Module2/Lesson2

Module 2: Analysis of Stress

2.2.1 PRINCIPAL STRESS IN THREE DIMENSIONS
For the three-dimensional case, for principal stresses it is required that three planes of zero
shear stress exist, that these planes are mutually perpendicular, and that on these planes the
normal stresses have maximum or minimum values. As discussed earlier, these normal
stresses are referred to as principal stresses, usually denoted by s1, s2 and s3. The largest
stress is represented by s1 and the smallest by s3.

Again considering an oblique plane x ¢ , the normal stress acting on this plane is given by the
Equation (2.25).
s x¢ = sx l2 + sy m2 + sz n2 + 2 (txy lm + tyz mn + txz ln) (2.27)

The problem here is to determine the extreme or stationary values of s x¢ . To accomplish

this, we examine the variation of s x¢ relative to the direction cosines. As l, m and n are not
independent, but connected by l2 + m2 + n2 = 1, only l and m may be regarded as
independent variables.
Thus,
¶s x ' ¶s x '
= 0, =0 (2.27a)
¶l ¶m
Differentiating Equation (2.27), in terms of the quantities in Equations (2.22a), (2.22b),
(2.22c), we obtain
¶n
T x+ T z = 0,
¶l
¶n
Ty + Tz = 0, (2.27b)
¶m
From n2 = 1 - l2 - m2, we have
¶n l ¶n m
=- and =-
¶l n ¶m n
Introducing the above into Equation (2.27b), the following relationship between the
components of T and n is determined

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T x T y Tz
= = (2.27c)
l m n
These proportionalities indicate that the stress resultant must be parallel to the unit normal
and therefore contains no shear component. Therefore from Equations (2.22a), (2.22b),
(2.22c) we can write as below denoting the principal stress by s P

Tx = s P l Ty = s P m T z = sP n (2.27d)
These expressions together with Equations (2.22a), (2.22b), (2.22c) lead to
(sx - sP)l + txy m + txz n = 0
txy l+(sy - sP) m + tyz n = 0 (2.28)
txz l + tyz m + (sz - sP) n = 0
A non-trivial solution for the direction cosines requires that the characteristic determinant
should vanish.

(s x - s P ) t xy t xz
t xy (s y - s P ) t yz =0 (2.29)
t xz t yz (s z - s P )

Expanding (2.29) leads to s P3 - I 1s P2 + I 2s P - I 3 = 0 (2.30)

where I1 = sx + sy + sz (2.30a)
I2 = sx sy + sy sz + szsx - t 2xy - t 2yz -t 2xz (2.30b)

s x t xy t xz
I3 = t xy s y t yz (2.30c)
t xz t yz s z
The three roots of Equation (2.30) are the principal stresses, corresponding to which are
three sets of direction cosines that establish the relationship of the principal planes to the
origin of the non-principal axes.

2.2.2 STRESS INVARIANTS

Invariants mean those quantities that are unexchangeable and do not vary under different
conditions. In the context of stress tensor, invariants are such quantities that do not change
with rotation of axes or which remain unaffected under transformation, from one set of axes

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to another. Therefore, the combination of stresses at a point that do not change with the
orientation of co-ordinate axes is called stress-invariants. Hence, from Equation (2.30)

sx + sy + sz = I1 = First invariant of stress

sxsy + sysz + szsx - t 2xy - t 2yz - t 2zx = I2 = Second invariant of stress

sxsysz - sxt 2yz - syt 2xz - szt 2xy + 2txy tyz txz = I3 = Third invariant of stress

2.2.3 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DIFFERENTIAL ELEMENT

Figure 2.11(a) Stress components acting on a plane element

When a body is in equilibrium, any isolated part of the body is acted upon by an equilibrium
set of forces. The small element with unit thickness shown in Figure 2.11(a) represents part

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of a body and therefore must be in equilibrium if the entire body is to be in equilibrium. It is

to be noted that the components of stress generally vary from point to point in a stressed
body. These variations are governed by the conditions of equilibrium of statics. Fulfillment
of these conditions establishes certain relationships, known as the differential equations of
equilibrium. These involve the derivatives of the stress components.
Assume that sx, sy, txy, tyx are functions of X, Y but do not vary throughout the thickness
(are independent of Z) and that the other stress components are zero.
Also assume that the X and Y components of the body forces per unit volume, Fx and Fy,
are independent of Z, and that the Z component of the body force Fz = 0. As the element is
very small, the stress components may be considered to be distributed uniformly over each
face.
Now, taking moments of force about the lower left corner and equating to zero,

Dy 1 æ ¶s y ö Dx æ ¶t ö
- (s x Dy ) + (t xy Dy ) - çç s y + Dy ÷÷Dx + ççt yx + yx Dy ÷÷DxDy
2 2 è ¶y ø 2 è ¶y ø
æ ¶t ö æ ¶s x ö Dy Dx 1
- ççt xy + xy Dx ÷÷DxDy + ç s x + Dx ÷ Dy + s y Dx - t yx Dx +
è ¶x ø è ¶x ø 2 2 2

(Fx DyDx ) Dy - ( Fy DxDy ) Dx = 0

2 2
Neglecting the higher terms involving Dx, and Dy and simplifying, the above expression is
reduced to
txy Dx Dy = tyx Dx Dy
or txy = tyx
In a like manner, it may be shown that
tyz = tzy and txz = tzx
Now, from the equilibrium of forces in x-direction, we obtain
æ ¶s x ö æ ¶t yx ö
-sx Dy + ç s x + Dx ÷Dy + ççt yx + Dy ÷÷Dx - t yx Dx + Fx DxDy = 0
è ¶x ø è ¶y ø
Simplifying, we get
¶s x ¶t yx
+ + Fx = 0
¶x ¶y
¶s x ¶t xy
or + + Fx = 0
¶x ¶y

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A similar expression is written to describe the equilibrium of y forces. The x and y equations
yield the following differential equations of equilibrium.

¶s x ¶t xy
+ + Fx = 0
¶x ¶y
¶s y ¶t xy
or + + Fy = 0 (2.31)
¶y ¶x
The differential equations of equilibrium for the case of three-dimensional stress may be
generalized from the above expressions as follows [Figure 2.11(b)].
¶s x ¶t xy ¶t xz
+ + + Fx = 0
¶x ¶y ¶z
¶s y ¶t xy ¶t yz
+ + + Fy = 0 (2.32)
¶y ¶x ¶z
¶s z ¶t xz ¶t yz
+ + + Fz = 0
¶z ¶x ¶y

Figure 2.11(b) Stress components acting on a three dimensional element

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2.2.4 OCTAHEDRAL STRESSES

A plane which is equally inclined to the three axes of reference, is called the octahedral plane
1 1 1
and its direction cosines are ± , ± , ± . The normal and shearing stresses acting
3 3 3
on this plane are called the octahedral normal stress and octahedral shearing stress
respectively. In the Figure 2.12, X, Y, Z axes are parallel to the principal axes and the
octahedral planes are defined with respect to the principal axes and not with reference to an
arbitrary frame of reference.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.12 Octahedral plane and Octahedral stresses

Now, denoting the direction cosines of the plane ABC by l, m, and n, the equations (2.22a),
(2.22b) and (2.22c) with s x = s 1 , t xy = t xz = 0 etc. reduce to

Tx = s 1 l, Ty = s2 m and Tz = s3 n (2.33)
The resultant stress on the oblique plane is thus
T 2 = s 12 l 2 + s 22 m 2 + s 32 n 2 = s 2 + t 2
\T2=s2+t2 (2.34)

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The normal stress on this plane is given by

s = s1 l2 + s2 m2 + s3 n2 (2.35)

and the corresponding shear stress is

[ ]
1
t = (s 1 - s 2 ) l 2 m 2 + (s 2 - s 3 ) m 2 n 2 + (s 3 - s 1 ) n 2 l 2
2 2 2 2 (2.36)

The direction cosines of the octahedral plane are:

1 1 1
l=± ,
m=± , n=±
3 3 3

Substituting in (2.34), (2.35), (2.36), we get

1 2
Resultant stress T = (s 1 + s 22 + s 32 ) (2.37)
3
1
Normal stress = s = (s1+s2+s3) (2.38)
3
Shear stress = t = 1 (s 1 - s 2 )2 + (s 2 - s 3 ) 2 + (s 3-s 1 ) 2 (2.39)
3
1
Also, t = 2(s 1 + s 2 + s 3 ) 2 - 6(s 1s 2 + s 2s 3 + s 1s 3 ) (2.40)
3
1
t= 2 I 12 - 6 I 2 (2.41)
3

2.2.5 MOHR'S STRESS CIRCLE

A graphical means of representing the stress relationships was discovered by
Culmann (1866) and developed in detail by Mohr (1882), after whom the graphical method
is now named.

2.2.6 MOHR CIRCLES FOR TWO DIMENSIONAL STRESS SYSTEMS

Biaxial Compression (Figure 2.13a)
The biaxial stresses are represented by a circle that plots in positive (s, t) space, passing
through stress points s1, s2 on the t = 0 axis. The centre of the circle is located on the

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t = 0 axis at stress point

1
(s 1 + s 2 ) . The radius of the circle has the magnitude
2
1
(s 1 - s 2 ) , which is equal to tmax.
2

s1
t
+

s2 s2 -
s2
. s1
+
s

-
s1
(a)

s1
t
+
2q
s2 s2 -
s2
. s1
+
s

-
s1 (b)

t
tzy +
. tzy
tzy -
s2
. s1 tyz
+
s

(c) -
Figure 2.13 Simple Biaxial stress systems: (a) compression,
(b) tension/compression, (c) pure shear

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Biaxial Compression/Tension (Figure 2.13b)

Here the stress circle extends into both positive and negative s space. The centre of the
circle is located on the t = 0 axis at stress point
1
(s 1 + s 2 ) and has radius 1 (s 1 - s 2 ) .
2 2
This is also the maximum value of shear stress, which occurs in a direction at 45o to the s1
direction. The normal stress is zero in directions ±q to the direction of s1, where
s +s2
cos2q = - 1
s1 -s 2
Biaxial Pure Shear (Figure 2.13c)
Here the circle has a radius equal to tzy, which is equal in magnitude to t yz , but opposite in
sign. The centre of circle is at s = 0, t = 0. The principal stresses s1 , s2 are equal in
magnitude, but opposite in sign, and are equal in magnitude to tzy. The directions of s1, s2
are at 45o to the directions of t zy ,t yz

2.2.7 CONSTRUCTION OF MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR TWO-

DIMENSIONAL STRESS
Sign Convention
For the purposes of constructing and reading values of stress from Mohr’s circle, the sign
convention for shear stress is as follows.
If the shearing stresses on opposite faces of an element would produce shearing forces that
result in a clockwise couple, these stresses are regarded as "positive".
Procedure for Obtaining Mohr’s Circle

1) Establish a rectangular co-ordinate system, indicating +t and +s. Both stress scales
must be identical.
2) Locate the centre C of the circle on the horizontal axis a distance
1
(s X + s Y ) from the
2
origin as shown in the figure above.
3) Locate point A by co-ordinates s x , - t xy

4) Locate the point B by co-ordinates s y ,t xy

5) Draw a circle with centre C and of radius equal to CA.

6) Draw a line AB through C.

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sy
B
txy T
txy y¢ y
sx¢ x¢
sx Tx
sx sx

q
q
A txy C
sy sy
t
s¢= 1 (sx + sy)
2
B(sy, txy) y
. . D

s2 tmax

O
y¢
.. B¢
B1 C .. A1
s
2q
-tmax
. . A¢ x¢
A(sx, - txy)
E
x
s1

Figure 2.14 Construction of Mohr’s circle

An angle of 2q on the circle corresponds to an angle of q on the element. The state of stress
associated with the original x and y planes corresponds to points A and B on the circle
respectively. Points lying on the diameter other than AB, such as A¢ and B ¢ , define state of
stress with respect to any other set of x ¢ and y ¢ planes rotated relative to the original set
through an angle q.

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It is clear from the figure that the points A1 and B1 on the circle locate the principal stresses
and provide their magnitudes as defined by Equations (2.14) and (2.15), while D and E
represent the maximum shearing stresses. The maximum value of shear stress (regardless of
algebraic sign) will be denoted by tmax and are given by

æs x -s y
2
ö
tmax = ± (s 1 - s 2 ) = ±
1
çç ÷÷ + t xy2 (2.42)
2 è 2 ø
Mohr’s circle shows that the planes of maximum shear are always located at 45o from planes
of principal stress.

2.2.8 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL STATE OF

STRESS
When the magnitudes and direction cosines of the principal stresses are given, then the
stresses on any oblique plane may be ascertained through the application of Equations (2.33)
and (2.34). This may also be accomplished by means of Mohr’s circle method, in which the
equations are represented by three circles of stress.
Consider an element as shown in the Figure 2.15, resulting from the cutting of a small cube
by an oblique plane.

(a)

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(b)
Figure 2.15 Mohr's circle for Three Dimensional State of Stress

The element is subjected to principal stresses s1, s2 and s3 represented as coordinate axes
with the origin at P. It is required to determine the normal and shear stresses acting at point
Q on the slant face (plane abcd). This plane is oriented so as to be tangent at Q to a quadrant
of a spherical surface inscribed within a cubic element as shown. It is to be noted that PQ,
running from the origin of the principal axis system to point Q, is the line of intersection of
the shaded planes (Figure 2.15 (a)). The inclination of plane PA2QB3 relative to the s1 axis
is given by the angle q (measured in the s1, s3 plane), and that of plane PA3QB1, by the
angle F (measured in the s1 and s2 plane). Circular arcs A1B1A2 and A1B3A3 are located on
the cube faces. It is clear that angles q and F unambiguously define the orientation of PQ
with respect to the principal axes.

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Procedure to determine Normal Stress (s) and Shear Stress (t)

1) Establish a Cartesian co-ordinate system, indicating +s and +t as shown. Lay off the
principal stresses along the s-axis, with s1 > s2 > s3 (algebraically).

2) Draw three Mohr semicircles centered at C1, C2 and C3 with diameters A1A2, A2A3
and A1A3.

3) At point C1, draw line C1 B1 at angle 2f; at C3, draw C3 B3 at angle 2q. These lines cut
circles C1 and C3 at B1 and B3 respectively.

4) By trial and error, draw arcs through points A3 and B1 and through A2 and B3, with their
centres on the s-axis. The intersection of these arcs locates point Q on the s, t plane.
In connection with the construction of Mohr’s circle the following points are of
particular interest:

a) Point Q will be located within the shaded area or along the circumference of circles C1,
C2 or C3, for all combinations of q and f.

b) For particular case q = f = 0, Q coincides with A1.

c) When q = 450, f = 0, the shearing stress is maximum, located as the highest point
on circle C3 (2q = 900). The value of the maximum shearing stress is therefore
t max =
1
(s 1 - s 3 ) acting on the planes bisecting the planes of maximum and minimum
2
principal stresses.
d) When q = f = 45 , line PQ makes equal angles with the principal axes. The oblique
0

plane is, in this case, an octahedral plane, and the stresses along on the plane, the
octahedral stresses.

2.2.9 GENERAL EQUATIONS IN CYLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATES

While discussing the problems with circular boundaries, it is more convenient to use the
cylindrical co-ordinates, r, q, z. In the case of plane-stress or plane-strain problems, we have
t r z = t q z = 0 and the other stress components are functions of r and q only. Hence the
cylindrical co-ordinates reduce to polar co-ordinates in this case. In general, polar
co-ordinates are used advantageously where a degree of axial symmetry exists. Examples
include a cylinder, a disk, a curved beam, and a large thin plate containing a circular hole.

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2.2.10 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS IN POLAR CO-ORDINATES:

(TWO-DIMENSIONAL STATE OF STRESS)

Figure 2.16 Stresses acting on an element

The polar coordinate system (r, q) and the cartesian system (x, y) are related by the following
expressions:
x = rcosq, r2 = x2+y2
æ yö
y = rsinq, q = tan -1 ç ÷ (2.43)
èxø
Consider the state of stress on an infinitesimal element abcd of unit thickness described by
the polar coordinates as shown in the Figure 2.16. The body forces denoted by Fr and Fq are
directed along r and q directions respectively.
Resolving the forces in the r-direction, we have for equilibrium, SFr = 0,

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æ ¶s r ö dq æ ¶s q ö
- s r ´ rdq + ç s r + dr ÷(r + dr )dq - s q dr sin + Fr - ç s q + dq ÷dr
è ¶r ø 2 è ¶q ø
dq dq æ ¶t ö dq
sin - t rq dr cos + çt rq + rq dq ÷dr cos =0
2 2 è ¶q ø 2
Since dq is very small,
dq dq dq
sin = and cos =1
2 2 2
Neglecting higher order terms and simplifying, we get
¶s r ¶ t rq
r dr d q + s r dr d q - s q dr d q + dr d q = 0
¶r ¶q
on dividing throughout by rdq dr, we have
¶s r 1 ¶t rq s r - s q
+ + + Fr = 0 (2.44)
¶r r ¶q r
Similarly resolving all the forces in the q - direction at right angles to r - direction, we have
dq æ ¶s q ö dq dq æ ¶t ö
- s q dr cos + çs q + d q ÷ dr cos + t rq dr sin + ç t rq + rq d q ÷ dr
2 è ¶q ø 2 2 è ¶q ø
dq æ ¶t ö
sin - t rq rd q + (r + dr ) d q ç t rq + rq dr ÷ + Fq = 0
2 è ¶ r ø
On simplification, we get
æ ¶s q ¶t ö
ç + t rq + t rq + r rq ÷dq dr = 0
è ¶q ¶r ø
Dividing throughout by rdq dr, we get

1 ¶s q ¶t rq 2t rq
. + + + Fq = 0 (2.45)
r ¶q dr r
In the absence of body forces, the equilibrium equations can be represented as:

¶s r 1 ¶t rq s r - s q
+ + =0 (2.46)
¶r r ¶q r
1 ¶s q ¶t rq 2t rq
+ + =0
r ¶q ¶r r

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