarettes, alcohol and
other drugs such as
tranquillisers etc.

HEALTH REPERCUSSIONS OF STRESS

1) Chronic daily stress can divert an individual’s attention from caring for herself or himself. When
stress is prolonged, it affects physical health and impairs psychological functioning.

2) People experience exhaustion and attitudinal problems when the stress due to demands from the
environment and constraints are too high and little support is available.

3) Exhaustion

Physical Mental

- The physical exhaustion is seen in the signs of chronic fatigue, weakness and low energy.
 - The mental exhaustion appears in the form of irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness
and hopelessness.

4) This state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion is known as burnout.

5) There is also convincing evidence to show that stress can produce changes in the immune system
and increase the chances of someone becoming ill. Stress plays an important role in fifty to seventy
percent of all physical illnesses. Studies also reveal that sixty per cent of medical visits are primarily
for stress-related symptoms.

6) Stress has been implicated in the development of cardiovascular disorders, high blood pressure,
as well as psychosomatic disorders including ulcers, asthma, allergies and headaches.

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS)

1) Hans Selye studied what happens to the body when stress is prolonged by subjecting animals to a
variety of stressors such as high temperature, X-rays and insulin injections, in the laboratory over a
long period of time.

2) He also observed patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals.

3) Selye noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of them.

4) He called this pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS involves
three stages:

a) Alarm reaction stage:

The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to activation of the adrenal- pituitary-cortex
system. This triggers the release of hormones producing the stress response. Now the individual is
ready for fight or flight.

b) Resistance stage:

If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The para- sympathetic nervous system calls for
more cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, as
through confrontation.

c) Exhaustion stage:

Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains the body of its resources and
leads to the third stage of exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and
resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood
pressure becomes more likely.

GAS CRITICISMS

a) Selye’s model has been criticised for assigning a very limited role to psychological factors in stress.
b) Researchers have reported that the psychological appraisal of events is important for the
determination of stress.

c) How people respond to stress is substantially influenced by their perceptions, personalities and
biological constitutions.

PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY

Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the immune system.
It studies the effects of stress on the immune system.

EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

[A] The immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside. Stress can
cause illness by impairing the workings of this system.

[B] HOW THE IMMUNE SYSTEM WORKS

Immune system

White blood cells (make antibodies; destroy antigens)

T helper cells (destroy invaders) B cells (make antibodies) Natural killer cells (fight viruses)

- The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune system identify and destroy foreign
bodies (antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to the production of antibodies. There are
several kinds of white blood cells or leucocytes within the immune system, including T cells,
B cells and natural killer cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper cells increase
immunological activity.
- It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), the
virus causing Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
- B cells produce antibodies. Natural killer cells are involved in the fight against both viruses
and tumours.
- Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in the defence
against various infections and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer cell cytotoxicity have
been found in people who are highly stressed.

[C]

- Immune functioning is better in individuals receiving social support.

- Also, changes in the immune system will have more effect on health among those whose
immune systems are already weakened.

[D] Negative emotions like (hostility and anger) and release of stress hormones leads to weakening
of the immune system, thereby affecting mental and physical health.
NEGATIVE EMOTIONS

1) Psychological stress is accompanied by negative emotions and associated behaviours, including

depression, hostility, anger and aggression.

2) Negative emotion states are of particular concern to the study of effects of stress on health.

3) The incidence of psychological disorders, such as panic attacks and obsessive behaviour increases
with the build up of long-term stress. Worries can reach such a level that they surface as a
frightening, painful physical sensation, which can be mistaken for a heart attack.

4) People under prolonged stress are more prone to irrational fears, mood swings and phobias, and
may experience fits of depression, anger and irritability.

5) These negative emotions appear to be related to the function of the immune system.

6) Feelings of hopelessness are related to worsening of disease, increased risk of injury and death
due to various causes.

LIFESTYLE

Lifestyle is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s health and
quality of life.

STRESS AND LIFESTYLE

1) Stressed individuals may be more likely to expose themselves to pathogens, which are agents
causing physical illness.

2) People who are stressed have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and are likely to engage in other
health risking behaviours like smoking and alcohol abuse.

3) The modern lifestyle of excesses in eating, drinking and the so called fast-paced good life has led
to violation of basic principles of health in some of us, as to what we eat, think or do with our lives.

4) Such health impairing behaviours develop gradually and are accompanied by pleasant experiences
temporarily. However, we tend to ignore their long-term damaging effects and underestimate the
risk they pose to our lives.

HEALTHY LIFESTYLE

- Balanced diet
- Regular exercise and activity
- Family support
- Positive thinking

COPING

1) It is how we cope with stress and not the stress one experiences that influences our psychological
well-being, social functioning and health.
2) Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress.

3) It is a set of concrete responses to stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the
problem and reduce stress.

4) The way we cope with stress often depends on rigid deep-seated beliefs, based on experience,
e.g. when caught in a traffic jam we feel angry, because we believe that the traffic ‘should’ move
faster.

ENDLER AND PARKER COPING STRATEGIES

People who cope poorly with stress have an impaired immune response and diminished activity of
natural killer cells. Individuals show consistent individual differences in the coping strategies they
use to handle stressful situations. The three coping strategies given by Endler and Parker are:

Strategy Process Example

Task oriented strategy a) This involves obtaining I will schedule my time better.
information about the stressful
situation and about alternative
courses of action and their
probable outcome.

b) It also involves deciding

priorities and acting so as to
deal directly with the stressful
situation.
Emotion oriented strategy a) This can involve efforts to Tell myself that it is not really
maintain hope and to control happening to me, or worry
one’s emotions. about what I am going to do.

b) It can also involve venting

feelings of anger and
frustration, or deciding that
nothing can be done to change
things.
Avoidance oriented strategy a) This involves denying or Watching TV, phone up a
minimising the seriousness of friend, etc.
the situation.

b) It also involves conscious

suppression of stressful
thoughts and their
replacement by self-protective
thoughts.

COPING ACCORDING TO LAZARUS AND FOLKMAN

1) Lazarus and Folkman have conceptualised coping as a dynamic process rather than an individual
trait.

2) Coping refers to constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to master, reduce or
tolerate the internal or external demands that are created by the stressful transaction.

3) Coping serves to allow the individual to manage or alter a problem and regulate the emotional
response to that problem.

4) Coping responses

Problem focused emotion focused

People generally tend to use problem focused responses more.

Definition Example
Problem-focused a) Problem-focused strategies For example “I made a plan of
attack the problem itself, with action and followed it”.
behaviours designed to gain
information, to alter the event,
and to alter belief and
commitments.

b) They increase the person’s

awareness, level of knowledge,
and range of behavioural and
cognitive coping options.

c) They can act to reduce the

threat value of the event.
Emotion-focused Emotion-focused strategies call For example “I did some things
for psychological changes to let it out of my system”
designed primarily to limit the
degree of emotional disruption
caused by an event, with
minimal effort to alter the
event itself.

GENERAL STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Definition Process
Relaxation Techniques It is an active skill that a) Usually relaxation starts
reduces symptoms of stress from the lower part of the
 and decreases the incidence of body and progresses up to the
illnesses such as high blood facial muscles in such a way
pressure and heart disease. that the whole body is relaxed.

b) Deep breathing is used along

with muscle relaxation to calm
the mind and relax the body.

Meditation Procedures The yogic method of It involves such a thorough

meditation consists of a concentration that the
sequence of learned meditator becomes unaware of
techniques for refocusing any outside stimulation and
attention that brings about an reaches a different state of
altered state of consciousness. consciousness.

Biofeedback It is a procedure to monitor Biofeedback training involves

and reduce the physiological three stages:
aspects of stress by providing a) Developing an awareness of
feedback about current the particular physiological
physiological activity. response, e.g. heart rate,
b) Learning ways of controlling
that physiological response in
quiet conditions.

c) Transferring that control into

the conditions of everyday life.

Creative visualisation Creative visualisation is a a) Before visualising one must

subjective experience that set oneself a realistic goal, as it
uses imagery and imagination. helps build confidence. It is
easier to visualise if one’s mind
is quiet, body relaxed and eyes
are closed.

b) This reduces the risk of

interference from unbidden
thoughts and provides the
creative energy needed for
turning an imagined scene into
reality.
Cognitive behavioural These techniques aim to There are three main phases in
techniques inoculate people against this:
stress. Stress inoculation a) Assessment involves
training is one effective discussing the nature of the
method developed by problem and seeing it from the
Meichenbaum. The essence of viewpoint of the person/client.
this approach is to replace
negative and irrational b) Stress reduction involves
thoughts with positive and learning the techniques of
rational ones. reducing stress such as
relaxation and self-instruction.
 c) Follow- through.
Exercise Exercise can provide an active a) Regular exercise improves
outlet for the physiological the efficiency of the heart,
arousal experienced in enhances the function of the
response to stress. lungs, maintains good
circulation, lowers blood
pressure, reduces fat in the
blood and improves the body’s
immune system.

b) Swimming, walking, running,

cycling, skipping, etc. help to
reduce stress.

c) Each exercise session must

have a warm-up, exercise and
cool down phases.

STRESS RESISTANT PERSONALITY/HARDINESS

1) It is unlikely that we will go through life without some experience of personal crises causing acute
pressure for a while. Many people sail through and rebuild their lives very positively and
constructively. But, many of us have to relearn specific life skills in areas such as rational thinking,
and assertiveness to equip ourselves better to cope with the demands of everyday life, etc.

2) Recent studies by Kobasa have shown that people with high levels of stress but low levels of
illness share three characteristics, which are referred to as the personality traits of hardiness.
Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself, the world, and how they interact.

3) It consists of ‘the three Cs’, i.e. commitment, control, and challenge. Hardiness takes shape as a
sense of personal commitment to what one is doing, a sense of control over one’s life, and a feeling
of challenge.

4) Stress resistant personalities have control which is a sense of purpose and direction in life;
commitment to work, family, hobbies and social life; and challenge, that is, they see changes in life
as normal and positive rather than as a threat.

LIFE SKILLS

1) Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively
with the demands and challenges of everyday life.

2) Our ability to cope depends on how well we are prepared to deal with and counterbalance
everyday demands and keep equilibrium in our lives.

Some life skills that help meet the challenges of life:

Skill Definition Process

Assertiveness Assertiveness is a It is the ability to say If you are assertive,
behaviour or skill that no to a request, to you feel confident,
helps to state an opinion and have high self-
communicate, clearly without being self- esteem and a solid
and confidently, our conscious, or to sense of your own
feelings, needs, wants, express emotions such identity.
and thoughts. as love, anger, etc.
openly.
Time management The way one spends The major way to It depends on being
time determines the reduce time stress is realistic about what
quality of one’s life. to change one’s you know and that you
Learning how to plan perception of time. must do it within a
time and delegate can The central principle certain time period,
help to relieve the of time management knowing what you
pressure. is to spend your time want to do, and
doing the things that organising your life to
you value, or that help achieve a balance
you to achieve your between the two.
goals.
Rational thinking Many stress-related The way one thinks Some of the principles
problems occur as a and feels are closely of rational thinking
result of distorted connected. When we are:
thinking. are stressed, we have
an inbuilt selective - Challenging
bias to attend to your distorted
negative thoughts and thinking and
images from the past,
irrational
which affect our
beliefs
perception of the
present and the - Driving out
future. potentially
intrusive
negative
anxiety-
provoking
thoughts
- Making
positive
statements

Improving The key to a sound This consists of three It also requires us to

relationships lasting relationship is essential skills: avoid misplaced
communication. jealousy and sulking
- Listening to behaviour.
what the
other person
is saying
 - Expressing
how you feel
and what you
think
- Accepting the
other person’s
opinions and
feelings, even
if they are
different from
one’s own.

Self care If we keep ourselves Environmental Our breathing patterns

healthy, fit and stresses like noise, reflect our state of
relaxed, we are better pollution, space, light, mind and emotions.
prepared physically colour, etc. can all
and emotionally to exert an influence on a) When we are
tackle the stresses of our mood. These have stressed or anxious,
everyday life. a noticeable effect on we tend towards rapid
our ability to cope and shallow breathing
with stress, and well- from high in the chest,
being. with frequent sighs.

b) The most relaxed

breathing is slow,
stomach-centred
breathing from the
diaphragm.
Overcoming unhelpful Unhelpful habits such a) Perfectionists are Such unhelpful habits
habits as perfectionism, persons who have to are unproductive in
avoidance, get everything just the long term.
procrastination, etc. right. They are more
are strategies that likely to feel tense and
help to cope in the find it difficult to relax,
short-term but which are critical of self and
make one more others, and may
vulnerable to stress. become inclined to
avoid challenges.

b) Avoidance is to put
the issue under the
carpet and refuse to
accept or face it.

c) Procrastination
means putting off
what we know we
need to do. People
who procrastinate are
deliberately avoiding
 confronting their fears
of failure or rejection.

POSITIVE HEALTH AND ITS REALISATION

1) Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being, and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.

2) Positive health comprises the following constructs:

- A healthy body
- High quality of personal relationships
- A sense of purpose in life
- Self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks
- Resilience to stress, trauma, and change

Factors that act as stress buffers and facilitate positive health are:

Definition Benefits
Diet a) What people eat, and how A balanced diet can lift one’s
much they weigh involve mood, give more energy, feed
behavioural processes. Some muscles, improve circulation,
people are able to maintain a prevent illness, strengthen the
healthy diet and weight while immune system and make one
others become obese. When feel better to cope with
we are stressed, we seek stresses of life.
‘comfort foods’ which are high
in fats, salt and sugar.

b) The key to healthy living is

to eat three main meals a day,
and eat a varied well-balanced
diet.

c) How much nutrition one

needs depends on one’s
activity level, genetic make-up,
climate, and health history.

Exercise a) Of all the measures an a) A large number of studies

individual can take to improve confirm a consistently positive
health, exercise is the lifestyle relationship between physical
change with the widest fitness and health.
popular approval.
b) Regular exercise plays an
b) Physical exercises that are important role in managing
essential for good health are weight and stress, and is
stretching exercises such as shown to have a positive effect
 yogic asanas and aerobic on reducing tension, anxiety
exercises such as jogging, and depression.
swimming, cycling, etc.

c) While stretching exercises

have a calming effect, aerobic
exercises increase the arousal
level of the body.
Positive attitude - a) Some of the factors a) Positive health and well-
leading to a positive being can be realised by
attitude, helping us to having a positive attitude.
remain centred, and
see things in a proper
perspective. Are:

:
- Having a fairly accurate
perception of reality
- A sense of purpose in
life and responsibility;
- acceptance and
tolerance for different
viewpoints of others;
- Taking credit for
success and accepting
blame for failure.
- Being open to new
ideas
- Having a sense of
humour with the
ability to laugh at
oneself.

Positive thinking a) People differ in the manner Optimism, which is the

in which they cope. inclination to expect
favourable life outcomes, has
b) For example, optimists tend been linked to psychological
to assume that adversity can and physical well- being.
be handled successfully
whereas pessimists anticipate
disasters. Optimists use more
problem- focused coping
strategies, and seek advice and
help from others.

c) Pessimists ignore the

problem or source of stress,
and use strategies such as
giving up the goal with which
 stress is interfering or denying
that stress exists.

Social support a) Social support is defined as a) People with high levels of

the existence and availability of social support from family and
people on whom we can rely friends may experience less
upon, people who let us know stress when they confront a
that they care about, value, stressful experience, and they
and love us. may cope with it more
successfully.
b) Someone who believes that
s/he belongs to a social b) Research has demonstrated
network of communication and that social support effectively
mutual obligation experiences reduces psychological distress
social support. such as depression or anxiety,
during times of stress.
c) Studies have revealed that
women exposed to life event c) Generally, social support
stresses, who had a close leads to mental health benefits
friend, were less likely to be for both the giver and the
depressed and had lesser receiver.
medical complications during
pregnancy.

TYPES OF SOCIAL SUPPORT

Social support

Tangible support Informational support Emotional support

1) TANGIBLE SUPPORT

Social support may be in the form of tangible support or assistance involving material aid, such as
money, goods, services, etc. For example, a child gives notes to her/his friend, since s/he was absent
from school due to sickness.

2) INFORMATIONAL SUPPORT

Family and friends also provide informational support about stressful events. For example, a student
facing a stressful event such as a difficult board examination, if provided information by a friend who
has faced a similar one, would not only be able to identify the exact procedures involved, but also it
would facilitate in determining what resources and coping strategies could be useful to successfully
pass the examination.

3) EMOTIONAL SUPPORT
During times of stress, one may experience sadness, anxiety, and loss of self-esteem. Supportive
friends and family provide emotional support by reassuring the individual that she/he is loved,
valued, and cared for.

PERCEIVED SUPPORT V/S SOCIAL NETWORK

Perceived Support Social Network

Perceived support is when the quality of social In a social network, the quantity of social
support is positively related to health and well- support is unrelated to well-being because it is
being. very time- consuming and demanding to
maintain a large social network.