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39 views36 pagesControl Engineering Module 3
Uploaded by
Prasad GavandeCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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/ 36
CHAPTER 2
TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS
2.1 TIME RESPONSE
The time response of the system is the output of the closed loop system as a function of time. Iti
denoted by c(t). The time response can be obtained by solving the differential equation governing the
system. Alternatively, the response c(t) ean be obtained from the transfer function of the system and the
input to the system.
cs)
The closed loop transfer function, Rear 2.1
The Output or Response in s-domain, C(s) is given by the product of the transfer function and the
input, R(s). On taking inverse Laplace transform of this product the time domain response, c(t) can be
obtained.
Response in s-domain, C(s) = R(s) M(3)
Response in time domain, o(t) = £'{C(s)}= CY{R(s)x M(s)}
Gs)
1+G(s)H(s)
The time response of a control system consists of two parts : the transient and the steady state
response. The transient response is the response of the system when the input changes from one state to
another. The steady state response is the response as time, t approacties infinity.
OI © ce ce) RS) es)
f Response MSI} >
meat (or Outpu) > Ms) = —o)_
HG 1+G()H6)
Fig 2.1 : Closed loop system.
where, M(s)=
22 TEST SIGNALS
‘The knowledge of input signal is required to predict the response of a system. In most of the
systems the input signals are not known ahead of time and also it is difficult to express the input signals
mathematically by simple equations. The characteristics of actual input signals are a sudden shock, a
sudden change, a constant velocity and a constant acceleration. Hence test signals which resembles these
characteristics are used as input signals to predict the performance of the system. The commonly used
test input signals are impulse, step, ramp, acceleration and sinusoidal signals.
The standard test signals are,
1. a) Step signal 2. a) Ramp signal 3. a) Parabolic signal
b) Unit step signal b) Unit ramp signal —_b) Unit parabolic signal
4, Impulse signal 5. Sinusoidal signal (Gieptar F Time Response Analysis) 2.2
Since the test signals are simple functions for time, they can be easily generated in laboratories. The
mathematical and experimental analysis of control systems using these signals can be carried out easily.
The use of the test signals can be justified because of a correlation existing between the response
characteristics of a system to a test input signal and capability of the system fo cope with actual input
signals.
STEP SIGNAL
The step signal is a signal whose value changes from zero to A at t= 0
and remains constant at A for t> 0. The step signal resembles an actual steady
input to a system. A special case of step signal is unit step in which A’is unity.
10
The mathematical representation of the step signal is,
W=1 5 t20
=0;t<0
RAMP SIGNAL
The ramp signal is a signal whose value increases linearly with time 1)
from an initial value of zero at t= 0. The ramp signal resembles a constant
velocity input to the system. A special case of ramp signal is unit ramp signal in
which the value of A is unity.
The mathematical representation of the ramp signal is,
r()=At ; t20
0
PARABOLIC SIGNAL
In parabolic signal, the instantaneous value varies as square of the (9
time from an initial value of zero at t = 0. The sketch of the signal with
respect to time resembles a parabola, The parabolic signal resembles a. 4,54}-------- ++
constant acceleration input to the system. A special case of parabolic signal
is unit parabolic signal in which A is unit
Qn) >
Fig 2.2 : Step signal.
012?
Fig 2.3 : Ramp signal.
‘The mathematical representation of the parabolic signal is, 05a :
ae ois st
WaT 120 Fig 2.4 : Parabolic signal.
=0 ;t
The unit impulse signal is a special case, in which A
is unity.
The impulse signal is denoted by &(t) and > te >
mathematically it is expressed as,
Fig 2.5 + Impulse signal.
a(t)=00; t=0 and fomar-a
=t40 ed (2.7) 2.3 Gaara stoma Trgtneerng >
Since a perfect impulse cannot be achieved in practice itis usually approximated by a pulse of small
width but with area, A. Mathematically an impulse signal is the derivative of a step signal. Laplace transform
of the impulse function is unity.
TABLE tandard Test Signals
Name of the signal Time domain equation Laplace transform of
of signal, r(t) the signal, R(s)
A
Step A >
Unit step 1 | 1
s
A
Ramp At z
. 1
Unit ramp t Zz
2 A
Parabolic & =
2 1
Unit parabolic z e
Impulse a) 1
2.3 IMPULSE RESPONSE
The response of the system, with input as impulse signal is called weighing function
or impulse response of the system. It is also given by the inverse Laplace transform of the system
transfer function, and denoted by m(i).
Impulse response, m(t) = £1 {R(s) M(s)} = £7 {MSP (2.8)
Gs) Fs
where, M(s)= Teehe R(s) = 1, for impulse]
Since impulse response (or weighing function) is obtained from the transfer function of the system,
it shows the characteristics of the system. Also the response for any input can be obtained by convolution
of input with impulse response.
24 ORDEROF ASYSTEM
The input and output relationship of a control system can be expressed by n* order differential
equation shown in equation (2.9).
4b, 2 gy +b, (0) + ach bg 1 hg t) + by gt) ed2.9)
aT AO) be A at eA + Ba
where, p(t) = Output /Response ; q(t)=Input / Excitation.
The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation governing the system. If
the system is governed by n® order differential equation, then the system is called 2 order system. 2.4
Alternatively, the order can be determined from the transfer function of the system. The transfer
function of the system can be obtained by taking Laplace transform of the differential equation governing
the system and rearranging them as a ratio of two polynomials in s, as shown in equation (2.10).
P(s) _ bys" + bys! +b, 374,
QS) ays" +a,s" ¢ays* Fe.
e+ Br 18+ Boy (2.10)
+8, 18+ a,
Transfer function, T(s)=
where, P(s) = Numerator polynomial
Q(s) = Denominator polynomial
The order of the system is given by the maximum power of s in the denominator pofynomial, Q(s).
Here, Qs) =a, s*ta,sMitas? to... ta sta.
Now, n is the order of the system
When n = 0, the system is zero order system.
When n = 1, the system is first order system.
When n = 2, the system is second order system and so on.
Note : The order can be specified for both open loop system and closed loop system.
‘The numerator and denominator polynomial of equation (2.10) can be expressed in the factorized
form as shown in equation (2.11).
PW) _ GHA MOt eSB 2.11)
Qs) (SF Py)(S+ Dy)oneea(S+ Py)
where, z, Z, /, are er0s of the system.
Ppp Py ~
Now, the value of n gives the number of poles in the transfer function, Hence the order is also
given by the number of poles of the transfer function.
T(s)=
P, are poles of the system.
Note : The zeros and poles are critical value, of s, at which the function T(s) attains extreme
values 0 or co When s takes the value of a zero, the function T(s) will be zero. When s takes the value o}
lapole, the function T(s)-will be infinite
2.5 REVIEW OF PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION
The time response of the system is obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform of the product
of input signal and transfer function of the system. Taking inverse Laplace transform requires the knowledge
of partial fraction expansion, In control systems three different types of transfer function are encountered.
They are,
Case 1: Functions with separate poles.
Case 2. : Functions with multiple poles.
Case 3: Functions with complex conjugate poles.
The partial fraction of all the three cases are explained with an example.
Case 1: When the transfer function has distinct poles
K
teh) peop) 2.5
By partial fraction expansion, T(s) can be expressed as,
i Se
s(S+p,)(S+P2) S S+P) S+Pz
The residues A, B.and C are given by,
A=T(s) x 5 B=T(s) x G+P)]
C=) « (+P 2)
=o saps I=-p2
Example
Let, Tis) = 2
S*1) (642)
By partial fraction expansion, T(s) can be expressed as,
T(s)= 2 A B Cc
72 _ A, Be
s(s+1)(s#2) 8 stl s+2
A is obtained by multiplying. T(s) by s and letting s = 0.
2 2 2
- a aoe
Aah) *4, Seo” GGFDL_» 1x2
-_?__,
=o ost) +2)
B is obtained by multiplying T(s) by (s +1) and letting s = -1.
2 2
s(6+2)|,. 4 -—M-1+2)
2
st].
BaTG) x (+1) xe),
—_2_
s=-1 s(s+1) (s+2)
C is obtained by multiplying T(s) by (6 +2) and letting s = -2.
C=T(s) x +2), (s#2)
-__4___«x
(841) (8+2)
21(8)= 2 1-2 yd
ONO Ser G2) 8 stl 542
Case 2: When the transfer function has multiple poles
K
Let, 1(s) =,
© NS) eee GP
By partial fraction expansion, T(s) can be-expressed as,
K A,B c D
T(s)= 3 = = + + zt
SS+P))(StP2y § StPY (S+P2)) S+P2)
‘The residues A, B, C and D are given by,
A=T(s) x $._9 B=T(s) xG+P).
C=T(s) x (8+ po)”
. -4 fre x om]
Example '
Let, T(s)=——-——_~> .
© s(st 1) (s+2)7
By partial fraction. expansion, T(s) can be expressed as,
D
aay K A,B cy
“Yen @ray 6 GD) G2? pera Tine Re sts 2.6
A is obtained by multiplying T(s) by s and letting s = 0.
| - _ 2 . 2
| A=TO) x4, Wie GHeDL.,
1.
B is obtained by multiplying T(s) by (s +1) and letting s
2 2 2
Ba T(s)x(s+D|_,=————— xs]. = | =< >
x6 Da Sangre 8 | ser Ce
. |.
C is obtained by multiplying T(s) by (s +2)’ and letting s = -2.
2
+, x(s+2
s(s+1) (s+2)?*
C=Tis)x(s+ »L,
D is obtained by differentiating the product T(s) (s +27 with respect to s and then letting s = -2.
y 6
4f. 2] 208-1) 2262) +H) as
ds | s(6+1) Sty | CC2+n?
5 15.
=? __, 4 2,1,
sGt(st2e os stl (+2 842
D= Shr x(st a
Tis)
Case 3 : When the transfer function has complex conjugate poles
K
Let, T(s) = ——————
+p) @ + bs+e)
By partial fraction expansion, T(s) can be expressed as,
1%) K A, BstC_ ee(212)
“Grp @ tbstc) stp) S+bste
The residue A is given by, A=T(s) x (s+p,))
Ls
The residues B and C are solved by cross multiplying the equation (2.12) and then equating the
coefficient of like power of s.
Finally express ‘T(s) as shown below,
11) = A Be (xtyhex+2ay ty?
S+p) So +bs+e
Let us express, s? + bs, in the form of (x+y), This will require addition and subtraction of an extra
term (b/2).
Ts) = eg BS A
b (sy (ey stp,
of?) ae [b
22 2 2.7 Leontral systems ingineering
Example
1
Let, Foe
TO" Gap ess
By partial fraction expansion,
1%) 1 A Bs+C
=} __-4.44
Gt2@ stl) st2 Sesel
A is obtained by multiplying T(s) by (s +2) and letting s = -2.
1
2 A=T(s) x(s+2) +3 t t
Lea
4 Cyp=241 3
To solve B and C, cross multiply the following equation and substitute the value of A. Then equate the’
like power of s.
L A _BstC
| (8+2)(# +841) ssl =? S
| 1=A(s? +8+1)+(Bs+O) (s+2) 1 2 1
; ={s+=] +[1-
=(P +8+1)+Bs? +2Bs+Cs+2C (> 3) “U ‘)
3
a =(s+0.5) +075
1a 545+ 54s! +2Bs4C5+2C
1
‘On equating the coefficient of s’ terms, 0= 37 B; -.
On equating the coefficient of stems, g=14284C ;
3
_
3 s+1) 3(8+s+1)
a
3 (s+ 0.5) +0.75
2.6 RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT
The closed loop order system with unity feedback is shown in fig 2.6.
R46 1 cs) RE) Lt] og
* {Ts} = 114-Ts
I
Fig 2.6 : Closed loop for first order system.
The closed loop transfer function of first order system, ©
RG®)
If the input is unit step then, 1(4) =1 and R(s)= *
1 1d
. itus-domain, C(s)=R@)-——=1_1_
The response in s- domain, Cs) =RS)T 55 = Say ay ey ey)
A is obtained by multiplying C(s) by s and letting s = 0.
1 ttt
A=CG)xS,.9 — 2 -—4y -te1
& T Jt
B is obtained by multiplying C(s) by (s+1/T) and letting s = —U/T.
<0
1
=1
The response in time domain is given by,
=O Cs)}= 4 i. Ljyetet (2.13)
s
+o]
T)
The equation (2.13) is the response of the closed loop first order system for unit step input. For
step input of step value, A, the equation (2.13) is multiplied by A.
i
For elosed loop first order system, Unit step response =1-e *
Step response = ae]
When, t = 0, c(t) =1-e'=0
When, t = IT, oft) =1-e7
When, t = 27, oft) =1-
When, t = 3T, c(t) =1-e
When, t = 4T, o(t) =1-e+
When, t = ST, c(t) =1-
When, t = 0, e(t) =1-e
Here T is called Time constant of the system, In a time of ST, the system is assumed to have attained
steady state. The input and output signal of the first order system is shown in fig 2.7. 2.9
x(t) + oft) 4
¥
1=0 t oO T 2T 3T AT » t
Fig 2.7a : Unit step input. Fig 2.76 : Response for Unit step input.
Fig 2.7 : Response of first order system to Unit step input.
2.7 SECOND ORDER SYSTEM
‘The closed loop second order system is shown in fig 2.8
Ms) R(s) 2 cs)
, \s?+ Xo,s+0% °
Fig 2.8 : Closed loop Jor second order system.
The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is given by,
RS)
£8),
oy (2.14)
R@) 9 +2fo,s+0,
where, @, = Undamped natural frequency, rad/sec.
€ = Damping ratio.
The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual-damping to the critical damping, The
response c(t) of second order system depends on the value of damping ratié. Depending on the value of
©, the system can be classified into the following four cases,
Case I
Case 2
Undamped system, e=0
Under damped system, = 01, 5 =to9toe6! “ine system isoverdamped = (2.19)
When0<<1, 8,5) =-Co, 20,0 —1 =o, to,yCD 0-0)
=o, 20-1 fI-2 =o, +0, y1-F
=e, jms OA complex conjugate
£345 | the system is underdamped siee(2.20)
where, 4 =0,y1-0
Here ©, is called damped frequency of oscillation of the system and its unit is rad/see.
RESPONSE OF UNDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT
The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is,
Cs) _ o,
Ris) = +200,5+0,
For undamped system, z= 0.
- OS) _ On
Ro) +0 222)
When the input is unit step, 1(()= I and R(s)= +
“ + Fors” Fret cftt=2 | £fc0s ot}== 25
. 5 | ¢ +0
s
‘Time domain response, o(t)= C'{C(s)} = £"
1 I-cos@t ot (2.24) os
ny Dh on eden apc ew een nenn eee eens,
i ipe-fo------- Ae eee ee
0 * 0 >
Fig 2.9.4 Input. Fig 2.9.6 : Response.
Fig 2.9 : Response of undamped second order system for unit step input,
Using equation (2.24), the response of undamped second order system for unit step input is sketched
in fig 2.9, and observed that the response is completely oscillatory.
Note : Every practical system has some amount of damping. Hence undamped system does not!
exist in practice,
The equation (2.24) is the response of undamped closed loop second order system for unit step
input. For step input of step value A, the equation (2.24) should be multiplied by A.
For closed loop undamped second order system,
Unit step response = I- cos a,t
=A(I — cos 0,0)
Step response
2.7.2___ RESPONSE OF UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT
The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is,
Cts) _ CH
R@) s*+2Ca,s+o,
For underdamped system, 0 <¢ <1 and roots of the denominator (characteristic equation) are
complex conjugate.
OVO =1
Since@<1, ¢ is also less then 1, andso 1-C? isalways positive.
fo £Ogy(--?) = La, # jo,
The damped frequency of oscillation, =o, 71-2
“S8=—o, + jog
The roots of the denominator are, s= Xe,
2
The response in s-domain, C(s)=R(s) ~—°2
s42lo,s+o2
For unit step input, r() = 1 and R(s) = 1/s.
os
CO)" 23 2t0,5102)
oo Bs+C.
{s+2t0,s+03) 8 $42f0,s+o2
By partial fraction expansion, C(s) = (2.25) To solve for B and C, cross multiply equation (2.25) and equate like power of s.
On cross multiplication equation (2.25) after substituting A = 1, we get,
? + 2to,s+02 +(Bs+C)s
? + 26u,S+02 + Bs’ +Cs
Equating coefficients of s* we get, 0= 1 +B
Equating coefficient of s we get, 0=2Co, + C .C=-260,
S420, nf2.26)
+2Go,s+o2
Let us add and subtract C7? to the denominator of second term in the equation (2.26).
os) =4- S# 20, = tO,
“s $4200, stor+Cor-Cor 8s (s +2o,s+Co2)+ (02 Co
at ston tty OS]
s (+lo,/+0,1-0) $s +6o,) +03 (azo 1-2
Fs (2.27)
“3 Gito,y +0) G+t0,) +03
Let us multiply and divide by , in the third term of the equation (2.27).
. 1 sttm, fo,
+ CO)" - Te awh ree
8 Glo, +0) 04 G+o,) +0}
The response in time domain is given by,
a= HfE(S)} = aft -—2t6en |
s (+60, +07]. 04 (6+00,) +03
= 1-e "cose gt—
tne sina Sn sino gt |
o
o,yl- ) ee
(sine x C+ cosmgt * 4 i-<)
ee 1-C? cosa gtt+ ¢ sino ,t)
Let us express c(t) in a standard form as shown below.
Note : On constructing right angle|
oft) =1-
Seat
<= (sinengt x cos® + cose zt x sind)
Vi-¢ triangle with Cand
sino= 1-2
cos Ot
on
¢
yi?
sinf@ogt+@) (2.28)
D
tan @ 2.3 Ceaatral Sisters Tingincering
The equation (2.28) is the response of under damped closed loop second order system for unit step
input. For step input of step value, A, the equation (2.28) should be multiplied by A.
-. For closed loop under damped second order system,
2
rie!
?
at
. . ig]
+0); 6=tan tt
me sin (@yt+0) an |
| . ent
| Unit step response =1-—— sin (wgt +0) ; @= tan”
vie
| Step response =A
|
Using equation (2.28) the response of underdamped second order system for unit step input is
sketched and observed that the response oscillates before settling to a final value. The oscillations depends
on the value of damping ratio.
nO) ott) t
0 0
Fig 2.10.0: input Fig 2.10.b : Response. ‘
Fig 2.10 : Response of under damped second order system for unit step input.
2.1.3 RESPONSE OF CRITICALLY DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT
The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is,
Cs) ©,
R(s) s*+20,8+@2
For critical damping ¢ = 1.
OO een(2.29)
R(s). s?+20,8+@2 (s+o,)"
When input is unit step, r(t) = 1 and R(s) = 1/s.
-. The response in s-domain,
Ci (2.30)
(s)= RI 7 DF
By partial fraction expansion, we can write,
2
c(9=—a = A,B, ©
s+0,) 8 (Sto,)) S+O,
o | a
A=sx Cl = ~ =—$=1
Oh Toco
B=(s+o,)?x co), Ze
Sfo+ 0,)* a] et) =1-e*"(1+0,t)
The equation (2.31) is the response of critically damped closed loop second order system for unit
step input. For step input of step value, A, the equation (2.31) should be multiplied by A.
:. For closed loop critically damped second order system,
Unit step response = 1-6"*"(I+0,1)
Step response = ali- eels. o,t)]
Using equation (2.31), the response of critically damped second order system is sketched as shown
’n fig 2.11 and observed that the response has no oscillations.
rt) Oa
1 It
ay
0
Fig 2.11.a + Input. Fig 2.11.b : Response.
Fig 2.11 : Response of critically damped second order system for unit step input.
2.7.4 _ RESPONSE OF OVER DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT
The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is,
Cs) on
Ris) s+ 2fo,s+05
For overdamped system ¢ > 1. The roots of the denominator of transfer function are real and
distinct. Let the roots of the denominator be s,, s,-
SS =—Go, £0, 6 [ge to/e-1| swn(232)
Let ,=-sands,=-s .s)=G@,-@,y6°-1
82=00, +0, '=1
‘The closed loop transfer function can be written in terms of s, and s, as shown below.
CO) ee (2.35)
RG) S+%oseor (Gty)G*S)
ZO, 8+ 0, , 215
For unit step input r(t) = 1 and R(s) = 1/s.
«
ACCS) R(s)-———2»-— ——_——_—
ROT GS) 8Grm) a)
By partial fraction expansion we can write,
c= oF WA, BC
——*a__-4, 4,
S (+5) (GH) 8 SHS SHS,
A=sxC(s)|,.9=sx———_—_»—
SC SET Day 88:
- CH oF
[s0.-eaye?=1 co, +041] Fat -03(0?=1) }
cA oF
Bos) Sees] RCS)
~o, 1
. [row -1]s 2er=1 5
2 2
CaCs)x(s+ 5), 32 Se
14+Go, +o, yo
|
2
21s, -O,yCr=1 “Toweale 1s. IE <1
. ~a| C0, -o,¥6
The response in time domain, e(t) is given by.
et)= ce L _|
ts WE =1 ay ae 1 al
o, 1
A gta Fb gat
ae -1 awe?-1 -1%
ott)
et) = on (2.36
where, s,=G0,-0,yC? -1
[aay
& =CO,tOgyO-1
The equation (2.36) is the response of overdamped closed loop system for unit step input. For step
input of value, A, the equation (2.36) is multiplied by A.
-. For closed loop over damped second order system,
=
where, s,=C0,-@,yC?-1
= 60, +0, 16-1
Unit step response = 1-
Step response 0
t * t
Fig 2.12. : Input. Fig 2.12.5 : Response.
Fig 2.12 : Response of over damped second order system for unit step input.
Using equation (2.36), the response of overdamped second order system is sketched as shown in
fig 2.12 and observed that the response has no oscillations but it takes longer time for the response to
reach the final steady value.
2.8 TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS
The desired performance characteristics of control systems are specified in terms of time domain
specifications. Systems with energy storage elements cannot respond instantaneously and will exhibit
iransient responses, whenever they are subjected to inputs or disturbances.
The desired performance characteristics of a system of any order may be specified in terms of the
transient response to a unit step input signal. The response of a second order system for unit-step input
with various values of damping ratio is shown in fig 2.13.
e(t),
ro
Fig 2.13.0: Input. Fig 2.13.b : Response.
Fig 2.13 : Unit step response of second order system.
The transient response of a system toa unit step input depends on the initial conditions. Therefore
to compare the time response of various systems it is necessary to start with standard initial conditions. The
most practical standard is to start with the system at rest and so output and all time derivatives before
+=0 will be zero. The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped oscillation
‘before reaching steady state. A typical damped oscillatory response of a system is shown in fig 2.14.
‘The transient response characteristics of a control system fo a unit step input is specified in terms
of the following time domain specifications.
1. Delay time, t,
2. Rise time, t,
3, Peak time, t,
4. Maximum overshoot, M,
5, Settling time, t, Allowable error
2% or 5%
out & w t
Fig 2.14 : Damped oscillatory response of second order system for unit step input.
‘The time domain specifications are defined as follows.
1, DELAY TIME (t,) : It is the time taken for response to reach 50% of the final value, fo
the very first time.
It is the time taken for response to raise from 0 to 100% for the ver
first time. For underdamped system, the rise time is calculated fron
0 to 100%. But for overdamped system it is the time taken by the
response to raise from 10% to 90%. For critically damped system, i
is the time taken for response to raise from 5% to 95%.
It is the time taken for the response to reach the peak value the ver
first time. (or) It is the time taken for the response to reach the peal
overshoot, M,,
4.PEAKOVERSHOOT(M,)_: Its defined as the ratio of the maximum peak value fo the final value
where the maximum peak value is measured from final value.
Let, o(s0) = Final value of c(t).
o(tp) = Maximum value of e(t).
(ty
2. RISE TIME (f)
3. PEAK TIME t)
Now, Peak overshoot, M, = 2" (23
oa)
% Peak overshoot, %M, = a 100 238
ees
5, SETTLING TIME (t) : It is defined as the time taken by the response to reach and stay with
a specified error. It is usually expressed as % of final value. The usua
tolerable error is 2 % or 5% of the final value.
EXPRESSIONS FOR TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS
Rise time (t)
‘The unit step response of second order system for underdamped case is given by,
Att=t, c(t) = c(t) =1 (Refer fig 2.14). PETRIE SAUTIT cind ROGT Tacs
3. Ifany coefficient a, is negative then atleast one root is in the right half of s- plane.
48
It can be concluded that the absence or negativeness of any of the coefficients of a characteristic
polynomial indicates that the system is either unstable or at most marginally stable. Thus the necessary
condition for stability of the system is that all the coefficients of its characteristic polynomial be
Positive, If any coefficient is zero/negative, we can immediately say that the system is unstable.
In order for all the roots to have negative real parts, it is necessary that all of the coefficients of
characteristic equation be positive, but it is not sufficient, because there may be roots in the right half
plane and/or on the imaginary axis, even when coefficients are Positive.( i.e., when roots have negative
real part, then all the coefficients of characteristic polynomial will be positive, but the reverse condition is
not true always).
always true
Roots with negative real part. All coefficients positive.
“LTE
not always true
Hence, when all the coefficients are positive, the system may or may not be stable, because there
may be roots in the right half plane and/or on the imaginary axis.
For example, consider the characteristic polynomial with all positive coefficients,
S+s?+2s+8=0.
The characteristic polynomial can be written as,
me
(+5? 425-+8)=(642) (5-2-3 ](g-1, 8 |i
2 2 2: 2
Now the roots are,
| s=-2, 1, v5 a1 jalis ‘
| 2 2 2 2
The coefficients of the polynomial are all positive, but two roots have positive real part and so will
lie on on right half of s-plane, therefore the system is unstable.
&
4.3 ROUTH HURWITZ CRITERION
The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is an analytical procedure for determining whether all the
roots of a polynomial have negative real part or not.
The first step in analysing the stability of a system is to exaniine its characteristic equation. The
necessary condition for stability is that all the coefficients of the polynomial be positive. If some of the
coefficients are zero or negative it can be concluded that the system is not stable.
When all the coefficients are positive, the system is not necessarily stable. Eventhough the coefficient
are positive, some of the roots may lie on the right half of s-plane or on the imaginary axis. In order for all
the roots to have negative real parts, it is necessary but not sufficient that all coefficients of the characteristic
equation be positive. If all the coefficients of the characteristic equation are positive, then the system may
be stable and one should proceed further to examine the sufficient conditions of stability. 49 Control 5} Engineering
A. Hurwitz and E.J. Routh independently published the method of investigating the sufficient
conditions of stability of a system. The Hurwitz criterion is in terms of determinants and Routh criterion
is in terms of array formulation. The Routh stability criterion is presented here.
The Routh stability criterion is based on ordering the coefficients of the characteristic equation,
into a schedule, called the Routh array as shown below.
aps" +a,s*"! +a)s"7?+.....ta,_jS+a, = 0, where a,>0
so: a, a a, a, a
seh a, a, a, Ayana
S22 bbb ee
seo: cy c, c, c, c,
sho: g
8° hy
The Routh stability criterion can be stated as follows.
"The necessary and sufficient condition for stability is that all of the elements in the first
column of the Routh array be positive. If this condition is not met, the system is unstable and the
number of sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array corresponds to the
number of roots of the characteristic equation in the right half of the s-plane".
Note : If the order of sign of first column element is +, +, = + and +. Then + to —is considered
as one sign change and — to + as another sign change.
CONSTRUCTION OF ROUTH ARRAY
Let the characteristic polynomial be,
acs" tas"! +a,s"? +a,8" > 4...a, 8 +a,s°
The coefficients of the polynomial are arranged in two rows as shown below.
S" 3 a @ a a
stl sap as as ay
When n is even, the s" row is formed by coefficients of even order terms (i.e., coefficients of even
powers of s) and s*" row is formed by coefficients of odd order terms (i.¢., coefficients of odd powers
of s). .
When n is odd, the s® row is formed by coefficients of odd order terms (i.¢., coefficients of odd
powers of s) and s*' row is formed by coefficients of even order terms(i.e., coefficients of even powers
ofs) .
‘The other rows of routh array upto s° row can be formed by the following procedure. Each row of
Routh array is constructed by using the elements of previous two rows. J hapier a Goticepis of Stability-and Root Locus 4.10
Consider two consecutive rows of Routh array as shown below.
SP 2 Xq Xp Xp Xz Xq Xgeee
n-x-1
STD Yo Ya Yo Ys. Ya You
Let the next row be,
St ay Dy Ey Bg en
The elements of s"*? row are given by,
(cr Xo Xy
een Yo _Yil _ YoXi~Yi%o_
Yo Yo
x.
cof *
z,=——_¥o_Yal _ YoX2 = Y2%o.
a =
Yo Yo
(0) X_ Xs]
_ ¥3 ee ¥3Xo
of X4
Ya a YsXo
Xx.
ope
Z =——_1Yo_¥s} _ YoXs =¥s%o and so on.
Yo Yo
The elements z,, Z,, Z,, Z,.. are computed for all possible computations as shown above.
In the process of constructing Routh array the missing terms are considered as zeros. Also, all the
elements of any row can be multiplied or divided by a positive constant to simplify the computational
work.
In the construction of Routh array one may come across the following three cases.
_ Case-] + Normal Routh array (Non-zero elements in the first column of routh array).
Case-II: A row ofall zeros. :
Case-IIT : First element of a row is zero but some or other elements are not zero.
Case-I : Normal routh array
In this case, there is no difficulty in forming routh array. The routh array can be constructed-as
explained above. The sign changes are noted to find the number of roots lying on the right half of s-plane
and the stability of the system can be estimated.
In this case,
1. If there is no sign change in the first column of Routh array then all the roots are lying on left
half of s-plane and the system is stable. 4.11 € Control Systems Engineering
2. If there is sign change in the first ‘column of routh array, then the system is unstable and the
number of roots lying on the right half of s-plane is equal to number of sign changes. The
remaining roots are lying on the left half of s-plane.
Case-IT': A row of all zeros
Anall zero row indicates the existence of an even polynomial as a factor of the given characteristic
equation. In an even polynomial the exponents of s are even integers or zero only. This even polynomial
factor is also called auxiliary polynomial. The coefficients of the auxiliary polynomial will always be the
elements of the row directly above the row of zeros in the array.
The roots of an even polynomial occur in pairs that are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign.
Hence, these roots can be purely imaginary, purely real or complex. The purely imaginary and purely real
roots occur in pairs. The complex roots occur in groups of four and the complex roots have quadrantal
symmetry, that is the roots are symmetrical with respect to both the real and imaginary axes. The fig 4.1
shows the roots of an even polynomial.
joa jo je
x x
ay
| S
o
x x
Fig 4.1 : The roots of.an even polynomial,
The case-II polynomial can be analyzed by any one of the following two methods.
METHOD-i
1. Determine the auxiliary polynomial, A(s)
2. Differentiate the auxiliary polynomial with respect tos, to get d A(s)/ds
3. The row of zeros is replaced with coefficients of dA(s)/ds.
4. Continue the construction of the array in the usual manner (as that of case-I ) and the array is
interpreted as follows.
a, If there are sign changes in the first column of routh array then the system is unstable.
The number of roots lying on right half of s-plane is equal to number of sign changes. The
number of roots on imaginary axis can be estimated from the roots of. auxiliary polynomial.
The remaining roots are lying on the left half of s-plane.
b. If there are no sign changes in the first column of routh array then the all zeros row
indicate the existence of purely imaginary roots and so the system is limitedly or marginally
stable. The ‘roots of auxiliary equation lies'on imaginary axis and the remaining roots lies
on left half of s-plane.
METHOD-2
1. Determine the auxiliary polynomial, A(s).
2. Divide the characteristic equation by auxiliary polynomial. 3. Construct Routh array using the coefficients of quotient polynomial.
4, The array is interpretted as follows.
a.
If there are sign changes in the first column of routh array of quotient polynomial then the
system is unstable, The number of roots of quotient polynomial lying on right half of s-
plane is given by number of sign changes in first column of routh array.
The roots of auxiliary polynomial are directly calculated to find whether they are purely
imaginary or purely real or complex.
The total number of roots on right half of s-plane is given by the sum of number of sign
changes and the number of roots of auxiliary polynomial with positive real part. The
number of roots on imaginary axis can be estimated from the roots of auxiliary polynomial.
The remaining roots are lying on the left half of s-plane.
If there is no sign change in the first column of routh array of quotient polynomial then the
system is limitedly or marginally stable. Since there is no sign change all the roots of
quotient polynomial are lying on the left half of s-plane.
The roots of auxiliary polynomial are directly calculated to find whether they are purely
imaginary or purely real or complex. The number of roots lying on imaginary axis and on
the right half of s-plane can be estimated from the roots of auxiliary polynomial. The
remaining roots are lying on the left half of s-plane.
Case-III : First element of a row is zero
While constructing routh array, if a zero is encountered as first element of a row then all the
elements of the next row will be infinite. To overcome this problem let 0 < and complete the construction
of array in the usual way (as that of case-I )
Finally let «0 and determine the values of the elements of the array which are functions of e.
The resultant array is interpreted as follows.
Note : If all the elements of a row are zeros then the solution is attempted by considering the
polynomial as case-II polynomial. Even if there is a single element zero on s' row, it is considered as a
row of all zeros.
a.
If there is no sign change in first column of routh array and if there is no row with all
zeros, then all the roots are lying on left half of s-plane and the system is stable.
If there are sign changes in first column-of routh array and there is no row with all zeros,
then some of the roots are lying on the right half of s-plane and the system is unstable. The
number of foots lying on the right half of s-plane is equal to number of sign changes and
the remaining roots are lying on the left half of s-plane.
If there is a row of all zeros after letting <0, then there is a possibility of roots on
imaginary axis. Determine the auxiliary polynomial and divide the characteristic equation
by auxiliary polynomial to eliminate the imaginary roots. The routh array is constructed
using the coefficients of quotient polynomial and the characteristic equation is interpreted
as explained in method-2 of case-II polynomial. 4 13 (Gitoniral Systems Ungineering )
EXAMPLE 4.1
Using Routh criterion, determine the stability of the system represented by the characteristic equation, s‘+8s°+ 18s?
+16s +5 = 0. Comment on the location of the roots of characteristic: equation.
SOLUTION
The characteristic equation of the systemis, s‘+8s°+1852+16s +5=0.
The given characteristic equation is 4” order equation and so ithas 4 roots. Since the highest power ofs is even number,
form the first row of routh array using the coefficients of even powers of s and form the second row using the coefficients of odd
powers of s.
Pt : or Ree g2, 1X18-2x1 1x5-0x1
s 8 16 w- Row-2 | . 1 1
: |
The elements of s* row canbe divided by 8 to simplify the s*: 16 5
i SS gi; 16x2-5x1
st tT) 18 5... Row 46
s "44 9 Row s': 1.687521.7
' 1
fee TAG 8 Row go L7x5-0x16
s! 417i ... Row-4 . 7
i i o.
s 51 ..- Row-5 s:5
haa
u—Column-1
On examining the elements of first column of routh array it is observed thatall the elements are Positive and there is no
sign change. Hence all the roots are lying on the left half of s-plane and the system is stable.
RESULT
1. Stable system
2. All the four roots are iving on the left half of s-plane.
EXAMPLE 4.2
Construct Routh array and determine the stability of the system whose characterisitc equation is s§+2s°+8s‘+12s*+20s?
+16s+16=0. Also determine the number of roots lying on right half of s-plane, left half of ‘s-plane and on imaginary axis.
SOLUTION
The characteristic equation of the systemis, s°+2s5+8s' +12s? + 20s?+16s +16 = 0.
The given characteristic polynomial is 6" order equation and so ithas 6 roots. Since the highest power of sis even
number, form the first row of routh array using the coefficients of even powers of s and form the second row using the coefficients
of odd powers of s.
se: 1 8 20 16... Row-1
Ss: 2 12 16 see ROW
The elements of s° row can be divided by 2 to simplify the calculations. Chapter = Concepts of Siability and Root Locus > 4.14
T78 20 16. .... Row-1
1x 8-6x1 1x 20-81 1x16-0x1
t 4,
1 : 6 8 -ROW-2 s a as in
L i 6 8 wRow-4 ots: 2 12 16
0} 0. _.Row4 divide by 2 .
on st: 1 6
143 wuROW-4 8
' ge, PB=6x1 1x8-8x1
3,8 ~Row-5 . 1 1
.33 | --Row6 s 0 0
3! Row7 The auxiliary equation is, A = s‘+6s?+8. On
7° NG differentiating A with respect to s we get,
L.Column-i dA 3°:
On examining the elements of 1* column of routh array itis observed as 4s°+12s
that there is no sign change. The row with all zeros indicate the possibility s
of roots on imaginary axis. Hence the system is limitedly or marginally dA
stable. The coefficients of —— are used to form s? row.
ds
The auxiliary polynomial is, 8:4 12
s'+6s?+8=0 divide by 4
3.
Let, s?=x su 3
5 2, 1x8=3x1 1x8-Ox1
246x48=0 ae ae
—6+V6?-4x8
The roots of quadratic are, X= >
=-311=-2o0r -4
The roots of auxiliary polynomial is, ~ 0.33x8-0x3
0.33
s=ivx =£V-2 and t/4
=+jv2,- jv2,+j2 and —j2
The roots of auxiliary polynomial are also roois of characteristic equation. Hence 4 roots are lying on imaginary axis and the
remaining two roots are lying on the left half of s-plane.
RESULT
1. The system is limitedly or marginally stable.
2. Four roots are lying on imaginary axis and remaining two roots are lying on left half of s-plane.
EXAMPLE 4.3
Construct Routh array and determine the stability of the system represented by the characteristic equation,
s°+5'+2s°+2s?+3s+5=0. Comment on the location of the roots of characteristic equation. .
SOLUTION
The characteristic equation of the systemis, s°+s*+2s*+2s7+3s+5=0,
The given characteristic polynomial is 5" order equation and so it has 5 roots. Since the highest power of s is odd
number, form the first row of routh array using the coefficients of odd powers of s and form the second row using the coefficients
of even powers of s.
se: 1 203 Row
sts 5 2 5 ....Row-2 45
s € 2... Row-3
eo; 7 5 Row gi:lk2aBxt 1x3-5x1
€ ° 1 1
' (52 4644) s: 0 -2
8! + ws. Row-5 Replace 0 by
2642
. sie -2
se: 5 --- Row-6
Onletting <0 , we get 52-22-29)
